Levels of demographic policy. Modern demographic policy in countries of the world
Policy affecting the processes of fertility, marriage, divorce, age structure of the population and its mortality is the demographic policy of the state. In a broad sense, demographic policy is sometimes identified with population policy, and in a narrow, more accepted sense, it is considered as one of its components. It is closely related to social and economic policy, but, nevertheless, has its own characteristics. The object of such a policy can be countries, their individual regions, as well as individual groups (cohorts) of the population.
Demographic policy is usually based on a set of various measures: economic, administrative, legal, educational and propaganda. Economic measures aimed primarily at stimulating the birth rate include:
· paid holidays and various benefits for the birth of children,
· benefits for children depending on their number, age and family composition - on a progressive scale,
· various loans, credits,
· tax and housing benefits, etc.
Administrative and legal measures include:
· legislation regulating the age of marriage,
· divorce rate,
· attitudes towards abortion and the use of contraceptives,
· property status of the mother and children in the event of family breakdown,
· working hours for working women, etc.
Educational and propaganda measures are aimed at shaping public opinion, norms and standards of demographic behavior, determining attitudes towards religious and other traditions and customs of population reproduction and family planning policy (intrafamily regulation of childbirth), sex education and education of young people, etc. Maksakovsky V.P. . Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.121
The history of demographic policy dates back to ancient times. It was reflected in many legal and legislative acts of antiquity, especially in cases of overpopulation of countries or, on the contrary, large human losses (although religious and ethical doctrines almost always had greater significance than such acts). In the Middle Ages, in conditions of increased mortality due to wars and epidemics, some demographic measures, mostly spontaneous, were aimed at maintaining a high birth rate. In modern times, the first country where the demographic policy that stimulated the birth rate received quite clear design was France. Then some other European countries began to pursue such a policy. Subsequently, it was partly replaced by policies aimed at curbing the rate of population growth. The same change of priorities - depending on the phase of the demographic transition - has been characteristic of modern times. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.123
But with all this, one cannot but agree with the famous demographer A. Ya. Kvasha, according to whom, in general, the history of demographic policy indicates that it was a rather weak instrument and could not significantly influence the reproduction of the population.
As the experience of implementing demographic policy in countries around the world in the 20th century shows, the actual population size is rarely found among the target indicators. The exceptions were China, which sought to not exceed the size of its population by more than 1200 million people by 2000 (actually in mid-1999 - 1254 million people) and Romania, which set the goal of increasing its population to 30 million people (actually in mid-1999 city - 22.5 million). Kharchenko L.P. Demography: textbook/L. P. Kharchenko. -- 3rd ed., erased. - M.: Omega-L, 2009.- p.305
Economically less developed countries with rapidly growing populations most often choose a reduction in population growth rates or a reduction in the total fertility rate (total fertility rate) as a target.
Countries with high mortality rates consider achieving certain levels of average life expectancy or reducing infant mortality as demographic policy goals.
In more economically developed countries, the goals of demographic policy are to regulate migration policy and introduce immigration quotas that limit the entry and naturalization of foreigners.
Demographic policy received its greatest development and distribution in the second half of the 20th century, which is explained, on the one hand, by the onset of a demographic explosion, and on the other, by a demographic crisis. Many politicians and scientists saw in it perhaps the main means of containing population growth in the first case and accelerating it in the second case.
