Educational project in geography on the topic "inland waters and water resources of Russia." Methodological development in geography on the topic: Methodological development of the section of the program “Inland waters and water resources”

Career and finance - 04/10/2019

Water resources are waters of rivers, lakes, canals, reservoirs, seas and oceans, groundwater, soil moisture, glaciers, and atmospheric water vapor suitable for use in the national economy. General reserves water resources amount to 1454.3 million km3, of which less than 2% is fresh water, and 0.3% is available for use.

The most important component water resources of Russia - rivers. Center state territory Russia was determined by the headwaters of the rivers, the area of the territory. - their mouths, settlement - the direction of river basins. Rivers have influenced our history in many ways. On the river, the Russian man came to life. During the migration, the river showed him the way. For a significant part of the year she fed. For a merchant it is a summer and winter road.

The Dnieper and Volkhov, Klyazma, Oka, Volga, Neva, and many other rivers have gone down in the history of our state as places of the most important events in the life of Russia. It is no coincidence that rivers occupy a prominent place in Russian epic.

On the geographical map of Russia, the extensive river network attracts attention.

In Russia there are 120 thousand rivers over 10 km long, including more than 3 thousand medium (200-500 km) and large (more than 500 km). The annual river flow is 4270 km3 (including in the Yenisei basin - 630, Lena - 532, Ob - 404, Amur - 344, Volga river - 254). The generic river flow is taken as the initial value when assessing the water supply of the country.

Reservoirs have been created on many rivers, some of which are larger in area than large lakes.

Huge hydropower resources Russia (320 million kW) are also unevenly distributed. More than 80% of the hydropower potential is located in the Asian part of the country.

In addition to the function of storing water for the operation of hydroelectric power stations, reservoirs are used for watering land, water supply to the population and industrial enterprises, shipping, timber rafting, flood control, and recreation. Large reservoirs change natural conditions: they regulate river flow, influence climate, fish spawning conditions, etc.

Russian lakes, of which there are more than 2 million, contain over half of the country's total fresh water. At the same time, Baikal contains about 95% of Russia’s lake water. There are relatively few large lakes in the country, only 9 of them (excluding the Caspian) have an area of more than 1 thousand km2 - Baikal, Ladoga, Onega, Taimyr, Khanka, Chudsko-Pskovskoye, Chany, Ilmen, Beloe. Navigation is established on large lakes, their water is used for water supply and irrigation. Some of the lakes are rich in fish, have reserves of salts and healing mud, and are used for recreation.

Swamps are common on plains in areas of excess moisture and permafrost. In the tundra zone, for example, the swampiness of the territory reaches 50%. Severe swampiness is characteristic of the taiga. The swamps of the forest zone are rich in peat. The best quality peat - low-ash and high-calorie - is produced by raised bogs located on watersheds. Swamps are the source of food for many rivers and lakes. The most swampy region in the world is Western Siberia. Here, swamps occupy almost 3 million km2, and more than 1/4 of the world's peat reserves are concentrated in them.

Big economic importance have underground water. It is an important source of nutrition for rivers, lakes and swamps. The groundwater of the first aquifer from the surface is called groundwater. The processes of soil formation and related development depend on the depth, abundance and quality of groundwater. vegetation cover. When moving from north to south, the depth of groundwater increases, its temperature rises, and mineralization increases.

Groundwater - source clean water. They are much better protected from pollution than surface waters. Increasing the content of a number of chemical elements and compounds in groundwater ah leads to the formation of mineral waters. About 300 springs are known in Russia, 3/4 of which are located in the European part of the country (Mineralnye Vody, Sochi, North Ossetia, Pskov region, Udmurtia, etc.).

Almost 1/4 of Russia's fresh water reserves are located in glaciers, occupying about 60 thousand km 2. These are mainly cover glaciers of the Arctic islands (55.5 thousand km 2, water reserves 16.3 thousand km 3).

Large areas in our country are occupied by permafrost - rock strata containing ice that does not thaw for a long time - about 11 million km2. These are the territories east of the Yenisei, north of the Eastern European plain and the West Siberian Lowland. Maximum thickness of permafrost in the north Central Siberia and in the lowlands of the Yana, Indigirka and Kolyma river basins. Permafrost has a significant impact on economic life. The shallow occurrence of the frozen layer impairs the formation of the root system of plants and reduces the productivity of meadows and forests. The laying of roads and the construction of buildings change the thermal regime of permafrost and can lead to subsidence, sloughing, swelling of soil, distortions of buildings, etc.

The territory of Russia is washed by the waters of 12 seas: 3 seas of the Atlantic Ocean, 6 seas of the Arctic Ocean, 3 seas of the Pacific Ocean.

The Atlantic Ocean approaches the territory of Russia with its inland seas - the Baltic, Black and Azov. They are highly desalinated and quite warm. These are important transport routes from Russia to Western Europe and other parts of the world. A significant part of the coast of these seas is a recreational zone. Fishing value is low.

The seas of the Arctic Ocean seem to “overlap” the Arctic coast of Russia over a vast area - 10 thousand km. They are shallow and covered with ice most of the year (except for the southwestern part of the Barents Sea). The main transport routes pass through the White and Barents Seas. The Northern Sea Route is important.

Oil and gas deposits on the shelf are promising. The Barents Sea is of greatest commercial importance.

The seas of the Pacific Ocean are the largest and deepest of those washing Russia. The southernmost of them - Japanese - is the richest in biological resources and is widely used for international shipping.

Water resources occupy one of the most important places among Russia's natural resources. The main volume of water consists of their centuries-old reserves contained in glaciers, groundwater, lakes and reservoirs, which remain unchanged for many centuries. Large reserves of water are contained in lakes, among which the most notable are unique lake Baikal and Europe's largest Lake Ladoga.

