Types of psychology. Classification of psychology methods according to various criteria
Psychology- a discipline that studies human behavior and mental reactions from a scientific point of view. It includes symbolic interpretations of the analysis of social behavior. There are many types of psychology: cognitive psychology, abnormal psychology etc.
For many years, psychologists have been interested in human behavior. Perception, personality, cognition, behavior, reactions and emotions not only reflect the enormous diversity of human mental abilities, but also influence our relationships in society. Analysis of conscious and unconscious processes occurring in the human mind is also the responsibility of science. Psychology is used in many areas of human activity. Our reactions to everyday issues at work or at home reflect the state of health of our soul.
Types of psychology:
Psychology explores person as a person, studies family and society in order to understand what mental functions and triggers exist for unexplained factors in human social behavior. Various types of psychology study the nervous processes in the human mind. Research in the natural sciences provides problems for psychology. Among branches of psychology The following are distinguished:
Clinical psychology
In this branch of psychology, research is aimed at helping a person get rid of stress and various dysfunctions that occur for various psychological reasons. Clinical psychology helps better personality development, growth of emotional and physical well-being. Psychologists doing research in this area study forensic testimony and clinical neuropsychology cases. Specialists use specially designed and adapted therapy models to create therapeutic alliance. Subsequent study of psychological problems helps to identify and apply new forms of thinking and behavior.
Abnormal psychology
As the name suggests, this branch of psychology deals with the study of abnormal human behavior. The goal of anomalous psychology is to understand changes in natural and anomalous interaction patterns chosen by humans. Abnormal psychology uses methods and techniques of psychopathology and clinical psychology to study the causes of mental disorders. This area of psychology studies the signs of an inadequate state of a person when any functions are impaired or under stress.
Cognitive psychology
This branch of psychology studies the mental processes that determine human behavioral characteristics. VC cognitive psychology Experiments are conducted with human learning, perception, memory and attention in order to develop methods for efficient information processing. It is for this reason that cognitive psychology is also called experimental psychology. Cognitive psychology is the result of the contributions of various neuroscientists, logicians and linguists, who determine the importance of not only theoretical developments, but also their formalization and application.
Comparative psychology
This kind studies animal behavior patterns. This branch of science is important in psychological research. Comparative results of this direction of psychology help to identify characteristic common features in the behavior of humans and animals and prove their evolutionary connection. Studying animal behavior also allows psychologists to gain deeper insight into understanding of human psychology. Experiments conducted with animals help to better study and understand human emotions and behavior.
Counseling psychology
Studies interpersonal relationships. This branch of psychology focuses on social, emotional issues in educational and professional settings associated with major changes in people's behavior. Consulting psychologists use methods of counseling psychology.
Developmental psychology
This science mainly focuses on the study of the development process of the human mind. All efforts are directed towards a deeper understanding of perception and development. Object of study developmental psychology serves the intellectual and moral development of a person. Researchers pay close attention to behavioral triggers in natural conditions and when exposed to physical factors.
Pedagogical psychology
This branch of psychology studies the educational process. Psychologists conduct experiments based on educational and social psychology data obtained from schools and colleges. Educational psychology helps develop effective teaching methods.
Biological psychology
Studies the mental component of a person in a biological section. This branch of psychology studies human behavior based on the reactions of his nervous system. Much of the research is conducted through experiments with behavioral and cognitive neuroscience data. Goal: To understand the functions of the brain in relation to various psychological triggers and processes. Biological psychology research helps establish connections between human brain responses and behavior.
Other types of psychology:
Evolutionary psychology: The science of genetic influences on human mental patterns and behavior.
Health Psychology: The science of psychological effects on human mental and physical health.
Legal psychology: Examination of the jury's motives, evidence, and eyewitness testimony.
Psychology of Personality: studies personality traits, behavior and emotions of a person.
Forensic psychology: Explores the clinical assessment of courtroom testimony.
Quantitative Psychology: studies statistical models for the psychological measurement of personality traits.
Social Psychology: studies the mental processes that influence specific responses to social stimulants.
Global psychology: studies issues related to global issues in the field of sustainable development.
For centuries, man has been the subject of study by many generations of scientists. Therefore, psychology is given a very special place. The word “psyche” (Greek Psyche) means “soul”, “logos” - teaching, i.e. the science of the soul, soul science, the inner, subjective world of man. According to the generally known opinion, the first psychological views are associated with religious ideas. However, this is not quite true. The history of psychology asserts that “already the early ideas of the ancient Greek philosophers arise in the process of practical knowledge of man in close connection with the filling of first knowledge and develop in the struggle with the emerging scientific thought against religion with its mythological ideas about the world in general, about the soul in particular.”
But answering the question of what the soul is turned out to be not so simple. The term psychology was coined by the German scholastic Goclenius in the late 16th century. For a long time, psychology developed as an integral part of philosophy and only in the middle of the 19th century it emerged as an independent science. This became possible due to the fact that psychology gradually transformed from a descriptive science into an experimental one.
The subject of the study of psychology is the human psyche, which is a social phenomenon and, unlike the psyche of animals, is conscious cognition. The psyche is a subjective reflection of objective reality in ideal images, on the basis of which the regulation of behavior and adaptation to the environment are carried out.
Gradually, the psyche was equated with consciousness (i.e., the ability to think, feel, desire). The psychology of the soul was replaced by the psychology of consciousness, which turned out to be powerless in the face of many practical tasks caused by the development of the method of production.
In the second decade of the 20th century, behavior became the basis of psychology. This understanding of the subject of psychology led to new contradictions - how to study behavior without studying a person’s thoughts, feelings, and motives. The philosophy of dialectical materialism opened a way out of this impasse - matter (the brain) is primary; psyche, consciousness is a secondary reflection of objective reality by the brain.
All objects in the world around us have the properties of physical reflection. Living organisms reflect influence from the outside, maintaining their integrity, since changes occur in the internal environment (light causes irritation of nerve cells in the retina of the eye, when a tendon is struck, muscle contraction occurs, etc.), in other words, between irritating and response actions there is a more or less complex chain of intermediate processes. This form of reflection is called physiological.
And finally, external irritation can be transformed into a state of the body when a thing that has disappeared in reality is preserved in the form of an ideal image. This phenomenon is based on the ability of a nerve cell to retain traces of experienced excitation; this form of reflection is called mental.
Mental reflection arises, is realized and improved in the process of human practical activity and has a reverse organizing influence on it. Outside of activity and communication there is no person and his psyche.
Thus, the function of the psyche is to reflect the properties and connections of reality and to regulate human behavior and activity on this basis.
The most important elements of the subject of scientific knowledge in psychology are:
a) specific factors of a person’s mental life;
b) existing patterns of connections and relationships;
c) determination of the mechanism of psychological activity.
A psychological fact (lat. Faktum - accomplished, done) is a mental phenomenon, the truth of which can be proven. For example, a person’s individual experience can act as a psychological fact, i.e. memory.
