Types of earth's climates and their characteristics. Climate general information
A very important event was the nationalization of banks by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of December 14, 1917. Banks are the main system-forming element of capitalism (a market economy is a special structure in which money, land and labor are converted into goods).
The abolition of the “sale of money” is a fundamental condition for the socialization of the economy on a national scale. Therefore, the question of nationalizing banks was raised starting from Lenin’s April Theses and was included in the documents of the VI Party Congress in August 1917.
In Russia, the position of banks was special; they were controlled by foreign financial capital. There were 8 large private banks in Russia, of which only one (Volzhsko-Vyatsky) could be considered Russian, but it was blocked by the “seven” and its capital grew slowly. Foreigners owned 34% of the banks' share capital. Therefore, their nationalization was an act of the state’s foreign policy. Through banks, foreign capital established control over Russian industry, therefore, by affecting the banks, the Soviet government began a huge process of changing property relations, for which it was not ready at that moment.
During the war, private banks in Russia sharply grew rich and strengthened (with a strong weakening of the State Bank - the gold backing of its credit notes fell 10.5 times during the war years). In 1917, banks began speculating in food, buying and renting warehouses and driving up prices. Thus they became a great political force.
In 1917, the reason for the nationalization of banks had nothing to do with theory; it was purely political and even opportunistic. Banks declared a financial boycott of Soviet power and stopped issuing money to pay salaries (government officials were given salaries 3 months in advance in order to boycott the new government). After three weeks of sabotage and fruitless negotiations, on November 14, armed forces occupied all the main private banks in the capital. A decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee declared a banking monopoly, and private banks merged with the State (from now on People's) Bank. Bank employees went on strike and only in mid-January did banks resume work, already in the People's Bank system. Large deposits were confiscated. All external and internal loans entered into by both the Tsarist and Provisional Governments were cancelled. During the war years, external loans alone amounted to 6 billion rubles. (to understand the magnitude of this amount, let’s say that in the best years, Russia’s entire grain exports amounted to about 0.5 billion rubles per year). On December 2, 1918, all foreign banks on the territory of the RSFSR were belatedly liquidated.
In April 1918, when hopes arose for the possibility of a soft transition stage (“state capitalism”), negotiations were started with bankers on the denationalization of banks, but this project was not implemented.
Worker control.
Workers' control began to emerge spontaneously in many enterprises immediately after the February Revolution. Immediately after October, already at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, it was stated that the Soviet government would establish workers' control over production everywhere. On November 14, 1917, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee approved the “Regulations on Workers’ Control” (10). Workers' control was introduced over production, purchase and sale of products and raw materials, their storage, as well as over the finances of the enterprise. The workers exercised control through their elected bodies: factory committees, councils of elders, etc., and they were supposed to include representatives from employees and engineers. In every large city and province, the creation of a local Council of Workers' Control was prescribed. Until the convening of the Congress of Workers' Control Councils in Petrograd, the All-Russian Workers' Control Council was created. In its structure, the entire system of workers' control bodies repeated the system of the Soviets.
Owners were required to present all documentation to workers' control bodies. Those guilty of concealing documentation were held accountable in court. The decisions of the bodies of workers' control were binding on the owners and could only be overturned by a resolution of the highest bodies of workers' control.
In reality, the main tasks of workers' control were to suppress attempts by enterprise owners to curtail production, sell the enterprise, transfer money abroad, and evade compliance with new labor legislation. Entrepreneurs, together with workers' control, were now responsible for “the strictest order, discipline and protection of property” (that is, it was also about control over the anarchic sentiments of some of the workers). By participating in the work of workers' control, workers became involved in production management.
In fact, the decree on workers' control was behind the times; the process proceeded spontaneously, differently at different enterprises (there were cases when workers, having kicked out entrepreneurs and unable to cope with management, asked them to come back). The very idea of workers' control at a separate enterprise corresponded more to the principles of syndicalism than of socialism, which presupposed the planned organization of production in society as a whole.