However, the most important source of satisfying various human needs in water resources is not centuries-old reserves, but annually renewable surface fresh waters, and in significantly smaller quantities, underground fresh waters, used primarily for municipal and drinking water supply and partly in industry (food and medical), as well as in agriculture.

The annual renewable river flow of Russia is 4266 km 2 , including local flow (formed on the territory of the country) - 4043 km 2 . Potential groundwater resources in Russia are 318 km 2 /year. Of this, about half (153 km 2 /year) accounts for operational resources. The explored reserves of fresh groundwater amount to 29 km 2 /year, of which more than 20 km 2 /year is prepared for industrial development.

In terms of available freshwater resources, Russia ranks second in the world after Brazil. However, in terms of specific provision per 1 km 2 of territory, Russia ranks only ninth among the ten richest countries in water resources, slightly ahead of Canada, and per person it ranks fourth after Brazil, Norway and Canada. Local river flow in Russia is 237 thousand m 2 /year (or 7.5 l/sec) per 1 km 2 and 27 thousand m 2 /year per inhabitant. But this is an average value, and the bulk of the flow occurs in the Asian part of the country. At the same time, the main economically developed areas of European territory lack water. This problem is especially acute in southern regions, Where river waters are also spent on irrigation (in the Ciscaucasia, Middle and Lower Volga regions). A large water shortage is typical for the Urals, where only the upper reaches of rivers are located, and the need for water is great. Water scarcity served to a large extent as an incentive to create artificial reservoirs for the accumulation and redistribution of runoff over time. In order to redistribute the flow in space, channels are laid.

Redistribution of runoff is also important because surface water are used not only as a source of water resources. Great importance have river hydropower resources. Cascades of hydroelectric power stations were built on the Volga, Kama, Yenisei, and Angara. Currently, over 80 large hydroelectric power stations on Russian rivers generate over 170 billion kWh of electricity per year.

Many rivers and lakes are used for navigation, and rivers for timber rafting. During the years of Soviet power, shipping canals were built in European Russia - the White Sea-Baltic Canal, named after. Moscow, Volga-Donskaya, the Mariinsky water system was reconstructed, called the Volga-Baltic Canal.

Rivers, lakes, artificial reservoirs are used for fish farming and fish farming, for recreational purposes. So the value inland waters large and varied.

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Inland waters and water resources of Russia

Rivers

Russia has significant reserves of fresh water. River waters are most widely used in the national economy. Within Russia there are about 3 million rivers with a total length of almost 10 million km. In terms of total river flow, Russia is in second place in the world after Brazil. The average long-term flow of all rivers is 4290 km 3 per year, which is 13% of the annual flow of all rivers in the world. However, the volume of river water turns out to be not so significant if it is calculated on average per inhabitant of our country. In 1980, in Brazil there were 150 thousand m3 of river flow per person per year, in Finland - 23.9 thousand m3, in the USSR - 17.5 m3, in the USA (without Alaska) - 8 thousand. m3, in Russia - 19 thousand m3 per year.

Significant difficulties in organizing the rational use of river waters are created by their uneven distribution throughout the country. In addition, the flow of most rivers in Russia is very uneven throughout the year; the sustainable annual flow is only 1400 km 3 of water.

Approximately 15% of the total flow of Russian rivers falls on the basin of the Baltic and Black Seas and the Caspian Sea. This is where the bulk of the population is concentrated and where the water needs are greatest. The basin of the Arctic and Pacific oceans, where less than a fifth of the population lives, accounts for 85% of the flow. Consequently, the country has a sharply expressed territorial disproportion between the amount of freshwater resources and their consumption. This causes serious difficulties in a number of densely populated industrialized areas.

The river flow is very uneven and differs not only by season, but also by year. On average, 60% of the annual river flow occurs during floods. These relatively short-term rises in water levels are a necessary condition the existence of a number of natural complexes. Floods replenish the groundwater of floodplains, thereby ensuring fertility and moisture replenishment of floodplain soils, and high productivity of floodplain meadows. Melt waters, rich in oxygen and diverse nutrients, favor the spawning of fish. Floods remove sewage and silt accumulated over the winter from river channels and thereby maintain the purity of the waters and ensure the existence of river organisms. Fluctuations in the water content of Russian rivers are significantly higher than in most countries of the world. It gets in the way rational use hydro resources, is accompanied by great difficulties in the national economy. During high waters and floods great amount water flows away unused. By retaining most of this water, water supply to several areas of the country can be improved. Floods and floods inundate populated areas, tear down bridges, and make it difficult for transport to operate. Fluctuations in the water content of rivers interfere with the normal operation of hydroelectric power stations and the river fleet. To regulate flow on many rivers, hydroelectric complexes and reservoirs are being built or have already been built.

Most of the rivers in Russia belong to the Arctic Ocean basin. It makes up over 66% of the country's area, and up to 80% of atmospheric precipitation falls within its borders. The rivers flowing into the northern seas are the longest and deepest in Russia. The longest river is Lena - 4400 km. The most deep river- Yenisei (623 km 3 per year). In terms of drainage area, the Ob River ranks first in the country (2975 km 2). The rivers of the Arctic Ocean basin are freezing. In winter, a winter road is installed along them for about four months - roads for the movement of cars and sleighs.