But the task of psychology is not to collect facts, but to reveal their essence and connections, including them in a system of other facts. I.P. Pavlov, addressing young people, wrote: “Do not turn into archivists of facts.”
Psychology is called upon to reveal the patterns of existence of necessary, stable and repeating connections (relationships) between facts (phenomena). For example, memory has its own patterns of functioning. In particular, the law of repetition of material allows you to remember it better.
The mechanisms of mental activity involve the work of specific anatomical and physiological apparatuses that carry out one or another mental process. It is well known that human anatomy (for example, brain activity) is closely related to the psyche. Mental illness is the result of impaired brain activity.
The methodological basis for studying the human psyche is the theory of reflection, and the main natural science theory is the teaching of I.M. Sechenova, I.p. Pavlov and their followers (P.K. Anokhin, K.M. Bykov, A.D. Speransky, etc.) about higher nervous activity. In the work “Reflexes of the Brain” (1863) I.M. Sechenov came to the conclusion that “all acts of conscious and unconscious life, according to the method of origin, are reflexes.”
Theoretical provisions of I.M. Sechenov were experimentally confirmed and specified by I.M. Pavlov, who discovered the most important laws of human interaction with the external environment, which became the basis for the doctrine of two signal systems.
In the scientific works of K.M. Bykova, P.K. Anokhina, A.D. Speransky continued research in the field of the relationship between subjective and objective reality of the theory and practice of mental processes, states and properties.
Mental processes are associated with that side of life that provides knowledge of the surrounding reality (sensation, perception, memory, thinking, i.e. the most important components of the mechanism for acquiring, storing, and using information about the external environment). Mental processes are elementary mental phenomena included in more complex types of mental activity.
Mental states determine the activity of a person’s cognitive and transformative activity. They are based on emotions (the awakening force) and will (the force that organizes mental activity). Mental states include: emotions, moods, affects, vigor, activity, lethargy, apathy, etc. Compared to mental processes, mental states are a more complex form of mental activity.
The mental properties of a person give the reflection individual traits. They are determined by the peculiarities of the course of mental processes in a given person, as well as his character, temperament, inclinations, beliefs, skills and habits.
Thus, psychology studies the emergence and formation of mental phenomena (processes, states, properties), the patterns of connections (relationships) between them and the mechanism of mental activity.
Classification of mental phenomena is necessary to understand the complex flow of human mental life, but one must keep in mind that cognition, feelings and will do not exist separately from each other. Cognizing and transforming the world around us, we proceed from certain thoughts and feelings that are characteristic of both our current state and our personality in general.
The most important function of psychology is that it is, in the words of B.F. Lomov, an integrator of all (or at least most) scientific disciplines, the object of study of which is man
The natural dependence of mental phenomena on the objective conditions of human life and activity underscores the close connection of psychology with physiology, in particular with the physiology of higher nervous activity, natural science, social sciences (history, economics, sociology, ethnography, art history, law, pedagogy, etc.)
The basis for unifying all special psychological disciplines is general psychology. The main object of research is a person, his mental processes, states and properties.
In addition to the theoretical problems of studying the patterns of mental development, the task of general psychology includes the study of various types of human activity and their connection with higher psychological functions. There are a number of branch (applied) psychology: aviation, military, age, zoological, engineering, advisory, space, medical, music, political, pedagogical, art, sports, labor, creativity, social, comparative, economic, environmental, legal (legal) and etc.
Let's look at some of them.
Pedagogical psychology studies the psychological patterns of education and training (knowledge acquisition, development of skills, active, independent, creative thinking).
One of the most important tasks of educational psychology is the development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the learning process associated with the restructuring of the content of education.
Social Psychology explores patterns of behavior and activity of people determined by belonging to a particular social group, as well as the psychological characteristics of these groups themselves.
The main sections of social psychology include: psychological characteristics of social groups; psychology of Personality; patterns of communication and interaction between people in joint activities; interpersonal relationships that develop in various communities.
Into competence military psychology includes problems of the personality of the warrior and the military collective, the psychological foundations of military skill, the preparation of soldiers for combat operations and crime. Commanders, military engineers and other specialists work in constant contact with subordinates. Their activity is based not only on the experience of the officer, his professional knowledge, but also on the ability to understand each soldier individually and in the community, team that makes up the crew, crew, squad, unit.
Medical psychology studies the patient’s personality; the identity of the medical worker (including the future); their relationships in various conditions (when visiting a patient at home, in an outpatient clinic, in a clinic); the role of the psyche in disease prevention; state of mind during illness, mental disorders arising from certain diseases.
Medical psychology is divided into general and special (private). The same issues are under the jurisdiction of private (special) medical psychology, but in relation to a specific medical discipline: therapy, surgery, pediatrics, sanitation, gerontology, neuropathology, psychiatry, etc.
Item occupational psychology- the psychological essence of work activity, the personality characteristics of the worker (professional abilities) and his interaction with the production environment. Among the tasks solved by labor psychology, one can name the psychological features of personnel selection, the psychology of professional selection, the role of the personal factor in accidents and industrial defects, the psychology of labor education and training, the prevention of fatigue, the fight against monotony, the management of interpersonal relationships and the microclimate in the team.
Engineering psychology studies the psychophysiological capabilities of a person in the process of his interaction with technology, the patterns of functioning of the “man-machine” system. As a technological science, engineering psychology studies control systems, finding out what requirements for systems as a whole and their elements arise from the nature of these processes and properties.
Legal psychology reveals the psychological aspects of legal consciousness (legal understanding); lawmaking; the specifics of the inclusion of psychological terms in criminal law (guilt, identity of the crime, motive, strong emotional disturbance, etc.) and civil law (person’s legal capacity, mental state of the plaintiff, defendant, etc.) concepts;
Legal psychology studies mental phenomena, mechanisms, patterns that appear in the field of practical implementation of law. (activities of law enforcement and enforcement agencies).
The synthesis of psychology, legal psychology, legal psychology served as the basis for the emergence of a new branch of science and practice - psychology of jurisprudence.
The psychology of sports, trade, scientific and artistic creativity should be highlighted.
Developmental psychology, which has a number of branches: developmental psychology, psychology of abnormal development and comparative psychology, also deserves special attention.
Age-related psychology studies the characteristics of mental processes and mental qualities of the individual. It has a number of sub-branches: child psychology, adolescent psychology, youth psychology, adult psychology and the psychology of old age (gerotic psychology).
Psychology of abnormal development(special psychology)
Explores the psyche of people with deviations from normal development associated with congenital or acquired defects in the formation and functioning of the nervous system. For example, the psychology of the blind (typhlopsychology), the deaf (deaf psychology), the mentally retarded (oligophrenopsychology), etc.
Types and forms of psychological assistance, their characteristics and relationships.