It is not surprising that the United Nations has also paid a lot of attention to these issues. Under its auspices, world population conferences were held: in 1954 (Rome), in 1965 (Belgrade), in 1974 (Bucharest), in 1984 (Mexico City), in 1994 (Cairo). In 1967, the United Nations Fund for the Promotion of Population Activities (UNFPA) was formed. Since the 1960s The UN conducts systematic surveys of governments on population policy issues. They are also discussed at sessions of the UN General Assembly. In 1992, they entered the agenda of the World Conference on Environment and Development. Of the individual documents, the “World Population Plan of Action” adopted in Bucharest in 1974, which contains many specific recommendations for the implementation of demographic policy, is of particular importance. Then, at conferences in Mexico City and especially in Cairo, it was further developed with the inclusion of a number of fundamental changes. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.124
However, in order to make demographic policy truly effective and efficient, all these regulations were not enough. New means of its implementation were also needed, which were invented. The first big breakthrough in this area occurred at the turn of the 50s and 60s. XX century, when it was possible to obtain combined contraceptives for internal use - hormonal tablets, pills and other means, which were gradually improved more and more. All this led to the fact that in the 1960s. a real sexual revolution has taken place in the world. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of the American writer Upton Sinclair that “birth control is the highest achievement of the human mind, equivalent to the discovery of fire and the invention of printing.” Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.124
Like any other revolution, the sexual revolution gave rise to acute contradictions in views and, accordingly, polemics and a struggle of opinions. First of all, perhaps, they touched upon attitudes towards abortion. In the Christian world, the Catholic Church categorically opposed the artificial termination of pregnancy. Back in 1987, the Vatican issued a special “Instruction” on this matter, and at the Cairo Conference in 1994 it again spoke just as sharply. Most Muslim countries are also against abortion and family planning in general. In Protestant and Orthodox countries, the attitude towards them is much more tolerant. In total, approximately 60 million abortions occur annually in the world. The record-breaking countries, where there are more than 50 abortions for every 1,000 women aged 15 to 44, include Vietnam, Romania, Cuba, Belarus, Russia, Ukraine, Estonia, and Bulgaria. At the other extreme (less than 10 abortions) are Zambia, India, South Africa, Bangladesh, Spain, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.125
Information about the spread of demographic policy in the modern world is not always comparable. Thus, according to some data, in developed countries about 70% of women of reproductive age resort to various forms of birth control, and in developing countries - 50%. According to other data, more or less active demographic policies are carried out in approximately half of all countries in the world. According to the third, only from 1970 to 1993, the number of married couples in developing countries using various forms of family planning increased 10 times (from 40 million to 400 million), and the number of these countries themselves increased to 130. According to the fourth, the number of participants By 2000, family planning in East and Southeast Asia had already exceeded 300 million, in South Asia - 100 million, in Latin America - 75 million families. Despite some inconsistency of such information, in general they indicate that the spread of demographic policy is becoming increasingly widespread. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.125
Depending on the demographic situation, demographic policy usually pursues one of two main goals.
In developing countries still at the stage of population explosion, the main goal of demographic policy is to reduce fertility rates and natural population growth. The birth rate is decreasing as a result of the popularization and distribution of contraceptives, health education, counseling on family planning, promotion of the advantages of small families, as well as encouraging small families through various economic and administrative measures. Some countries, as one of these measures, not only allow, but also strongly encourage voluntary sterilization of men and women. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.126
The most striking example of the implementation of demographic policy is the developing countries of Asia. There it covers the vast majority of residents. First of all, this applies to countries with the world's largest population - China, India, as well as Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. Quite active demographic policies are also being pursued in Latin American countries and some North African countries. However, in other parts of the developing world, especially in Muslim countries, it has not yet gained much traction. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.126
This can be judged, in particular, by the use of contraception. According to UN statistics, the average rate of contraceptive use for all developing countries is slightly more than 1/2 (we are talking about the number of families using contraceptives), and for the least developed countries - 1/5. China is ahead in this indicator (almost 85%). In Thailand, Vietnam and Sri Lanka it reaches 65-75%, in Malaysia and India - 50-60, in most Latin American countries - 50-75%. At the other extreme are the countries of West and Central Africa and some countries of South-West Asia, where the share of such families usually does not exceed 10%; in Afghanistan it is only 2%, and in Yemen it is 7%. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.126
As one of the effective measures of demographic policy, many developing countries are implementing legislative increases in the age of marriage. For example, in China it was raised to 22 years for men and 20 years for women, in India - to 21 and 18 years, respectively. In reality, there is an even greater “aging” of marriage, which is explained by the fact that a significant part of young people strive to first obtain an education and then undergo vocational training, often combining it with work. As a result, while 15-20 years ago the average age of brides in developing countries was 16-18 years old, by the beginning of the 21st century. even in Africa it began to exceed 20 years, and in Asia and especially in Latin America it “aged” even more. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.126
At the same time, it must be borne in mind that among the countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America there are also dozens of very small populations, and often just dwarf states, the demographic policy in which (if it is carried out) is not primarily aimed at reducing , but to increase natural population growth.
In most economically developed countries that have entered a period of demographic crisis, they are implementing demographic policies with the goal of increasing fertility rates and natural increase. This primarily applies to European countries.