The largest rivers of Siberia originate in the south of the country in the Altai, Sayan and Baikal mountains. The rivers of the Arctic Ocean basin are fed by snow and rain. In the spring, due to the melting of snow on the rivers, water rises. The flood begins in the south, and in the north the ice for a long time prevents the flow of melt water to the ocean. Therefore, on all rivers of the Arctic Ocean basin, on average and downstream In spring, high water rises occur. In the southern parts of Siberia the rivers are swift and rapid. On these segments of the valleys, large hydroelectric power stations have been built and are being built: Krasnoyarsk and Sayano-Shushenskaya on the Yenisei, Novosibirskaya on the Ob, Bukhtarminskaya and Ust-Kamenogorskaya on the Irtysh, Irkutsk, Bratsk and Ust-Ilimskaya on the Angara, on the tributaries of the Lena - Vilyue and Vitim - Vilyuiskaya was built and Mamakan hydroelectric station. On northern plains The flow of these rivers is calm and smooth. In summer they are used for timber rafting and shipping, connecting southern and hinterland countries with the Northern Sea Route and the Trans-Siberian Railway.

The rivers of the European part of the Arctic Ocean basin - Pechora, Mezen, Northern Dvina and Onega are much shorter than Siberian rivers. They flow entirely across the plains and therefore have a calm current.

Approximately 19% of the country's area belongs to the Pacific Ocean. The main river of this basin is the Amur and its tributaries Zeya, Bureya and Ussuri. The rivers are predominantly rain-fed. In the monsoon climate in the Pacific Ocean there is little snow in winter, so there are no spring floods, but there are very significant floods due to summer monsoon rains. The water in the Amur and its tributaries rises by 10-15 m and floods vast areas. Catastrophic spills usually occur in early autumn. At this time, the Far Eastern regions of the country are often hit by sudden and violent downpours of cyclones - typhoons. River floods reach several tens of kilometers and cause huge damage agriculture, cities and towns.

The Amur and its tributaries have a large fall and are rich in hydroelectric power. The Zeya hydroelectric power station was built on the Zeya River. The Amur is the main river highway of the Far East, through which the internal remote areas are connected with the seas. Passes along the Argun, Amur and Ussuri rivers state border Russia from People's Republic China.

The rivers of Chukotka and the Sea of Okhotsk basin are predominantly fed by snow. Therefore, they are full of water in late spring and early summer, which is favorable for movement salmon fish, rising up rivers and streams to spawn.

The Caspian basin is called endorheic, since the rivers carry their waters not to the World Ocean, but to an internal endorheic reservoir - the Caspian Sea. The basin covers the interior of the East European Plain, Southern Urals, eastern part of the Caucasus.

The rivers Volga, Ural, Araks, Terek, Emba and others flow into the Caspian Sea. The largest river is the Volga. Its basin occupies 34% of the East European Plain. Most of the Volga's tributaries are located in a temperate continental climate with sufficient moisture. The food is predominantly snowy. In the spring, when the snow melts, there is a significant rise in water in the river. In summer, the main source of nutrition is groundwater and rain. Some rise in water in the riverbed also occurs in the fall, when evaporation decreases significantly. Below the mouth of the large left tributary of the Kama, the Volga flows through steppe and semi-desert zones, where very little precipitation falls and therefore there are no significant tributaries. Below Volgograd, the Volga has no tributaries and is of a transit nature. It only carries water and partially evaporates it. From here the Volga breaks up into branches, the largest of which is Akhtuba. Below Astrakhan, the channel is divided into 80 branches, forming a vast delta. Nowadays, almost the entire Volga has turned into a cascade of dams and reservoirs. On the Upper Volga near Tver there is the Ivankovskoye Reservoir. The channel named after him begins from here. Moscow, through which Volga water is pumped for water supply to Moscow. Below, the entire Volga to Volgograd has turned into a chain of interconnected reservoirs (Uglich, Rybinsk, Gorky, Cheboksary, Kuibyshev, Saratov and Volgograd). They retain a significant portion of water spring flood, which is used to generate electricity, supply water to cities, and irrigate dry lands. Thanks to reservoirs, the movement of large river vessels is possible. Nowadays the river is connected by the Volga-Don shipping canal with the Black and Azov seas, and the Volga-Baltic with the Baltic and White seas. Half of all river cargo and passengers in the country are transported along the Volga. But the reservoirs flooded large areas of fertile floodplain lands. The dams led to a slowdown in the flow of the Volga. As a result, large amounts of pollutants began to accumulate in reservoirs, which come from fields, as well as from industrial and domestic wastewater. Therefore, the river is currently heavily polluted.

The Atlantic Ocean basin occupies smallest area- about 5% of the entire territory of Russia. The rivers flow west into the Baltic Sea and south into the Black and Azov Seas. They flow to the west Western Dvina, Neman, Neva, etc. To the south - Dnieper, Don and Kuban. All rivers of the Atlantic Ocean basin are deep all year round, since most of their watersheds are located in areas of sufficient moisture. They feed primarily on snow, and in summer - underground and rain. For rivers flowing into the Baltic Sea, flow fluctuations are very small, since precipitation falls evenly throughout the year. Only small spring floods and autumn floods are observed. The Neva River occupies a special place. This short river(74 km long) carries a huge amount of water - 79.7 km 3 per year, four times more than the Dnieper, which has a length of over 2 thousand km. The Neva originates in Lake Ladoga and therefore its flow is constant throughout the year.

But almost every year it floods part of St. Petersburg with its waters. Floods are caused by surges of water from the Baltic Sea, which dam the Neva. As a result, the water in the river rises by 2 - 3.5 m and splashes out from the granite embankments onto the streets and squares of the city.