Psychological assistance can be classified according to different indicators
1) by duration of action: urgent - necessary for complex mental conditions, the possibility of suicide, cases of violence, etc. This most often falls under the competence of the helpline, hotline; long-term - useful in the event of difficult life situations, psychological crises, conflicts (psychological consultations);
2) by direction: direct - aimed directly at the client, at his request for help; responsive - a response to the current situation and requests from people around the client; proactive - in response to a predicted unfavorable situation for a person. Often found in family services.
3) by spatial organization: contact, when the conversation takes place face to face between the client and the psychologist; remote, which is divided into telephone and written;
4) on the performance of functions by a psychologist: diagnostic - making a psychological diagnosis, drawing up a psychological portrait of an individual; control room - sending to the right specialist: psychotherapist, psychiatrist, etc., information room - collecting information about the client, his family, surrounding people, social conditions; correctional is an activity aimed at developing in a person the necessary psychological qualities to increase his socialization and adaptation to changing life conditions, as well as correcting the characteristics of psychological development if they prevent a person from achieving his goals; advisory - professional assistance to the client in finding a solution to his problem situation; therapeutic - a system of therapeutic effects on the psyche and through the psyche on the human body;
5) by the number of participants: individual (especially when, for personal, social or public reasons, the group form is not possible); group (the emphasis is on a developmental, training program or, if necessary, social support);
6) according to the intervention of a psychologist: directive - pointing, giving advice on how to live, non-directive - following the client.
Currently, two main ones are most developed forms of psychological assistance: individual and group psychological assistance.
Individual assistance – individual counseling, a set of individual sessions with a client (whether an adult or a child).
The most common form of group psychological assistance is training and various group classes.
Trainings, being a form of practical psychological work, as a rule, always reflect in their content a certain direction, system of views and approaches that the psychologist conducting the training sessions adheres to. However, the same can be said about psychologists-consultants who provide individual counseling.
Traditionally, there are four main types of psychological assistance: 1) psychoprophylaxis; 2) psychocorrection; 3) counseling; 4) psychotherapy
Psychoprophylaxis- a field of medical psychology, the main task of which is to provide “specialized assistance to practically healthy people to prevent neuropsychic and psychosomatic diseases, as well as to alleviate acute psychotraumatic reactions.”
Psychological correction— “activities to correct (correct) those features of mental development that, according to the accepted system of criteria, do not correspond to the “optimal” model.” Its goal is to develop and master skills that are adequate for the individual and effective for maintaining health and mental activity, promoting personal growth and adaptation of a person in society. Psychocorrection is more focused on the processes of manipulation, control and formation, which is usually associated with a person’s inability to independently (even with the acquisition of knowledge and self-regulation skills) change the parameters of his mental activity due to mental anomalies or defects.
Psychotherapy- “a complex therapeutic verbal and non-verbal effect on a person’s emotions, judgments, and self-awareness in many mental, nervous and psychosomatic diseases.” The main goal of psychotherapy is the relief of psychopathological symptoms, through which it is assumed to achieve internal and external harmonization of the personality. In psychotherapy, there is usually a desire for a deep analysis of the patient’s problems with a focus on unconscious processes and structural restructuring of the personality.
Source:
Types and forms of psychological assistance, their characteristics and relationships
psychology. Psychological assistance can be classified according to different indicators1) according to the duration of action: emergency - necessary for complex mental conditions...
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Types of psychological assistance
Types of psychological assistance. Relationship between the concepts of psychotherapy, psychological correction, psychological intervention and psychological counseling
PT- a complex of influences on the patient’s psyche, and through it on the entire body, in order to eliminate painful disorders and change the attitude towards oneself, one’s condition and the environment.
PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING- a process aimed at helping a person resolve his psychological problems. Professional counseling can be provided by psychologists, social workers, teachers or doctors who have undergone special training.
There are three main approaches in P.Consulting.
1. Problem-oriented counseling is aimed at analyzing the essence and external causes of the problem and finding ways to resolve it.
2. Personality-oriented counseling is centered on the analysis of the individual causes of the problem, the genesis of destructive personality stereotypes, and the prevention of similar problems in the future.
3. Solution-oriented counseling focuses on identifying resources to solve a problem.
Goals and objectives of P.K.:
1) emotional support and attention to the patient’s experiences;
2) expansion of consciousness and increase in psychological competence;
3) a change in attitude towards the problem (from “dead end” to “choice of solution”);
4) increasing stress and crisis tolerance;
5) development of realism and pluralistic worldview;
6) increasing the patient’s responsibility and developing readiness for creative exploration of the world.
The similarities between PT Therapy and PC Counseling boil down to the following characteristics:
1. Methods (use of psychological means)
2. Functions (perform the functions of development, prevention, treatment and rehabilitation)
3. Goals (achieving positive changes in the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral spheres towards increasing their effectiveness)
4. Theoretical justification (as the scientific basis of psychological theory)
5. Empirical test (need effectiveness studies)
6. Professional actions (carried out within a professional framework, i.e. by professionals).
Differences between Ptherapy and PCounseling:
Neilson Jones sees the difference in that PT focuses on personal change, and PC on helping a person better use their own resources and improve their quality of life.
Most of the information obtained with PC appears in the client’s mind in the intervals between classes and also during periods when clients are trying to help themselves.
There is a point that the main difference between PT and PC is that the client is perceived by the psychoconsultant as capable, i.e. independent subject.
The problem of responsibility in PT lies on a different plane; the psychotherapist bears full responsibility, but the psychoconsultant also bears responsibility.
The duration of PT is at least 15 sessions, PC - 1-5 or more.
Bauman and Perreu point out the following differences:
* In counseling, information comes first as a means of influence.
* PC in medicine performs the function of hygiene and prevention
* Within the framework of the PC, the problem and its solution are clarified, but the client implements them himself outside of the consultation
*Within PC, change occurs after the counseling process. In PT, the essence is the process of change itself, accompanied by a specialist.
Psychological correction– directed psychological impact on certain mental structures in order to ensure full development (Misurina).
The object of correction can be both a healthy and a sick person, an individual, a group, a family, an individual. The correction is carried out by a psychologist.
Psychocorrectional measures can be classified.
1. Based on the nature of the direction, correction is distinguished:
· intragroup relationships (family, marital, collective);
3. Based on the form of work with the client, correction is distinguished;
· in a closed natural group (family, class, employees, etc.);
· in an open group for clients with similar problems;
· mixed form (individual-group).
4. By the nature of corrective action management:
5. By duration:
6. Based on the scale of the tasks being solved, psychocorrection is distinguished:
General correction refers to general correctional measures that normalize the child’s special microenvironment, regulate psychophysical and emotional stress in accordance with age and individual capabilities, and optimize the maturation processes of an individual’s mental properties.
Private psychocorrection is a set of psychological and pedagogical influences, which are psychocorrectional techniques and techniques adapted for childhood and adolescence, specially developed systems of psychocorrectional measures.
Special psychocorrection is a set of techniques, methods and organizational forms of working with a client or group of clients of the same age, which are the most effective for achieving specific tasks of personality formation, its individual properties or mental functions, manifested in deviant behavior and difficult adaptation.