France became an example of solving demographic problems. At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Depopulation began in the country. Thanks to information and propaganda measures, society, government agencies, scientists and entrepreneurs understood the need to increase the birth rate and increase the country's population. In 1896, the National Council was created to support population growth, in 1920 - the Supreme Council on Fertility Problems, in 1921 - the Federation of Unions of Large Families, in 1939 - the Higher Committee on Population Problems, in 1945 (according to initiative of President de Gaulle) - Higher Advisory Committee on Population and Family Problems. Kharchenko L.P. Demography: textbook/L.P. Kharchenko. -- 3rd ed., erased. -- M.: Omega-L, 2009.- p.308
France skillfully combined outreach measures with economic and regulatory measures. For example, in 1920, a law was passed prohibiting abortion, allowing the sale and distribution of contraceptives, public information about birth control methods, etc. In 1939, the Family Code was adopted, providing for the introduction of cash benefits. The amount of monthly benefits for large families was determined as a share of the basic wage (the monthly wage of an unskilled metal worker in Paris). The amount of benefits varied by territorial zone. The gap between the maximum and minimum levels was set in 1945-1946. 49%, in 1968 - up to 4%. Types of benefits:
* family benefits in the amount of 22% of the basic salary for the second child under 10 years of age; 31% - aged 10 to 15 years; 38% - 15 years or more; 33% - for the third and each subsequent child under 10 years of age; 42% - from 10 to 15 years; 49% - 15 years or more. No allowance was paid for the firstborn, but if there were three children in the family, then it amounted to 9% of the basic salary for those under 10 years of age, 16% for those aged 15 years or more;
* allowance for a family with one breadwinner: 20% of the basic salary for the first child under five years of age, 40% for the second,
50% - for the third and each subsequent child. Payments were carried out on a par with family benefits (age limit - 16 years plus six preferential months);
* prenatal benefit from the moment of official certification of pregnancy until childbirth in the amount of 22% of the basic salary;
* one-time benefit for the birth of a child in the amount of double the basic salary, provided: a) if this is the first-born and the mother is not older than 25 years or has been married for less than two years; b) if this is not the first child, but at least three years have passed since the previous birth. Kharchenko L.P. Demography: textbook/L.P. Kharchenko. -- 3rd ed., erased. -- M.: Omega-L, 2009.- p.308
In 1975, a law was passed allowing abortions during the first 10 weeks of pregnancy.
Following France, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and other countries took various measures to implement demographic policies.
Depopulation is underway in Russia; now, more than ever, information and propaganda measures, especially through modern media, should be used to understand the need to solve demographic problems; population growth should become a national idea of the country.
It would not be wrong to say that a particularly active demographic policy until the end of the 1980s. carried out by the socialist countries of Eastern Europe.
In Western European countries, the system of demographic policy measures is generally similar, although, of course, they differ in the amounts of various types of payments and other benefits. Demographers believe that France and Sweden are most actively pursuing policies to encourage fertility and natural increase.
Currently, the average age of marriage in Europe is 26.4 years for men and 23.4 years for women. In Italy, Switzerland, Sweden for men it exceeds 27, and in Germany even 28 years. For women in the UK, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain it exceeds 27, and in Denmark and Sweden - 29 years. Maksakovsky V.P. Geographical picture of the world. Book I: General characteristics of the world. 4th ed. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - p.127
In the United States, government demographic policy in its usual interpretation is virtually absent. Citizens are given complete freedom of choice in this area. Family assistance is usually provided indirectly, in the form of various tax benefits. In the USA, the birthplace of the sexual revolution of the 1960s, various types of contraceptives became especially widespread. However, the “rehabilitation” of sex led to such heated discussions that literally split society into warring factions. First of all, this relates to the dispute about the ban or legalization of abortion, which in the United States was either prohibited or allowed depending on the balance of power between “liberals” and “conservatives.”
Demographic policy is a system of measures carried out by the state in relation to the country's population and aimed at regulating the natural movement, especially the birth rate. The measures taken may be direct
(limitation or stimulation by legislative means of childbirth, marriage) and indirect (increasing the standard of living, creating a system of material assistance and benefits for large or small families, forming public opinion). Recently, an increasing number of states have been using more comprehensive demographic policy measures and are trying to simultaneously reduce the mortality rate while increasing the birth rate.