The rivers of the southern Atlantic basin receive water in their branched upper reaches. In the lower sections they are of a transit nature, since here the rivers cross the steppe zone with an arid climate. The Dnieper and Don are fed predominantly by snow, which is why they experience high spring floods. On southern rivers a cascade of waterworks and reservoirs was built. The reservoirs are used both to generate electricity and to irrigate the arid lands of the southern East European Plain. In the Azov region and the Northern Caucasus, thanks to the waters of the Don and Kuban, rice and other agricultural crops are grown. On very wet and excessive wet areas, and mountain areas accounts for 85% of the annual runoff volume. The flow of dry and semi-dry zones, which occupy an area of 10% of the Russian territory, is less than 2% of the total annual river flow (Tables 1, 2).

Table 1 - Water content of Russian rivers

	Annual flow	Length, km	Catchment area, thousand km 2
		thousand m 3 /s








Northern Dvina


Amu Darya

Indigirka



Kamchatka






Western Dvina

Table 2 - Main characteristics of the hydrochemical runoff of some rivers in Russia

	Basin area, thousand km 2	Dissolved substances flow, million tons. in a year	Average annual mineralization, mg/l

Northern Dvina




Indigirka

Hydrochemical regime of rivers

The chemical composition of Russian river waters depends on a complex of physical and geographical conditions, including special meaning have climatic conditions, composition soil cover and geological rocks composing the basin, conditions of underground feeding of rivers, as well as human economic activity (quantity and quality of emissions).

A characteristic feature of the hydrochemical regime (composition) of river waters in lowland regions of Russia is the presence of latitudinal zoning, the essence of which is that the degree of mineralization of river waters in lowland basins increases from north to south. From the tundra zone to the semi-desert and desert zones in the Caspian region. The class of river water changes from hydrocarbonate (HCO 3) to sulfate (SO 4) and then to chloride (Cl). From north to south, the hardness of river waters increases and the content of organic matter decreases.

Russian rivers flowing in the northern parts are characterized by low water mineralization, which is due to the presence of well-washed soils (poor in salts) and the spread of permafrost. In the southern parts, the salt content in the soil increases, precipitation waters dissolve them and carry them into rivers, thereby increasing the mineralization of water masses. Significant evaporation in arid climates also contributes to an increase in the mineralization of river waters.

The waters of the vast majority of Russian rivers belong to the hydrocarbonate class (91% of the territory). Rivers of the chloride class are found much less frequently: in the Caspian semi-deserts, steppes Western Siberia. These are mainly temporary drains. Their basins occupy about 6% of the territory of the arid parts.

River waters of the sulfate class are also found in the arid steppes of the Azov region, North Caucasus. In addition, azonal river waters of the sulfate class, determined by the hydrological structure, are found in the basins of the Onega, Kama, Belaya, Biryusa, and Upper Kolyma rivers. River basins of the sulfate class occupy only 3% of the territory of Russia. 96% of rivers in Russia belong to the hydrocarbonate class (HCO 3); 3% of rivers belong to the sulfate class (SO 4); 1% of rivers belong to the chloride class (Cl).

Turbidity of river waters

Solid particles carried by water enter rivers as a result of soil being washed away from the surface drainage basin, as well as as a result of erosive activity of the flow in the river bed. The amount of sediment contained in a unit volume of water determines its turbidity, which is expressed in g/m3.

The turbidity of rivers varies widely throughout the year, with the highest turbidity of rivers in the lowland parts observed during spring floods with intense soil washout from the slopes river catchments, and the smallest - in winter, when the upper soil horizons are frozen and the surface of the catchment area is covered with snow. Then the rivers are fed mainly by groundwater. On mountain rivers flowing from glaciers, the greatest turbidity is observed during the period of melting of glaciers and snow in the mountains. During intense rainfall, mountain rivers often turn into mudflows carrying large amounts of debris of varying sizes. On rivers regulated by lakes, water turbidity is low, as sediment is deposited in settling ponds. The amount of suspended sediment runoff in some Russian rivers is given in Table. 3.