Special psychocorrection, therefore, is designed to correct the consequences of improper upbringing, which disrupted the harmonious development and socialization of the individual. Negative aspects can be caused by both subjective and objective factors.
7. In the practice of PC E.I. Platonova, Mamaychuk share PC:
According to Lebedinsky’s classification, PC of abnormal development is divided into:
1) PC underdevelopment
3) PC damaged development
4) PC of deficient development
5) PC with distorted development
6) PC with disharmonious development.
In case of somatic illness, PC is aimed at self-esteem.
8. Considering that PC cannot be carried out without adults, Platonova divides PC according to the form of organizing psychological assistance:
— Corrective work itself
9. According to the availability of programs:
Perhaps the general strategy of behavior of a psychologist is associated with a certain theoretical orientation (psychoanalysis, humanistic, behavioral), each of which is characterized by its own concept of the disease, goals, and level of intervention.
PT intervention.
PT intervention is a type of PT influence characterized by certain goals and the corresponding choice of means of influence and methods.
The term PTV can denote a specific psychotherapeutic technique (clarification, clarification, stimulation, verbalization, interpretation, confrontation, teaching, training, advice, etc.), as well as a more general strategy of behavior of the psychotherapist, closely related to the theoretical orientation (primarily with an understanding of the nature of of a particular disorder and the goals and objectives of psychotherapy).
3 main types of PT interventions (corresponding to three areas in PT):
Each direction is characterized by its own concept of health and illness, therapeutic goals, and corresponding techniques and means.
Aleksandrovich - 2 types of PT interventions:
Directive (guides the patient)
- not directive (accompanies it)
All interventions carried out in medicine can be divided into four groups (Bauman, Perres):
Interventions are the essence of psychotherapeutic intervention.
Psychological interventions are divided into:
Psychological interventions are carried out in:
Pedagogy (pedagogical and psychological interventions);
The sphere of labor organization (industrial and organizational psychological interventions)
Medicine (clinical and psychological interventions).
the term “clinical-psychological intervention” is broader than “psychotherapeutic intervention”.
main characteristics of clinical and psychological interventions:
1) functions - strengthening, treatment, rehabilitation, prevention
2) methods - psychological means based on feelings and behavior and occurring in the interaction between the doctor and the patient: conversation, exercise, they can be verbal or non-verbal, focused more on either cognitive, or emotional, or behavioral aspects.
3) goals - target orientation to achieve certain changes; Clinical and psychological interventions can be aimed at both more general, distant goals (macro-results) and specific, closer goals (micro-results), however, psychological means of influence must always clearly correspond to the goals of influence;
4) theoretical validity - the validity of clinical and psychological interventions from the point of view of certain psychological theories, scientific psychology;
5) empirical testing, especially effectiveness studies;
6) professional actions - clinical and psychological interventions must be carried out within a professional framework, that is, by professionals.
The effectiveness of PT interventions is carried out on a representative sample, and not just on specific patients.
Correction and Pvmesh-in– targeted psychological influence is carried out by psychological means.
Implemented in different areas of human practice. In medicine, they are aimed at prevention, treatment and rehabilitation; when used for treatment purposes, they perform a PT function.
PC deals with already formed personality traits or types of behavior and is aimed at remaking them.
Intervention, in the absence or insufficient development, forms the necessary psychological qualities in a person.
Psychotherapy. Definition, relationship with other sciences and branches of psychology. Modern ideas about psychotherapy - medical, psychological, social and philosophical aspects
Psychotherapy - a complex of influences on the patient’s psyche, and through it on the entire body, in order to eliminate painful disorders and change the attitude towards oneself, one’s condition and the environment.
Psychotherapy is often defined as an activity aimed at ridding a person of various problems (emotional, personal, social, etc.). It is usually carried out by a psychotherapist by establishing deep personal contact with the patient (often through conversations and discussions), as well as using various cognitive, behavioral and other techniques. However, this definition is not complete.
The concept of psychotherapy (other group: healing of the soul)
The term was introduced in 1872. Tuke's book illustrated "the influence of the mind on the body" and became popular in the late 19th century.
In Russia, PT is defined as a treatment method i.e. falls within the purview of medicine. The psychological model of psychotherapy is widespread abroad.
4 main PT models:
1. As a treatment method that affects the state and functioning of the body in the mental and somatic spheres.
2. Psychological model of PT as a method driven learning process.
3. The social model of PT as a method of manipulation that is in the nature of a tool and serves the purpose of social control.
4. Philosophical model as a complex of phenomena occurring in the course of interaction between people.
PT is a complex of influences on the patient’s psyche, and through it on the entire body, in order to eliminate painful disorders and change the attitude towards oneself, one’s condition and the environment.
From a psychological point of view, PT includes the following concepts: interpersonal relationships, psychological means, psychological problems and conflicts, relationships, attitudes, emotions, behavior.
PT is a special type of interpersonal interaction in which patients are provided with professional assistance through psychological means in solving problems and difficulties of a psychological nature that arise.
In medical definitions, the emphasis is on the object, on the means of influence.
PT – purposeful ordering of disturbances in the body’s activity by psychological means
The development of modern scientific psychotherapy is carried out on the basis of various theoretical approaches, analysis and generalization of the results of empirical studies of clinical, psychophysiological, psychological, socio-psychological and other aspects of studying the mechanisms and effectiveness of psychotherapeutic interventions.
The psychological foundations of psychotherapy are of particular importance, since both the object of its influence (psyche) and the means of influence (clinical and psychological interventions) are psychological phenomena, that is, psychotherapy uses psychological means of influence and is aimed at achieving certain psychological changes.
Psychotherapy as a scientific discipline must have its own theory and methodology, its own categorical apparatus and terminology, everything that characterizes an independent scientific discipline. However, the diversity of directions and trends, schools and specific methods of psychotherapy, based on various theoretical approaches, leads to the fact that at present there is not even a single definition of it, and the number of methods is more than 500. Some of them clearly define psychotherapy as a field of medicine, others focus on psychological aspects.
In the domestic tradition, psychotherapy is defined primarily as a method of treatment, while in the foreign tradition, its psychological aspects are emphasized to a greater extent.
The theoretical basis of psychotherapy is scientific psychology, psychological theories and concepts that reveal the psychological content of the concepts of “norm” and “pathology” and form a certain system of psychotherapeutic influences. The concept of norm is the idea of a healthy personality.
With all the variety of psychotherapeutic approaches, there are three main directions in psychotherapy - psychodynamic, behavioral and “experiential” - corresponding to the three main directions of psychology (psychoanalysis, behaviorism and existential-humanistic psychology).