Most countries of the first type of reproduction are concerned about the fall in the birth rate, because this process leads to a decrease in the proportion of the working-age population and an aging population. Therefore, developed countries are pursuing a demographic policy that stimulates an increase in the birth rate and is called pro-realistic. It is known that European countries (except Turkey) consider their population growth rates not very high. Their demographic policy is dominated by several directions. Particularly highlighted are activities designed to influence the family and, through it, the birth rate. By using them, some governments aim to strengthen the family, others to strengthen social development, and still others to improve the demographic situation. For this purpose, the following groups of measures are applied: payments of material assistance to mothers (one time after childbirth); leave after childbirth, which is provided to the mother; Holiday to care for the child; family financial assistance (accruals to wages); tax discounts; reduction of working hours for mothers who work; formation of a network of child care institutions and provision of places in them for everyone; free or discounted preschool education; housing benefits; social services; monthly payments until the child reaches a certain age.
In countries pursuing a pronatalistic policy, there are also housing benefits that help young families solve the housing problem. Thus, you can get housing with a reduced rent, and you have access to a low-interest loan to buy a home or build your own home. Some countries provide housing cash benefits that allow you to repay the loan, since in Europe an apartment is usually purchased on credit. Young couples can be given long-term loans, which are often interest-free. After the birth of a child, loan debts can be written off. In Iceland, upon marriage, newlyweds are given keys to the apartment.
Largely thanks to the pro-natalist policy of France, which was the first to face a demographic crisis, it was possible to overcome it.
As already mentioned, in the coming decades, most of the world's population growth is expected in developing countries. This increases the already difficult problem of eliminating the economic backwardness of these countries, so most of them are characterized by a desire to limit rapid population growth. Approximately 80 states pursue such demographic policies. Many of them see this as one of the ways to solve the problems of hunger and poverty. Some states do not significantly interfere with the process of natural population movement; Muslim countries are widely represented among these.
The policy of restricting births was most clearly expressed in China. Since the late 70s of the last century, the government of this country has been pursuing a policy of controlling population growth and improving its quality characteristics. The state encourages late marriages and encourages the birth of one child per family (the principle of “one family - one child” is applied), although in accordance with legislative provisions it allows the birth of a second child.
In China, a family with one child has the right to priority housing, an increase in the size of their garden plot, and free child care in kindergarten. Such families have advantages when hiring and enrolling their children in universities; they receive cash benefits and subsidies. If a second child is born, the family loses benefits and pays payroll taxes. At different stages of implementation, demographic policy also included: fines for exceeding the number of children, raising the age of marriage; prohibition of marriage by students; premarital medical examination, based on the results of which the registration of marriage could be postponed. However, demographic policy did not cause political protests. According to some Western researchers, this is largely due to the nature of the political system and the fact that interference “from above” in the private lives of citizens lies within the traditional framework of relations between the government and the population.
Since the 1990s, the Chinese government has annually discussed the issue of population and development. Efforts were made to closely coordinate planned childbearing and economic development, eradicate poverty, rational use of resources, popularize culture and knowledge, develop health care, improve the social security system, and improve the status of women in society.
As a result of almost thirty years of effort, China has successfully found its way to a comprehensive solution to the demographic problem. Gradually, a system for regulating population growth and planned childbearing was formed that met market requirements. As a result, the birth rate and natural population growth rate decreased from 33 and 25% in 1970 to 14 and 7%, respectively, in 2008. Due to low mortality - 7% (China has a relatively young population) and significant advances in health care, natural growth is decreasing. In a very short period of time, the country made a transition from a type of population reproduction with high fertility, low mortality and high growth to a type with low fertility, low mortality and low growth.
The negative consequences of demographic policy include increasing disproportions in the gender composition of the population. A feature of modern China is a more significant excess of the male population in the younger age group compared to average indicators.
Over the next decades, China's population is expected to enter a new historical period. If the low birth rate remains stable, the country will gradually move from low natural increase to zero population growth. It is expected that by the middle of the 21st century. The country's population, having reached a peak estimate (about 1600 million people), is gradually declining.
In 1978, the government attempted to legally raise the age of marriage. In the 50s, the age of marriage for men was 22 years and for women - 15 years, but already in the 60s it was raised to 23 and 17 years, and in 1978 for women - to 18 years. After the 1981 census showed greater population growth than expected, family planning programs increased activity.
In 1986, the Government of India developed a new program to reduce population growth, which provided for coverage of up to 60% of married couples with various means of contraception. A more stringent standard was established - two children per family. Accordingly, demographic slogans have changed: “Have only two children - the first and the last,” “Two children are enough!” In the mid-90s, in accordance with the recommendations of the UN Population Conference in Cairo (1994), family planning programs in India underwent new changes. The government decided to abandon national guidelines and objectives in this area, and the results of such programs were no longer published. The emphasis was placed on improving the health of women in reproductive age, as well as reducing child mortality. Women were given the right to decide for themselves which method of contraception to choose. At the end of the 90s, the proportion of women who used contraceptives exceeded 40%. But in 2000, a new National Demographic Policy Program was prepared, the main goal of which is to achieve a fertility level by 2010, which corresponds to simple population reproduction, and by 2045 - to stabilize its number. The main difference between this program and previous ones is the intensification of propaganda for improving the quality of life as a result of reducing family size.