Table 3 - Suspended sediment flow of some Russian rivers

Reservoirs of Russia

Every year more and more artificial lakes and reservoirs are created. The country has over 1.2 thousand reservoirs with a volume of about 1 million m3. Currently, according to incomplete data, there are over 1200 reservoirs in Russia (Tables 4, 5). Table 4 (Avakyan A.B. et al. Reservoirs. M.: Mysl, 1987) only certified and large reservoirs are taken into account; many small and small reservoirs are not taken into account, due to incomplete certification, especially in the Tatar, Udmurt, Karelian and Dagestan republics, Krasnodar, Stavropol and Altai territories, Voronezh, Smolensk, Novgorod and Ulyanovsk regions. Completion of certification will make it possible to clarify their total number, volumes and purpose. Large-scale hydraulic engineering construction in the USSR, including the construction of reservoirs, is due to the fact that rivers in their natural state can no longer satisfy increased economic and social needs. The creation of reservoirs in the most developed part of the country (southern, central, northwestern regions of the European part of Russia, the Urals, North Caucasus) is due to the fact that these areas account for a small part of water resources, as well as the unevenness of river flow between seasons and between individual years . The most developed economic regions of the country, occupying about a third of Russia's territory, account for only about 10% of water resources (Table 1). In many regions of Russia, more than half of the annual runoff occurs in 2–3 spring months, and the runoff of dry years is significantly less than the long-term average values. Reservoirs have long been used for both narrow-industry and inter-industry purposes. The main types of use are hydropower, thermal power, irrigation and water supply, water supply, fish farming, as well as recreational use. Most reservoirs on lowland rivers (Volga, Kama, Don, etc.) are also of great water transport importance. And some reservoirs in the Far East and North Caucasus are used to combat floods. As of January 1, 1979, there were 385 hydroelectric power stations operating in the USSR. They generated more than 170 billion kWh of very cheap and environmentally friendly hydroelectric power, which accounted for about 13% of its total production. About 100 reservoirs provide water to thermal and nuclear power plants. In the USSR, more than 18 million hectares of dry lands were irrigated and watered by reservoirs. But the potential of many reservoirs has not yet been fully utilized. In the 1980s in the USSR, the total length of internal waterways amounted to over 145 thousand km, including 12 thousand km in reservoirs. The creation of reservoirs made it possible to radically improve the waterways of the main river systems countries (Volga, Don, Kama, Dnieper, Irtysh, Ob, Yenisei, Angara, etc.). The construction of reservoirs made it possible to form a unified deep-water system of waterways in the European territory of the country and improve navigation conditions on large sections of rivers, as well as below the regulating reservoirs. Due to the construction of reservoirs, especially in Karelia and the Urals, conditions for timber rafting have improved. The created reservoirs made it possible to improve the quality of municipal and industrial water supply big cities and urban agglomerations (Moscow, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Tagil, etc.), large industrial centers. The parameters of the country's reservoirs vary widely: the total volume is from 1 to 169 million m 3. The area of the water surface ranges from 0.2 - 0.5 to 5900 km 2 (and taking into account dammed lakes - up to 32966 km 2). Length, width, maximum and average depths differ significantly. The maximum length of large plain and plateau reservoirs reaches 400 - 565 km, mountain reservoirs 100 - 110 km, and the width - up to several tens of kilometers. The deepest reservoirs from 200 - 300 m are located in the valleys of large mountain rivers (Ingursky, Chirkeysky, Sayanskoye) to 70 - 105 m - in plateau and foothill areas (Bratskoye, Ust-Ilimskoye, Krasnoyarsk, Boguchanskoye, Bukhtarminskoye, etc.). In large lowland reservoirs, depths do not exceed 20 - 30 m. Special category form lakes-reservoirs, which are most numerous in the north-west (Karelia, Murmansk, Vologda, Novgorod regions), regulated estuaries in the deltas of the Volga, Terek and Kuban. In most lakes, water levels are raised slightly, by 0.5 - 2 m, but there are lakes whose sizes have changed sharply due to backwater by 3 - 10 m (Vygozero, Kovdozero, Zaisan, etc.).

Table 4 - Reservoirs of Russia

	Number of reservoirs	Volume of reservoirs, km 3	Surface area of reservoirs, thousand km 2
Northern and Northwestern
Central and Central Black Earth
Volgo-Vyatsky
Povolzhsky
North Caucasian
Ural
West Siberian
East Siberian
Far Eastern
Total

Table 5 - The largest reservoirs in Russia

Reservoir		Reservoir surface area, km 2	Reservoir volume, km 3
Karelia and the Kola Peninsula
Kumskoe (including Pya-lake)	Kuma (Kovda)
Vygozero (including Vygozero)
Segozerskoe
Verkhne-Tulomskoe
Knyazhe-Gubskoe
	Iova (Kovda)
Nizhne-Tulomskoe
Palyeozerskoe

Lesogorskoe
Svetogorskoe
Verkhne-Svirskoye (including Lake Onega)
North-Western region
Nizhne-Svirskoye
Central part of the Russian Plain
Tsimlyanskoye
Egorlykskoe
Samara
Rybinskoe
Volgogradskoe
Saratovskoe
Nizhne-Novgorod (Gorkovskoe)
Ivankovskoe
Uglichskoe

Votkinskoe
Pavlovskoe
Shirokovskoe
North Caucasus
Novotroitskoe	Bolshoy Yegorlyk
Veselovskoe	Western Manych
Proletarskoe	Western Manych
Chograyskoe	Eastern Manych
Krasnodarskoe
Western Siberia
Novosibirsk
Bukhtarminskoye (including Lake Zaisan)
Ust-Kamenogorskoe
Eastern Siberia
Krasnoyarsk
Irkutsk
Bratskoe
Sayano-Shushenskoye
Vilyuiskoe
Far East

Lakes

Significant water reserves are concentrated in lakes. There are over 2.5 million lakes in Russia (Table 6). The largest lakes are the Caspian, Ladoga, Onega, and Baikal. The Caspian Sea is the largest lake in the world by area, and the deepest is Lake Baikal. The lakes are distributed very unevenly. There are especially many of them in the Vilyui depression, on West Siberian Plain and in the north-west of the European Plain - in Karelia. All these areas are in conditions of excessive moisture. To the south, in the zone of steppes and semi-deserts with their arid climate, the number of lakes decreases sharply, and many lakes have salty or brackish water. Such large drainless lakes as the Caspian Sea, as well as lakes Elton and Baskunchak, where table salt is mined, are salty.

Table 6 - Hydrographic characteristics large lakes Russia

	Altitude above sea level, m	Water surface area, km 2	Maximum depth, m	Water volume, km 3
Caspian Sea)

Ladoga
Onega


Chudsko-Pskovskoe

Vygozero

Topozero

Teletskoye

Lakes also differ in the origin of their basins. Lakes of tectonic origin are located in depressions and depressions of the earth's crust. The largest tectonic Lake Baikal is located in a graben and therefore reaches a depth of 1637 m.

Glacial-tectonic lake basins arose as a result of glacier processing of tectonic depressions of the earth's crust: Imandra, Ladoga, Onega. In Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands, lakes are mainly of volcanic origin. In the north-west of the European Plain, the origin of lake basins is associated with continental glaciations. Many basins are located between moraine hills: Seliger, Valdai.