Wolberg distinguishes 3 types of PT based on permanent targets:
— Supportive (strengthening, supporting the patient’s existing strengths and developing new ways of behavior to restore peace of mind)
— Retraining (changing the patient’s behavior, supporting positive behaviors and disapproving of negative behaviors)
— Reconstructive (awareness of intrapsychic conflicts that served as a source of personality disorders, the desire to achieve significant changes in character traits, restoration of the full functioning of the individual)
In clinical practice, methods are divided:
In modern practice, the division into:
* Casual PT (detection, patient awareness of his condition)
There are other classifications of methods, such as:
* Methods aimed at suppressing emotions
* Methods aimed at expressing emotions
All methods can be divided according to their theoretical validity:
* Experienced (humanistic) PT
Aleksandrovich made attempts to analyze the term “PT methods” and identified four levels of use of this term:
Level 1 - PT methods as specific methodological techniques or techniques (hypnosis, relaxation, conversation, discussion, etc.
Level 2 - PT methods as determining the conditions in which PT takes place and which should help optimize the achievement of PT goals. (family, outpatient, inpatient PT, etc.)
Level 3 - The meaning of the main tools of PT influence (in the individual PT-instrument PT-vt, in the group PT - instrument group)
Level 4 - PT methods according to the meaning of PT interventions (interventions) which are considered either in the parameters of style (directive - non-directive) or in the parameters of the theory of approach, which determines the nature of the intervention (interpretation, teaching, interpersonal interaction, etc.)
The concept of PT methods corresponds to level 1.
The 2nd level reflects the types of PT on the basic conditions in which it occurs.
3rd level of the form of PT tools of PT influence.
4th level theoretical direction.
There are methods in which culture and art act as a tool of influence.
* Naturtherapy, etc.
The increase in the number of PT methods has led to the strengthening of the integrative PT movement. The existing approaches do not differ so much in relation to the object as they focus on different aspects of the problem.
In 1985 B. D. Karvasarsky already divided P. into:
1) methods of person-oriented training;
2) methods of suggestive P.;
3) methods of behavioral (conditioned reflex) P.
They are also divided into group and individual.
Gradov identified 2 groups of methods:
- methods, with help. cat PT tries to understand and solve the patient’s problems
- methods, with help. a cat can understand its own behavior.
Indications are defined as follows:
1. The role of the psi factor in the etiopathogenesis of the disease (the more pronounced the psychogenic nature of the disease, the more adequate the psychotherapy).
2. Possible consequences of a previous or current illness. May be associated with clinical, psychological and socio-psychological problems:
- secondary neurotization is possible, caused not by primary causes, but by psychotrauma, which is the underlying disease;
- the individual’s reaction to illness, which may contribute to or hinder him; an inadequate response of the individual to an illness also needs correction (anosognosia – not noticing the illness; hypochondria – constant anxiety about one’s health);
3. the presence of psychological and socio-psychological consequences;
4. in the process of a long-term illness, secondary dynamics of transformation of personal characteristics and motivation for treatment are possible.
The indications of PT can determine the characteristics of the patient and his motivation to participate.
Klassen writes about the use of psychotherapy in the following areas:
1. In prenosological (there is a problem, but the individual cannot solve it).
2. Borderline neuropsychiatric diseases and functional disorders.
3. Psychosomatic disorders.
4. Mental disorders, including depression.
5. Addiction (Mendelevich)
6. Personality disorders.
7. Family dissociations.
8. Behavioral disorders in childhood.
9. Working with individual symptoms.
PT is the intersection point of many sciences.
PT as a system uses various means and is a repository of various types of knowledge.
The object and tool of PT is the human psyche (from where methods of work from other areas of science originated).
The interdisciplinary nature of PT is widely used in psychogenic disorders (psychosocial factors, natural factors). PT can be used as psychoprophylaxis.
Brings an understanding of “disease” as a bio-socio-psychogenic phenomenon.
Leads to recognition of psychotherapeutic tasks.
Today, the number of medical offices, centers, institutions is increasing, and therefore the interdisciplinary nature of PT is increasing.
Source:
Types of psychological assistance
Types of psychological assistance. The relationship between the concepts of psychotherapy, psychological correction, psychological intervention and psychological counseling PT is a complex of influences on the psyche
http://lektsii.org/3-127599.html
Ovcharova R
Ovcharova R.V. O 35 Practical educational psychology: Textbook for student psychology departments of universities
Chapter 4. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSISTANCE FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS IN CRISIS SITUATIONS
Psychological crisis and types of crisis situations. – Experiencing and overcoming critical situations as a factor in the diagnosis and correction of deviant behavior in adolescents. – Psychological assistance to children and adolescents affected by violence. – Psychological support for disabled teenagers.
IV.4.1. Psychological crisis and types of crisis situations
Every psychologist is aware that crisis situations and crises are as varied as human life itself. The main types of crises that he cannot ignore are the following:
crises of the state of mind;
crises of the meaning of life;
A crisis – the state of a person when his purposeful life activity is blocked at a discrete moment in personality development. A protracted, chronic crisis carries the threat of social maladjustment, suicide, neuropsychic or psychosomatic suffering. The chronicity of the crisis is inherent in people with a pronounced accentuation of character, an immature worldview (“the world is beautiful” - “the world is terrible”), and one-pointedness of life attitudes. It is precisely such people who need help during a period of crisis, which is considered not only as a difficult and responsible period of life, but as a dead end that makes further life meaningless.
Both theorists and practitioners believe that in a crisis situation, when trying to master a stressful state, a person experiences a certain type of physical and psychological overload. Emotional tension and stress can lead either to mastery of a new situation, or to disruption and deterioration in the performance of life functions. Although some situations can be stressful for all people, they are crises for those who are particularly vulnerable due to personality characteristics.
A variety of classifications and situations are presented in domestic and foreign literature:
critical situations (F. E. Vasilyuk);
conflicts, situations of physical danger, situations of uncertainty (K. Levin);
affectogenic life situations (F.V. Bassin);
conflict situations leading to a psychological crisis (A. G. Ambrumova);
difficult situations (A.Ya. Antsupov, A.N. Shipilov), etc.
crisis called situation, when a person faces an obstacle in realizing important life goals and cannot cope with this situation using usual means. There are two types of crisis situations: those caused by changes in the natural life cycle or traumatic life events.
Situations classified as critical can basically have objective and subjective components. The objective component is represented by the influences of the external, objective and social world, while the subjective component consists of a person’s perception and assessment of the situation as critical. Based on this, critical situation can be characterized as a social situation, the dynamics of which develop in two directions (A. G. Ambrumova):
A) personal, when the emerging internal conflict is justified by the characterological characteristics of the individual and appears first, regardless of the favorable external situation at that time; only then the internal conflict tension of the psyche begins to modify the forms of human behavior and communication, creating reasons and reasons for the deterioration of the external situation and its restructuring into a conflict, even stressful;
b) situational when a number of unfavorable external influences, traumatic stimuli fall on the basis of unclearly working defense mechanisms of the psyche, low tolerance towards emotional stress.
Therefore, two groups of critical situations can be distinguished:
1) determined by external conditions;
2) determined by the nature of perception, as well as the individual typological characteristics of a person.