V.P. Maksakovsky draws attention to the fact that the significantly less success of demographic policy in India compared to China is primarily explained by socio-economic factors: firstly, the extreme poverty of a significant part of the country’s population, where more than a third of all residents are below the poverty line, secondly, the low educational level of the population; thirdly, some dogmas of Hinduism play a role, with which the thousand-year-old tradition of early marriages, as well as various family rituals, is associated.
The deterioration of the demographic situation in many countries, which became especially noticeable by the middle of the 20th century, created the preconditions for the further development of demographic policy.
Currently, most states are pursuing population policies. However, due to significant differences in their socio-economic situation and level of demographic development, the content of state policy, goals, scale and methods of its implementation in each country have their own characteristics. Thus, if in developed countries economic measures of public policy (paid leave and benefits for the birth of a child, tax and housing benefits, loans, credits and other benefits) are taken to indirectly encourage the birth rate by increasing the standard of living of the family, then in developing countries the allocated resources are directed to improve the effectiveness of family planning services to reduce the birth rate. At the same time, in countries with low fertility, despite the fact that economic measures have a certain impact on increasing the number of births, they cannot significantly change the intensity of the birth rate. From a demographic point of view, their effect is short-lived and not effective enough. By providing assistance to families who already have children, economic measures improve their living conditions and are the basis for formation of the need for a larger (3 or more) number of children.
Administrative and legal measures of demographic policy (legislative acts regulating the processes of fertility, marriage, migration, protection of motherhood and childhood, property rights of mothers and children in case of family breakdown, etc.) are effective only in combination with other measures of demographic policy.
The success of society's efforts to manage demographic processes is largely determined by its attitude to educational and propaganda measures of demographic policy. Cultivating demographic education and literacy among the population, formation of the need for the number of children, corresponding to the goals of demographic policy, are the most important tasks of society.
Thus, demographic policy measures should influence the reproductive behavior of the population in two directions:
Assistance in meeting the existing need for the number of children;
Changing the very need of families for the number of children in accordance with the interests of society.
The peculiarity of the implementation of demographic policy measures lies in their indirect impact on demographic processes (through people’s behavior in relation to marriage, family, having children, etc.).
A condition for successful implementation of demographic policy is its longevity(due to the inertia of demographic processes), complexity(simultaneous implementation of all measures), constant improvement and expansion of demographic policy measures, participation in the development of demographic policy of specialists studying various aspects of population.
The effectiveness of demographic policy is determined by comparing its goals with the results obtained, the time to achieve the goals and the material costs incurred by society.
The world population has currently exceeded 6 billion people. The main feature of its development is the preservation of two types of population - developed and developing countries. Most of the world's population is concentrated in developing countries. So, if in 1950 these countries accounted for 2/3 of the world population, in 1998 - 4/5, then according to the forecast of UN population experts for 2050 - 7/8 of the world population. By the middle of the 21st century, the population of most regions of the world will increase. The largest increase is expected on the African continent.
Currently, world population growth is concentrated in a limited number of countries. Thus, about a third of the increase accounts for just two countries in the world - India and China.
UN experts predict a population decline in countries with developed economies and low birth rates, primarily in Japan and European countries. It is expected that by 2050 the number of inhabitants of, for example, Bulgaria will decrease by 34%, Romania - by 29%, Ukraine - by 28%, Russia - by 22%, Latvia - 23%, Poland - 17%, South Korea - by 13%, Germany – by 9%, etc.
The birth rate in developed countries is below the level necessary for the simple renewal of generations. By 2010, the average total fertility rate in developed countries may decrease from the current 1.6 to 1.5. However, by 2050, according to UN forecasts, it may increase to 1.9. Among developed countries, the highest birth rate in recent years has been observed in the United States - 2.0.
In developing countries, the total fertility rate is at a level significantly higher than the replacement level. Thus, in 2005, its value for the African continent as a whole was 5.1 children, in Western Asia - 3.6, in Central and South Asia - 3.2, in Central America - 2.8, etc. However, in these countries, the birth rate is also declining.