As a result of collapses in mountain valleys dammed lakes arose: Sarez in the Pamirs, Ritsa in the Caucasus. Small lakes appear above karst sinkholes. In the south of Western Siberia there are many saucer-shaped lakes that arose as a result of subsidence of loose rocks. When ice melts in permafrost areas, saucer-shaped shallow lakes also form. Oxbow lakes are located on the floodplains of lowland rivers. Along the banks of the Black and Azov seas there are estuary lakes.

All large and largest lakes in Russia are widely used in the national economy. They catch and raise fish there. Especially a lot of fish, including the most valuable sturgeon, are caught in the Caspian Sea. There is an omul fishery in Baikal. The lakes are also used for shipping. A variety of minerals are mined in the basins of the lakes: oil and mirabilite in the Caspian Sea, table salt in Elton and Baskunchak. Freshwater lake water is used for drinking purposes. Along the shores of many lakes there are numerous sanatoriums and holiday homes. Nine lake districts have been identified on the territory of Russia:

1) Northwestern lake region, lakes of glacial origin;

2) Azov-Black Sea - estuaries associated with sea activities;

2 a) North Caucasus - glacial and karst lakes;

3) Caspian - lakes with the formation of self-sedimented salt;

4) West Siberian - suffusion and bitter-salted lakes;

5) Altai - moraine type lakes (Teletskoye, Markakol);

6) Transbaikal - remnant lakes;

7) Nizhneamursky - lakes of fault depressions that have a hydrological connection with the Amur River;

8) Yakutsk - lakes of thermokarst origin;

9) Kamchatka lake region - lakes of volcanic origin (Kronotskoye, Kurilskoye).

Waterways of Russia

Rivers and lakes have been used for transport purposes since ancient times. The Volkhov River was part of the waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks” (XI - XII centuries). The first artificial system in Russia connecting the Baltic Sea with the Volga is the Vyshnevolotsk water system. The Neva and Svir rivers have long been used for navigation. To connect the Baltic Sea basin with the Volga basin, three artificial water systems were built: Vyshnevolotskaya, Tikhvinskaya and Marininskaya.

The Vyshnevolotsk water system is the oldest artificial waterway in Russia, which connected St. Petersburg with the Volga basin - a supplier of raw materials and food for the Russian capital. The water system was built in 1703-1709. The system includes: a tributary of the Volga - the Tvertsa river, the Vyshnevolotsky watershed canal, the river. Tsna, lake Mstino, r. Msta, Siversov and Vishera canals (bypassing Lake Ilmen), the Volkhov river, the Ladoga bypass canal and the river. Neva.

The project for the reconstruction of the Vyshnevolotsk waterway, carried out in 1719-1722, was carried out by self-taught hydraulic engineer Mikhail Serdyukov and included eliminating the low water supply of the Tvertsa and Tsna rivers by constructing a reservoir on the watershed. Subsequently, the navigation conditions of the Tvertsa River were improved; on the river. Msta rapids were cleared, the Siversov bypass canal was built from the Msta River to the Volkhov River (bypassing Lake Ilmen).

The Tikhvin water system was built in 1811. The system begins at Rybinsk Reservoir, passes along the rivers Mologa, Chagoditsa and its tributary Sominka, Syasi, along the Ladoga bypass canal and the river. Neve. The Tikhvin system currently does not have much transit significance due to the shallow depths of the rivers. Used only for the passage of small-tonnage vessels.

The Marininskaya water system was built in 1801. The construction of this route was caused by Russia's access to the Baltic Sea in early XVIII century. The waterway included free and locked rivers and lakes, as well as a connecting canal: Sheksnu river, Belozersky canal, Vytegra river, Onega canal, Svir river, Ladoga canal, river. Neva. The waterway had a large number of locks (39) and was only suitable for shallow draft vessels. The Marininskaya water system will exist for more than a century and a half. But over time, it could not meet the needs of the national economy. Therefore, in 1959-1964. A complete reconstruction of the former Marininskaya system was carried out and a new deep-water Volga-Baltic Mainline was created. The length of the Volgo-Balta highway (from Cherepovets to Vychegda) is 361 km. The Kuloy-Pinega Canal was built in 1928; it connected the Kuloy River with the Pinega River. The length of the canal is 6.5 km. The canal is located in a low and marshy area and consists of deepened lakes connected to each other by this canal. The reconstructed deep-sea route allows for non-transshipment transportation of goods between the ports of five seas - the White, Baltic, Caspian, Black and Azov. Three artificial waterways connect the Baltic with the Black Sea: Berezinsky, Dnieper-Nemansky and Dnieper-Bugsky. The Berezina water system connects the Western Dvina with the Dnieper tributary Berezina. Work on the construction of a connecting canal began in 1767, and the path was opened in 1805. It consists of r. Berezina, Serguchsky canal, Sergut river, lake. Smoothly, watershed canal, lake. Berezhta, Berezhta river, Vereisky canal, Essa, Ulla, Western Dvina rivers. Currently the water system has local significance and is not suitable for through shipping. The Dnieper-Neman waterway was built in 1770-1784. and was rebuilt many times. Part water system includes: the Pripyat river, the Yaselda river (a tributary of the Pripyat), the Oginsky Canal, the Shara river, the Neman river. Currently, the water system is also of local importance. The Dnieper-Bugsky waterway runs along the river. Pripyat, r. Pine (tributary of the Pripyat), Dnieper-Bug Canal, river. Mukhavets (tributary of the Western Bug), river to the Western Bug. Work on the construction of the Dnieper-Bug Canal began in 1775, but was suspended after some time. The main work on its construction was carried out in 1846-1848. The movement of vessels was carried out during the spring flood. During the Great Patriotic War the canal was destroyed. The restoration and reconstruction of the locks was completed during 1945-1946. 10 new locks built bigger size instead of the old 22. But even now the canal is not suitable for the passage of large-capacity vessels.