An analysis of the psychological literature shows that situations that actually or potentially have an unfavorable outcome for the individual can be divided into two classes:
1) due to the characteristics and conditions of the subject’s activity;
2) determined by the characteristics of a person’s social relationships, the conditions of his existence, as well as their interpretation as threatening.
F. E. Vasilyuk defined a critical situation as "situation of impossibility" realize the values of your life. He describes this situation in four terms: stress; frustration; conflict; a crisis.
The type of critical situation is determined by a vital necessity that has become paralyzed, i.e. components of personality orientation that do not have the opportunity to be realized. This, in turn, leads to disturbances in the socio-psychological adaptation of the subject.
F.V. Bassin singled "affectogenic life situations" i.e. situations of emotional stress. They lead to psychological trauma, which:
affect the most significant values of the individual;
violate psychological protection measures;
create uncertainty where the predominance of stable stereotypes of attitude towards the environment is required.
This entails an imbalance of the personality, as well as its adaptation to the outside world. The critical component of the situation is determined by the presence of emotional tension, and the degree of its influence on the personality is determined by the strength of affect and the person’s reactions.
A.G. Ambrumova connects the crisis situation with intrapersonal experiences and reactions. She divides situational reactions into six types:
1) reaction of emotional imbalance;
2) pessimistic situational reaction;
3) negative balance reaction;
4) situational response to demobilization;
5) situational reaction of the opposition;
6) situational reaction of disorganization.
A necessary condition for the emergence of a crisis is significant emotional stress, blocking the most important needs of the individual and his specific personal reaction to this.
According to T. Greening, psychological trauma is associated with post-traumatic syndrome(PTS). Trauma can be physical, nervous, emotional. Regardless of its nature, it is accompanied by a threat to the right to life, personal well-being, and a feeling that the world is hostile. The causes of post-traumatic stress are negative life experiences and lack of optimism.
Analysis of the main approaches to defining a situation as critical, posing a threat to personal development, disrupting the interaction and adaptation of a person in the social environment, allows us to identify the following necessary conditions for its occurrence:
An emotional source located in the environment, which affects a person, represents a certain “significance” for him and thus creates a conflict-forming ground;
Individual typological characteristics of personality that determine the intrapersonal component of the development of critical dynamics. This element can be represented by the orientation of the personality and be expressed in an active or passive adaptive type of behavior;
Individual perceptions-cognitions of the situation, which represent a subjective picture of a critical situation. If a person perceives a situation, interprets and typifies it as critical, then this presupposes that he has ideas that this is a critical situation for him.
Critical situation – it is a type of social situation; it develops as a result of a one-time strong or weak, but long-term psychological traumatization by a set of events in the external or internal world. These influences are refracted in the human psyche and are accompanied by situational reactions that tend to transform into individual response patterns (behavior stereotypes) in the form of “protective-compensatory” formations.
A critical situation is reflected in the cognitive, emotional and behavioral spheres, and is also projected onto the psychological time of the individual. Its manifestations are: stress, frustration, psychological crisis, intrapersonal conflict, situational reactions to emotional stimuli, etc.
A critical situation is characterized by the fact that it is not always realized by a person. Its presence or experience is judged by indirect signs. This is especially clearly manifested in the deviant behavior of adolescents as a form of compensation and protection.
The grounds for identifying a critical situation can be: concepts of needs - depending on what need or motive is blocked; internal mental stress; individual situational reactions; individual response patterns – behavioral stereotypes.
Finding oneself in a critical situation or perceiving it as such, a person begins to interact with it. He and the situation act for each other as an object and subject of interaction, which can be represented as experiencing-overcoming critical situation.
At the initial stage of a critical situation, a person acts as an object of its influence. As the situation develops, the person becomes an effective subject of interaction. During this process, the situation changes in the direction of overcoming it or worsening it, deepening it. Therefore, a person either follows the path of formation and development, or degrades as a person.
Considering behavioral deviations as an “involution” of the individual, we can assume that a critical situation acts as a cause, while deviant behavior is a consequence of its experience and overcoming.
Thus, there is a transformation, a transformation of the critical situation, and not its elimination. Feedback often changes not the cause itself, but only the conditions of its action. Consequently, experiencing a critical situation can affect all aspects of human life.
When an individual interacts with a situation, a transformation occurs, a restructuring of the person’s inner world (or any part of it): the stability and integrity of the subject’s “I-concept” is violated; his self-awareness changes, nihilism, moral skepticism, cynicism, moral instability, mental devastation, etc. arise. These phenomena reflect, rather, the transitional state of the individual, who finds himself in a situation where it is impossible to live as before, to protect the once stable system of “I” from destruction. This state is “loss of self” (T.B. Kartseva).
It is necessary to take into account that a stable “I” system can be formed in the process of experiencing and overcoming a critical situation. This depends on the qualitative nature of the experience of overcoming a critical situation. In case of unconstructive experience, deviant behavior of adolescents acts as a protective-compensatory formation, which, on the one hand, maintains the integrity of the “I”, and on the other, worsens the teenager’s adaptation to the environment. In addition, difficulties arise when solving problems that a teenager faces in the process of overcoming a critical situation. This explains why teenagers with deviant behavior do not strive to change themselves for the better.
As soon as a “loss of self” has occurred under the influence of a critical situation, the individual performs intense internal work to rebuild and transform his inner world, which can be called the process of “finding himself.” At the same time, the reflexive “I” becomes more complex and differentiated, and a search is made to overcome intrapersonal contradictions in order to build a new, complicated, balanced and fairly stable image of the “I”. These contradictions are associated with a violation of the integrity and stability of ideas about oneself.
T.B. Kartseva identifies the following forms of resolving these contradictions:
The process of personality development, “finding oneself”, the process of “becoming”;
Quick adaptation, following an easier path laid by someone else;
Involution of personality caused by a person’s inability to cope with the increasingly complex, differentiated system of “I”;
A constructive solution to a contradiction associated with finding the internal resources of the individual;
Creative creation of an individualized, newly built “I-concept”.
A consequence of a teenager’s experience of a critical situation may be the process of rethinking, reevaluating one’s past, changing goals and the meaning of life, as well as the loss or change of leading motives associated with the restructuring of the self-image.
Thus, the stability of the individual, his “I-concept” is a condition for a person to successfully overcome emerging difficulties generated by a critical situation. When there is a threat of instability, a variety of defense mechanisms are triggered.
The traumatic nature of a particular event depends on the meaning it has for the person, i.e. from the “personal meaning” of the influencing stimulus.
The deviant behavior of a teenager as a consequence of his recovery from a critical situation may acquire a certain meaning for him. The existence of a personality in unusual conditions forms its new semantic center, which does not coincide with the previous one, but does not sweep it away either. Meanwhile, two semantic centers polarize semantic contents around themselves, which, when crossing each other, enter into conflicting relationships of mutual meaninglessness, creating what can be called loss of meaning (M.Sh. Magomed-Eminov). Consequently, adolescents may seek meaning in artificially stimulating themselves; join various groups or become “independent and self-reliant”, demonstrating reactions of opposition, protest, emancipation, etc.