The mortality rate is currently gradually decreasing in almost all regions of the world.
Activities to reduce mortality become most successful as humanity develops, sustainable economic growth, and the creation of a material basis for the development of medicine, healthcare, etc. This was most clearly manifested, first of all, in Europe. Until the beginning of the 20th century, it was possible to significantly reduce mortality from hunger, infectious diseases, and significant epidemics. By the end of the 20th century, the decline in mortality slowed, and currently its level has stabilized.
In developing countries, the process of reducing mortality continues. Not only its level is changing, but also the structure of causes of death - it is tending to the type of mortality in developed countries of the world. Despite the successes achieved in the second half of the last century, mortality in Africa, Asia and Latin America still has reserves for further reduction, especially infant mortality. By the beginning of the 21st century, the highest infant mortality rate remains in Africa – 88 ‰, with the world average being 56 ‰.
Due to the decrease in overall mortality of the population, life expectancy is increasing. Thus, if at the beginning of the 50s of the last century life expectancy for the entire world population was 46 years, then by the beginning of this century it increased to 67 years. In industrialized countries, this figure increased during these years from 66 years to 75 years. In developing countries it was 41 and 63 years, respectively. The existing gap in life expectancy between developed and developing countries will remain in the foreseeable future. By 2050 (according to UN estimates), life expectancy in more developed countries may reach 82 years, and in less developed countries - 75 years (for both sexes). This means that developing countries will only reach the current mortality levels in developed countries in half a century.
An increase in life expectancy due to a decrease in mortality (especially in older ages) and a decrease in fertility lead to an increase in the proportion of older ages in the total population.
The age structure, being a reflection of the population reproduction regime in the past, at the same time plays an extremely important role in shaping the future demographic development of society (population reproduction trends, its size and structure, etc.). In this regard, an increase in the proportion of the population of older ages, i.e. Demographic aging is currently developing into a global problem and is under the attention of the UN.
The problem of the aging world population was first discussed at a UN meeting back in 1948. In subsequent decades, the rate of the aging process turned out to be higher than previously assumed. Therefore, in 1992, the UN adopted the International Plan of Action on Aging and established the International Day of Older Populations on October 1 of each year.
The problem of population aging has become especially noticeable for economically developed countries. According to UN estimates, in these countries as a whole, the population aged 65 years and older is 14% of the total population. Japan is named the oldest among developed countries, where every fifth resident is over 65 years old. It is followed by: Italy - 19% of old people, Germany - 18%, France - 16%, Great Britain - 16%, Canada - 13%, USA - 12%, etc. An improvement in the age structure of the population in these countries is not expected in the near future.
Population aging is gradually becoming a serious problem for some countries in Asia and Latin America. Taking into account global trends in demographic processes, it can be assumed that demographic aging will eventually affect the entire world population.
One of the characteristics of the demographic situation is the state and forms of marriage and family relations. The basis for demographic differences between economically developed and developing countries lies in the different roles of the family in the culture and economy of these countries.
In developing countries, the family still largely retains its productive and social functions. In this regard, complex families are common in them, capable of maintaining the norms of large families and acting as a mediator in the relationship between society and the individual.
In economically developed countries, simple families consisting of parents and children predominate. Many functions of the family were transferred to other social institutions and intra-family ties lost their former importance as an intermediary, making the family fragile.
The unfavorable development of global demographic processes has made it necessary to solve the complex problem of maintaining a balance between population size, stable economic growth and sustainable development. One of the directions of this is the development of a new approach to a complex phenomenon - international migration. UN documents indicate the need to develop and implement a migration policy at the level of individual countries, the task of which is to establish strict control over migration movements in order to prevent those undesirable for the interests of the country and combat illegal migration. Among economically developed countries, the largest regions for receiving migrants (recipients) are the United States and the EEC countries. In Western Europe, the majority of foreign specialists are concentrated in Germany, France, and Great Britain. In these countries, migration has become a leading factor in population growth.
Currently, there are almost no states left in the world whose governments are not concerned about population problems. Therefore, most countries pursue a certain state policy in the field of population.
For economically developed countries, the main demographic problem can be considered, first of all, low birth rate, which does not ensure even simple reproduction of the population and causes its reduction (depopulation). However, almost all of them officially pursue a policy of non-interference in the reproductive behavior of the population. At the same time, some of these states (Belgium, Germany, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Japan, etc.) consider the population growth rate and birth rate of their countries to be unsatisfactory.