In the central and southern regions of Russia, rivers have long been used for transport purposes. River routes played a significant role in the expansion and strengthening of the Russian state. They contributed to the transformation of Russia into a great world power. The first steamships appeared on the Volga in 1817, and on the Dnieper in 1823. To increase the efficiency of using waterways for transport purposes, it was planned to connect individual river systems into a single water transport system of the European territory. The construction of such a deep-water transport system is based on the Volga-Kama Mainline, its connection with the Volga-Baltic and Volga-Don artificial waterways, as well as the canal named after. Moscow and the Dnieper Mainline. The total length of this entire system is about 11.5 thousand km. The length of the Volga-Kama alone is 5,900 thousand km, the Dnieper - with connecting canals - 1,600 km. The most important link in the unified water transport system is the Volga-Kama-Don basins, connecting the southern Black, Azov and Caspian seas with the northern White and Baltic. The main transport water artery is the great Russian river Volga, on which nine large waterworks with shipping locks have been built. In 1931-1932 (in 20 months) the White Sea-Baltic Canal was built, connecting the White and Baltic seas. It is of great economic importance, as it has significantly reduced the distance between the ports of the White Sea with the network of waterways of the Volga basin through Lake Onega and the Volga-Baltic waterway. The waterway includes the river. Neva, Lake Ladoga, Svir River, Lake Onega to Belomorsk on the White Sea. Along the entire route, 128 hydraulic structures were built: 19 locks, 15 dams, 12 spillways, 49 dams, etc. In the south of the northwestern lake region there is the Saimaa Canal, connecting Lake Saimaa (Finland) with Baltic Sea. It was built in 1845-1856. Along southern shores Ladozhsky and Onega lakes Bypass canals were built to bypass large water surfaces, where strong waves are often observed, making navigation on these lakes difficult. The length of the White Sea-Baltic Canal is 327 km.

Volga-Severodvinsk waterway. This waterway was built in 1828 to connect the Northern Dvina with the Volga. The composition of the compound includes r. Sukhona, lake Kubenskoye, r. Parozovitsa, then the system passes through a number of small lakes, rivers and canals - the watershed pool - to the Sheksna River. The length of the water system is 135 km. 8 dams, 7 locks were built on it, the depth of the channel is more than 2 m. Canal named after. Moscow, opened in July 1937, is one of the world's largest hydraulic structures. The canal begins at Ivankovo, where a reservoir was created on the Volga (Moscow Sea). From here, a 128 km long canal passes through the hilly Klinsko-Dmitrovskaya ridge (to the towns of Dmitrov and Yakhroma), runs along the valley of the Chernaya river, crosses the river. I teach, descends into the river valley. Klyazma and, cutting through the watershed of the Klyazma and Khimki rivers, enters the Moscow River. In addition to Ivankovskoye, several smaller reservoirs were built: Ikshinskoye, Uchinskoye, Khimkinskoye, Klyazmenskoye, etc. The backwater from the Ivankovskoye reservoir extends from the city of Tver to a distance of about 120 km. 200 structures were built on the canal, including the largest locks, dams, hydroelectric power stations, powerful pumping stations, bridges, the Khimki river station, etc. Construction of the canal named after. Moscow solved the problem of supplying Moscow with Volga water and watering the river. Moscow. Channel named after Moscow significantly reduced the length of the waterway from St. Petersburg to Moscow.

Volga-Don Shipping Canal named after. IN AND. Lenin is a complex of hydraulic structures consisting of the Volga-Don shipping canal and the Tsimlyansk reservoir and hydroelectric complex. The total length of the Volga-Don waterway from Rostov-on-Don to Volgograd is 540 km, of which 101 km is the length of the Volga-Don Canal. With the opening of traffic along the canal, which connected two large river basins, Moscow became a port of five seas. The canal route begins in the Sarepta backwater near the city of Krasnoarmeysk on the Volga and ends at the city of Kalach on the Don. Three dams and 13 locks were built along the canal route, 9 of them on the Volga slope, along which ships rise to the watershed to a height of 88 m and above the water level in the Volga, and 4 on the Don slope - here ships descend 44 m to the Don.

The Seversky Donets - Donbass Canal was opened for operation in 1957. Its length is 125 km, with a throughput capacity of about 2 million m 3 of water per day. With the construction of the canal, the problem of water supply to large industrial cities of Donbass was solved: Donetsk, Makeevka, Enakievo, Gorlovka, Artemovsk, etc., as well as irrigation of a significant part of the land for growing vegetables and developing livestock. In addition, the watering of some Donbass rivers has been improved. To prevent the Seversky Donets from becoming shallow, the Krasno-Oskol reservoir with a volume of more than 0.5 million km 3 was built on its left-bank tributary Oskol.