Thus, a critical situation gives rise to the following contradictions, contributing to the development of deviant behavior in adolescents:
1) the contradiction of the image of “I” - arises at the moment a person feels “losing himself” and not yet “gaining himself”, a contradiction of meanings and their content; as a result of this there arises loss of meaning;
2) the intrapersonal contradiction that arises in a critical situation is accompanied by the experience of overcoming it and the situation as a whole; this leads to personality transformation;
3) psychological conflicts between the teenager and his deviant behavior determined by this transformation, rooted in the critical situation of his existence.
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The defense mechanisms of the human psyche are aimed at reducing negative and traumatic experiences and manifest themselves at the unconscious level. This term was coined by Sigmund Freud , and then more deeply developed by his students and followers, most notably Anna Freud. Let's try to figure out when these mechanisms are useful, and in what cases they hinder our development and better respond and act consciously.
website will tell you about 9 main types of psychological defense that are important to realize in time. This is exactly what the psychotherapist does most of the time in his office - he helps the client understand the defense mechanisms that limit his freedom, spontaneity of response, and distort interaction with people around him.
1. Displacement
Repression is the removal of unpleasant experiences from consciousness. It manifests itself in forgetting what causes psychological discomfort. Repression can be compared to a dam that can break - there is always a risk that memories of unpleasant events will burst out. And the psyche spends a huge amount of energy to suppress them.
2. Projection
Projection manifests itself in the fact that a person unconsciously attributes his feelings, thoughts, desires and needs to the people around him. This psychological defense mechanism makes it possible to relieve oneself of responsibility for one’s own character traits and desires that seem unacceptable.
For example, unreasonable jealousy may be the result of a projection mechanism. Defending himself against his own desire for infidelity, a person suspects his partner of cheating.
3. Introjection
This is the tendency to indiscriminately appropriate other people's norms, attitudes, rules of behavior, opinions and values without trying to understand them and critically rethink them. Introjection is like swallowing huge chunks of food without trying to chew it.
All education and upbringing is built on the mechanism of introjection. Parents say: “Don’t put your fingers in the socket, don’t go out into the cold without a hat,” and these rules contribute to the survival of children. If a person as an adult “swallows” other people’s rules and norms without trying to understand how they suit him personally, he becomes unable to distinguish between what he really feels and what he wants and what others want.
4. Merger
In merging there is no boundary between “I” and “not-I”. There is only one total “we”. The fusion mechanism is most clearly expressed in the first year of a child’s life. Mother and child are in fusion, which contributes to the survival of the little person, because the mother very subtly feels the needs of her child and responds to them. In this case, we are talking about the healthy manifestation of this protective mechanism.
But in relationships between a man and a woman, merging hinders the development of the couple and the development of partners. It is difficult to show your individuality in them. Partners dissolve in each other, and passion sooner or later leaves the relationship.
5. Rationalization
Rationalization is an attempt to find reasonable and acceptable reasons for the occurrence of an unpleasant situation, a situation of failure. The purpose of this defense mechanism is to maintain a high level of self-esteem and convince ourselves that we are not to blame, that the problem is not ours. It is clear that it will be more beneficial for personal growth and development to take responsibility for what happened and learn from life experience.
Rationalization can manifest itself as devaluation. A classic example of rationalization is Aesop's fable “The Fox and the Grapes.” The fox cannot get the grapes and retreats, explaining that the grapes are “green.”
It is much more useful for yourself and for society to write poetry, draw a picture, or simply chop wood than to get drunk or beat up a more successful opponent.
9. Reactive formation
In the case of reactive formation, our consciousness protects itself from forbidden impulses by expressing opposing impulses in behavior and thoughts. This protective process is carried out in two stages: first, the unacceptable impulse is suppressed, and then at the level of consciousness the completely opposite one manifests itself, while being quite hypertrophied and inflexible.
Well-known psychological types were identified and described by the Austrian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst C. G. Jung.
His theory about “introversion - extraversion”, as well as about the four types of perception of the world, has developed and continues to develop.
Psychological personality types proposed by Jung:
- Personality types depending on the vector of its orientation:
- An extrovert is a person psychologically oriented to the outside world; sociable, active, active.
- – a person focused on the inner world; closed, sensitive, reasonable.
- Psychological types depending on the predominant way of perceiving life, in other words, on the main mental function:
- Thinking type - a person who primarily relies on logic and thinking when making decisions. The sphere of feelings is suppressed.
- The feeling type is a person focused on, judges in terms of “good - bad”, and not logically.
- The sensing type is a person who perceives life directly through the senses; he looks, listens, touches and makes decisions based on the information he receives. it is suppressed.
- Intuitive type - a person who relies on the “sixth” sense; such people make decisions based on intuitive, unconscious knowledge, rather than on direct sensations.
Based on Jung’s typology, in the seventies and eighties of the last century, Soviet sociologist A. Augustinavichiute developed one of the most detailed and reliable personal typologies and became the founder of a scientific direction called “socionics”.
- A. E. LICHKO
Another Soviet scientist A.E. Lichko, observing teenagers, identified psychological types that describe the types of character accentuations. Accentuation is an excessive strengthening of individual character traits, psychological deviations bordering on psychopathology, but not beyond the norm.
- In adolescence, the crisis age, accentuation manifests itself most pronouncedly.
- Later, the character “smoothes out”, and accentuation appears only in times of crisis.
- K. LEONHARD
The German scientist K. Leonhard proposed a similar classification, but did not limit it to the puberty period. The classification is based on an assessment of a person’s communication style with his immediate environment.
Psychological types according to K. Leonhard:
- Hyperthymic. Optimistic, sociable, proactive, active, conflict-ridden, irritable, frivolous.
- Disthymic. Pessimistic, silent, withdrawn, non-conflict, conscientious, fair.
- Cycloid. Changeable type, combining hyperthymia and dysthymia.
- Excitable. Slow, irritable, gloomy, domineering, conscientious, neat, loving animals and children.
- Stuck. , inquisitive, fair, ambitious, touchy, suspicious, jealous.
- Pedantic. Formalist and neat, serious, reliable, non-conflict, passive, boring.
- Anxious. Timid, insecure, defenseless, pessimistic, self-critical, friendly, efficient, sensitive.
- Emotive. Excessively vulnerable, tearful, passive, kind, compassionate, responsive, efficient.
- Demonstrative. Can be both a leader and an opportunist; self-confident, artistic, courteous, captivating, extraordinary, selfish, boastful, lazy.
- Exalted. Extremely sociable, experiencing bright and sincere feelings, amorous, altruistic, compassionate, changeable, prone to panic and exaggerate.
- Extroverted. Sociable and talkative, open, efficient, frivolous, prone to excitement and risk.
- Introverted. Idealist, reserved, philosophizing, non-conflict, principled, restrained, persistent, stubborn.