Industrialized countries have public policies that most likely fall under the family policy umbrella. What all these countries have in common is the recognition of the family as the most important social institution, the main tasks of which are the birth and upbringing of children, preparing them for adult life. At the same time, while implementing measures of state assistance to families with children in practice, many countries do not officially proclaim family policy.
State family policy measures in developed countries mainly come down to: maternity leave; family benefits for children; tax benefits; benefits for travel on public and railway transport; prohibitions on dismissal of pregnant women, preservation of their place of work during maternity leave, rights of pregnant women to transfer to easier work; benefits for disabled children; benefits for newlyweds and schoolchildren (in some countries), etc. In addition, family planning services exist in all these countries. However, the conditions and forms of implementation of all of the above government measures in individual countries differ significantly.
In some countries that belong to the group of economically developed countries, the goal is to prevent population growth and stabilize its numbers. At the same time, the actual measures to help families with children have a clear pronatalist (fertility-encouraging) orientation. This contradiction is observed, for example, in Holland, where the amount of benefits increases with each child born, up to the eighth. Similar differentiation of child benefits currently exists in Australia.
An opposite attitude to the issues of regulating the birth rate has historically developed in France and Germany. These states suffered huge population losses as a result of wars in the 19th and 20th centuries. The restoration of the destroyed economy, demographic potential, and the need to maintain geopolitical balance in Europe led to the implementation of an active demographic policy in these countries. In recent years, the demographic orientation of state policy has changed to social.
Almost all countries with high fertility rates have family planning policies. Currently, China ranks first in the world in terms of population. According to the latest data, 1.3 billion people live in this country. More than 25 years ago, the “one family, one child” system was introduced in China. However, even under conditions of severe birth control, its population continues to grow and by 2050 may increase to 1.6 billion people. In 2002, the first law on demography and planned childbirth came into force in China, enshrining the current government policy in law. According to this law, some categories of citizens were allowed to have a second child. Families with a large number of children are practically deprived of state support, and many are deprived of their civil rights. Birth control policies, national traditions, and modern medical technologies have led to a disruption of the gender structure of the Chinese population. Currently, many more boys are born in the country than girls. This leads to an overabundance of young men, a shortage of potential brides and causes negative social, political, moral, psychological and other negative consequences. Along with this, there is a rapid aging of the population due to the rapid decline in the birth rate.
A similar violation of the sex-age structure with the same set of negative consequences is currently observed in India.
Vietnam has achieved some success in limiting the birth rate. But even here, despite the ongoing family planning policy, the population growth rate remains quite high.
In some countries that were previously classified as developing, as their economic growth progressed, the birth rate decreased to a level close to the level that ensures simple reproduction of the population. To a certain extent, this was facilitated by the family planning policy pursued in them. The most striking example of this is Iran. In this country, the population increased 6 times during the 20th century: from 10 million people. at the beginning of the century up to 60 million people. at its end. The first family planning program was adopted in Iran during the reign of the Shah in 1967. However, over the next decade there were no significant changes in the birth rate. After the Islamic Revolution of 1979, this program was discontinued. In 1989, a second family planning program was adopted, approved by the country's religious leaders. However, even 5 years before the adoption of the second program, from the mid-80s in Iran, the total fertility rate began to decline, and by 1988 its value was at the level of 5.5 (versus 6.8 in 1984). After this, the decline in fertility accelerated, and by 1996 the total fertility rate had fallen to 2.8 children. In 2001, its value dropped to a level close to simple reproduction, and, according to various estimates, ranged from 2.1 to 2.6. Currently, the total fertility rate in this country is 2.1. This decrease occurred among urban and rural women of all ages in all provinces of the country. One of the main reasons for the decline in the birth rate in Iran since the second half of the 80s was the improvement of socio-economic living conditions, primarily in remote rural areas, a significant reduction in infant mortality, the development of education, means of transport, communications, and the spread of the modern industrial lifestyle. society.
A significant decrease in the total fertility rate to a level close to simple replacement has now occurred in a number of other countries with previously high levels: Tunisia - 2.1; Türkiye – 2.4; Sri Lanka – 2.0; Thailand – 1.7; Taiwan -1.2; South Korea – 1.2, etc.
Thus, despite the continuing growth of the Earth's population and the existence of different types of population reproduction, a steady trend of declining birth rates has formed and is developing in the world, which in the foreseeable future will inevitably lead to a cessation of growth in the planet's population.