In the North Caucasus, the total number of rivers reaches 23,518 with a total length of 88,651 km. Total lakes, reservoirs, estuaries reaches 2715, with an area of 3073 km 2, which is 1.3% of the territory. They are of very great economic importance. In the arid regions of the Ciscaucasia, Stavropol Upland and Caspian region, river and lake waters are used for irrigation large areas valuable agricultural crops: grains, vegetables, rice, medicinal plants, tobacco, tea. High-water rivers The Kuban and Terek with their tributaries have large reserves of hydraulic energy; the lower sections of large rivers are used for water transport. In the North Caucasus, the following watering and irrigation systems were put into operation: Kuban-Egorlynskaya, Kuban-Kalausskaya, Malo-Kabardinskaya, Samur-Divichenskaya and Samur-Derbentskaya, Terek-Kumskaya and other irrigation systems, which made it possible to irrigate more than 10 million hectares of arid lands and more 12 million hectares of pastures. In 1948, the Nevinnomyssky Canal was built, as well as large reservoirs on the rivers: Western and Eastern Manych (Proletarskoye, Varvarovskoye, Veselovskoye), Kuban and its tributaries (Krasnodarskoye), Terek and its tributaries, Sulak and Samur. More than 120 rural hydroelectric power stations have been built on the rivers of the North Caucasus. Among them: Nevinnomysskaya, Baksanskaya, Gizel-Donskaya, Gergebilskaya, Chir-Yurtovskaya, Chirkeyskaya, Bekanskaya and others. In 1960, the construction of the Tersko-Kuma Canal was completed. The length of the Canal is 150 km, the throughput is about 100 m 3 /s. In addition, in the Terek basin great development The construction of reclamation and irrigation systems and canals was achieved: the Tsalyksky watering, Digorsky, the Terek canal system, Mamek-Kabardinsky, etc. In the Samur river basin, the Samur-Divichensky and Samur-Derbent canals were built, which made it possible to irrigate 75 thousand hectares of arid lands.

The economic importance of the rivers of the Urals and the Urals is great and varied, although their role in shipping and energy is not so great. The hydropower reserves of the Ural rivers are below the national average. The average annual power of the Ural rivers is about 3.5 million kW. The Kama basin is the richest in gyroenergy. A number of large hydroelectric power plants have been built here. Among them are the Kama and Votkinsk hydroelectric power stations. The largest reservoir of the Kamskaya hydroelectric station stretches for 220 km. A hydroelectric power station of significant capacity was built on the Ufa River. Despite the abundance of rivers in the Urals, only a few of them are suitable for navigation. These are, first of all: Kama, Belaya, Ufa and Vishera. In the Trans-Urals, ships sail along the Tobol, Tavda, and in high waters - along Sosva, Lozva and Tura. For shallow-draft vessels, the Urals below Orenburg are also navigable.

To improve water supply, ponds and reservoirs have long been built on the rivers of the Urals. These are the Verkhne-Isetsky and City ponds in Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Tagil and others. Reservoirs have also been created: Volchikhinskoye on Chusovaya, Magnitogorskoye and Iriklinskoye in the Urals.

The river network of Western Siberia is of very great transport importance. The total length of shipping routes reaches 42 thousand km. In 1956 on the river. On the Ob River, a large hydroelectric power station was built 25 km above the city of Novosibirsk. A reservoir has been created with a capacity of 8.8 km 3 . Total number There are 2100 rivers in Western Siberia, with a total length of 250 thousand km. For navigation, 63 rivers are used with a total length of the navigable part of 42 thousand km. On the river Large hydroelectric power stations Bukhtarminskaya and Ust-Kamenogorskaya were built in the Irtysh River, providing electricity to industry and agriculture in Altai. Large reservoirs were also built, the giant Irtysh-Karaganda canal, 500 km long, with a water flow of 75 m 3 /s. Irtysh water is raised by pumping stations to a height of 475 m.

The particularly large river systems of the Yenisei and Lena are distinguished by the largest reserves of hydroelectric power and the length of water mains. It is no coincidence that the largest hydroelectric power stations in the world were built here. Among them is a cascade on the Angara: Irkutsk (660 thousand kW), Ust-Ilimsk (4.5 million kW), Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric power station (6.1 million kW), Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station, on the river. Vilyui - Vilyuiskaya HPP and Mamakanskaya HPP in the river basin. Lena. Lena's hydropower resources are 30 - 40 million kW.

TO critical issues The use of water bodies in the Far East includes problems of flood control. These are primarily catastrophic floods caused by prolonged summer monsoon rains. So, on the river The Zee in 1953 was marked by a catastrophic flood, when the water level rose by 9 m, and the river at the mouth overflowed 60 km. At the same time, the width of the Amur in the Khabarovsk region reached 100 km, although the water level increased by only 2-3 m. In order to prevent such catastrophic floods on the river. A reservoir was built in Zeya and the Zeya hydroelectric power station was built.

The rivers of the Far East, in particular the Amur and its tributaries, have enormous reserves of hydroelectric power, ranking fifth in Russia after the Ob, Yenisei, Angara and Lena.

In Kamchatka, the most significant energy resources are located in the following rivers: Kronotskaya and Kamchatka. In addition, the Kamchatka Territory is also rich in thermal hydropower resources. Thus, on the basis of the Pauzhetsky hot springs, the first stage of the Pauzhetskaya hydrothermal power plant was built, with a capacity of 5400 kW. The construction of an even more powerful hydrothermal power plant based on these hot springs has been planned. The total installed capacity of hydroelectric power stations in the river basin. The Amur with its tributaries Zeya and Bureya reaches 12 million kW. There is an urgent need to build new waterways to improve navigation in the Amur basin. The river systems of the Far East play extremely important role in the development of fisheries, being spawning grounds for valuable salmon fish.

Literature

1. Galai I.P., Meleshko E.N., Sidor S.N. A manual on geography for those entering universities. Minsk: Higher School, 1988. 488 p.

2. Sukhov V.P. Physical Geography of the USSR: Textbook for 8th grade high school. M.: Education, 1991. 272 p.

Educational project in geography on the topic "inland waters and water resources of Russia." Methodological development in geography on the topic: Methodological development of the section of the program “Inland waters and water resources”

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