Classification of personality psychotypes depending on temperament
Most often, a personality typology is compiled based on differences in the temperaments and characters of people.
- HIPPOCRATES
The first known typology of personality depending on the type of temperament was proposed by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. It still remains relevant and popular, although the scientist did not individually connect typological personality traits with the properties of the nervous system (as is customary now).
A person’s psychotype according to Hippocrates depends on the ratio of various fluids in the body: blood, lymph and two types of bile.
Psychological types of temperament according to Hippocrates:
- phlegmatic - a person in whose body lymph (phlegm) predominates, which makes him calm and slow;
- melancholic - a person in whose body black bile (melanchole) predominates, which makes him fearful and prone to sadness;
- sanguine - a person who has a lot of blood in his body (sanguine), active and cheerful;
- choleric is hot and impulsive; there is a lot of yellow bile (chole) in his body.
For many centuries in a row, the doctrine of temperaments has been developed and supplemented. In particular, the German philosopher I. Kant and the Russian physiologist I. P. Pavlov were engaged in this. Today, the names of the types of temperament remain the same, but the essence has changed.
Temperament is a combination of innate characteristics of higher nervous activity. It depends on the speed and strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the brain. Thus, a weak type of higher nervous activity corresponds to the temperament of a melancholic person; strong, balanced, but inert – phlegmatic; choleric – strong and unbalanced; strong, balanced and agile - sanguine.
- E. KRETCHMER
At the beginning of the twentieth century, German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer identified various personality types depending on character. This was the first character classification. Kretschmer connected a person’s psychotype with the constitution of his body.
Three types of bodily constitution:
- Asthenic. Thin and tall people, they have elongated arms and legs, underdeveloped muscles.
- Athletic. People are strong, with well-developed muscles, average or above average height.
- Picnic. People who tend to be overweight with underdeveloped muscles and musculoskeletal system, of average or short stature.
Since E. Kretschmer was a psychiatrist, he compared personality psychotypes with a tendency towards one or another psychopathology and grouped them into two personality types:
- Schizothymics are mentally healthy people with an athletic or asthenic build, vaguely reminiscent of patients with schizophrenia. They are characterized by the following character traits: artistry, sensitivity, aloofness, selfishness, and authority.
- Cyclothymics are mentally healthy people with a picnic build, reminiscent of patients with manic-depressive psychosis. These are cheerful, optimistic, sociable, frivolous people.
E. Kretschmer's theory was based only on his personal observations, but served as the basis for subsequent, more complex character typologies. Much later, scientists came to the conclusion that body shape really influences the character and individual typological characteristics of a person. The connection between the constitution of the body and the tendency to accentuate character (an extreme degree of normal functioning of the psyche) and psychopathology does exist.
Classification of personality psychotypes depending on character
People differ not only in their character traits, but also in their attitude to life, society and moral values. Although there is a concept of proper behavior, people behave differently.
The German psychoanalyst and sociologist E. Fromm introduced the concept of “social character” and defined it as a certain identical set of character traits in the personality structure of the majority of members of a particular community. Any community, class or group of people has a certain social character.
Social character was taken as the basis for the classification of psychological personality types.
Psychological personality types according to E. Fromm:
- "Masochist-sadist"
A person who is inclined to direct aggression towards himself or other people if he considers them to be guilty of ongoing personal failures or problems of the whole society. Such people strive for self-improvement, are insecure, punctual, responsible, demanding, domineering, and love to terrorize others, justifying their actions with good intentions.
Psychological masochism is almost always combined with sadism. However, there are people who are more inclined to one of the types.
Individual typological features of a “masochist”: self-deprecation, self-criticism, tendency to always blame oneself for everything. Fromm defined a “sadist” as an authoritarian personality. This is an exploitative man, domineering and cruel.
- "Destroyer"
He does not cause suffering to himself or others, but aggressively eliminates the cause of his troubles. In order not to feel powerless and frustrated, a person ends the relationship or interrupts the business he has begun, that is, he uses destructiveness as a means of resolving any trouble. “Destroyers” are usually anxious, desperate, cowardly people, limited in the realization of their capabilities and abilities.
- "Conformist Automaton"
Unlike the two previous psychological types, the “conformist” is passive. He does not fight, but resigns himself to difficult life circumstances. This is a too labile person who has practically lost his
He is an adaptable person who will change his point of view, behavior, principles and even type of thinking if the situation demands it. Such people are immoral, and therefore do not see anything shameful in changing points of view and life values.
This social typology does not characterize people from the best side, but it reveals the problems of society and remains extremely relevant in our time.
It is impossible to say which typology is better; they complement each other. Any personality typology allows an individual to know himself and at the same time realize his uniqueness.
The reason for the division into psychotypes
Philosophers and scientists at all times of the existence of civilized society have tried to distinguish and isolate psychological types of people from the diversity of the nature of human nature. Many classifications are based on observations of people, life experience, or the conclusions of the scientist who proposed a specific typology. Only in the last century, in connection with the flourishing of psychology, personality psychotypes became the object of research and received proper scientific justification.
Despite the variety of psychological types that exist today, it can be difficult to determine which personality type a person belongs to. Often, when reading the classification of types and wanting to find oneself, one cannot decide or finds several types at once, similar to the individual typological characteristics of one’s own personality.
The disadvantage of any typology is that it cannot accommodate all possible personality types, because each person is an individual. We can say that it is more likely to belong to one type or another, is more similar to it, or at some moments manifests itself in a similar way.
Any human psychotype is a generalization, an attempt to combine into a group similar and often observed together qualities, temperamental characteristics, and other individual typological personality traits.
Personality types are often exaggerated and simplified, describing deviant behavior (even psychopathology) or only those personality traits that are pronounced and stereotypical.
Pure types are rare. However, every second person, reading this or that typology or passing a psychological test, easily determines his psychotype and agrees with the characteristics given to him.
The more developed an individual’s personality, the more difficult it is for him to classify himself as one or another personality type. A harmoniously developed personality and bright individuality hardly “fits” into any particular psychotype.
Despite the imperfection of typologies and personality types, they allow you to understand yourself, notice shortcomings, and identify ways of development. It is easier for people around an individual, who know what psychological type he belongs to, to build relationships with him and predict behavior in a specific situation.
Personality typology helps professional psychologists conduct psychodiagnostics of the client. A psychological portrait of a person necessarily includes a description of his psychotype. Individual typological characteristics of a person are extremely important, because they will tell about temperament, character, abilities, emotional-volitional sphere, orientation, attitudes, motivation and values - about all components of individuality.
There are many pseudo-scientific classifications of psychological types that people use in everyday life. For example, dividing people depending on the time of day when the greatest activity and ability to work is observed, into “larks” and “night owls”.
There are a huge number of pseudoscientific tests on the Internet, more likely to be entertaining than to help you understand yourself. But even such psychological tests have a right to exist, since they give rise to a person’s desire to know himself. What psychotypes of people are described in the science of psychology?