Plan:
Concept and goals of demographic policy
Demographic policy measures
Demographic policy of Russia
8.1. Concept and goals of demographic policy
Demographic policy is the purposeful activity of government bodies and non-governmental organizations in the field of regulating the processes of reproduction and migration of the population in order to maintain or change trends in the dynamics of the number, structure, settlement and quality of the population.
Demographic policy is carried out by governments of all countries of the world, regardless of the demographic situation and population growth rate. The goal of demographic policy is to change or support existing demographic trends in a given period of time.
There are two main types of population policies:
policies aimed at increasing the birth rate (typical of economically developed countries) are pronatalist policies;
policies aimed at reducing the birth rate (typical of developing countries).
Demographic policy in economically developed countries is carried out exclusively by economic measures and is aimed at stimulating the birth rate. Economic measures include:
monthly benefits for families with children;
benefits for single parents;
propaganda of increasing the prestige of motherhood;
paid parental leave.
In some countries (Ireland, USA, Poland), the Catholic Church demands by law that women who terminate a pregnancy and the doctor who performs an abortion be criminally punished.
In developing countries, demographic policy is aimed at reducing the birth rate due to high population growth rates. In some many countries, this policy does not produce significant results, because many residents of these countries follow the tradition of having many children and the status of motherhood and especially fatherhood is highly valued there. The governments of most Muslim countries have a negative attitude towards government intervention in family planning.
Often the practical implementation of demographic policy is fraught with difficulties, both moral and ethical, and a lack of financial resources.
Demographic policy measures
Measures demographic policy can be combined into 3 large groups:
economic measures: paid holidays and various benefits for the birth of children; benefits for children depending on their number, age, type of family; loans, credits, tax and housing benefits, etc.
administrative and legal: legislative acts regulating marriages, divorces, the status of children in families, alimony obligations, protection of motherhood and childhood, abortion and the use of contraception, social security for the disabled, employment conditions and working hours for working women-mothers, internal and external migration and etc.;
educational and outreach measures designed to shape public opinion, norms and standards of demographic behavior, a certain demographic climate in society that meets the national interests of the country.
Demographic policy is nothing more than a special system of propaganda, economic, social, as well as other measures and activities that can in one way or another influence the natural movement of the population.
It is a purposeful activity of various government bodies, as well as social institutions, carried out in the field of regulating the processes of population reproduction. We can say that the demographic policy of the state is a policy that is aimed at the area of population. Its main goal is to achieve a certain demographic optimum.
The objects in this case can be the population of a country, a separate region, a city, a village, and so on.
Of course, demographic policy has its own goals and objectives. They are usually formed in various political programs, policy plans and so on. In general, the main directions of this policy are as follows:
Reducing mortality and morbidity rates;
Assistance to families with children from the state;
Urbanization;
These areas are closely intertwined with the following areas:
Revenue regulation;
Development of service sectors;
Housing construction;
Providing for citizens in need;
Healthcare;
We can say that demographic policy is aimed at creating the most convenient conditions for fertility.
In some cases, its goals are specified in target requirements, but can be presented in the form of targets or some kind of system of indicators. In the latter case, the achievement of specifically specified indicators will be understood as the achievement of the goals of the demographic policy itself.
Of course, in each country, demographic policy has its own indicators and goals. It would be stupid to compare this policy of China and, for example, Sweden. As everyone knows, China has been overpopulated for a long time. It would be strange if the government of a given country tried to increase it. Their main task is to normalize population growth so that living conditions in the country become more comfortable.
Demographic policy has many of its own characteristics. An important feature is its indirect, but indirect impact on the dynamics of demographic processes. This impact is made through the spheres of marriage, work, and so on. Demographic policy shapes demographic needs, changes their specificity at its discretion, and creates the conditions necessary for their implementation.
Demographic policy measures are different. These include economic measures:
Repayment of loans, credits, provision of benefits that can affect the birth rate in the country;
The condition and age of families are assessed on a progressive scale;
Women receive benefits for caring for a small child and are provided with certain paid leaves;
In some countries, families with few children have an advantage, and in others, families with many children.
There are also administrative and legal measures:
The age at which one can marry is determined by law;
Laws, as a rule, contain provisions on abortion, divorce, and so on.
Propaganda and educational measures:
Compulsory sex education;
Family Planning;
Creation of certain social ideals and values;
Publicity of issues related to sexual relations and so on.
Demographic policy measures can be not only incentives, but also unique constraints.