Although the decree did not have a noticeable impact on real life, it was later widely used to justify acts of nationalization of enterprises (“due to refusal to submit to workers’ control”).
A very important event was the nationalization of banks by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of December 14, 1917. Banks are the main system-forming element of capitalism (a market economy is a special structure in which money, land and labor are converted into goods). The abolition of the “sale of money” is a fundamental condition for the socialization of the economy on a national scale. Therefore, the question of nationalizing banks was raised starting from Lenin’s April Theses and was included in the documents of the VI Party Congress in August 1917.
In Russia, the position of banks was special; they were controlled by foreign financial capital. There were 8 large private banks in Russia, of which only one (Volzhsko-Vyatsky) could be considered Russian, but it was blocked by the “seven”, and its capital grew slowly. Foreigners owned 34% of the banks' share capital. Therefore, their nationalization was an act and external state policy. Through banks, foreign capital established control over Russian industry, therefore, by affecting the banks, the Soviet government began a huge process of changing property relations, for which it was not ready at that moment.
During the war, private banks in Russia sharply grew rich and strengthened (with a strong weakening of the State Bank - the gold backing of its credit notes fell 10.5 times during the war years). In 1917, banks began speculating in food, buying and renting warehouses and driving up prices. Thus they became a great political force.
In 1917, the reason for the nationalization of banks had nothing to do with theory; it was purely political and even opportunistic. Banks declared a financial boycott of the Soviet government and stopped issuing money to pay salaries (government officials were given salaries 3 months in advance so that they could boycott the new government). In addition, by unspoken agreement with the factory owners, banks stopped issuing money to those factories where workers' control was established.
After three weeks of sabotage and fruitless negotiations, on November 14, armed forces occupied all the main private banks in the capital. A decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee declared a banking monopoly, and private banks merged with the State (from now on People's) Bank. Bank employees went on strike, and only in mid-January did banks resume work, already in the People's Bank system. Since there were no workers among the bank employees, there could be no question of workers' control; reconciliation with the 50 thousand employees was required.
Large deposits were confiscated. All external and internal loans entered into by both the Tsarist and Provisional Governments were cancelled. During the war years, external loans alone amounted to 6 billion rubles. (to understand the magnitude of this amount, let’s say that in the best years, Russia’s entire grain exports amounted to about 0.5 billion rubles per year).
The Moscow People's Bank was not subject to nationalization for the longest time (until December 2, 1918). The reason was that it was the central bank of the cooperators and the government wanted to avoid conflict with them and its peasant depositors. The branches of this bank were transformed into cooperative branches of the National Bank. On December 2, 1918, all foreign banks on the territory of the RSFSR were belatedly liquidated. In April 1918, when hopes arose for the possibility of a soft transition stage (“state capitalism”), negotiations were started with bankers on the denationalization of banks, but this project was never implemented.
The climate within the Earth's surface varies zonally. The most modern classification, which explains the reasons for the formation of one or another type of climate, was developed by B.P. Alisov. It is based on the types of air masses and their movement.
Air masses– these are significant volumes of air with certain properties, the main ones being temperature and moisture content. The properties of air masses are determined by the properties of the surface over which they form. Air masses form the troposphere like the lithospheric plates that make up the earth's crust.
Depending on the area of formation, there are four main types of air masses: equatorial, tropical, temperate (polar) and arctic (Antarctic). In addition to the area of formation, the nature of the surface (land or sea) over which the air accumulates also matters. In accordance with this, the main zonal types of air masses are divided into marine and continental.
Arctic air masses are formed in high latitudes, above the icy surface of the polar countries. Arctic air is characterized by low temperatures and low moisture content.
Moderate air masses clearly divided into marine and continental. Continental temperate air is characterized by low moisture content, high summer and low winter temperatures. Maritime temperate air forms over the oceans. It is cool in summer, moderately cold in winter and constantly humid.
Continental tropical air forms over tropical deserts. It's hot and dry. Sea air is characterized by lower temperatures and significantly higher humidity.
equatorial air, forming in the zone at the equator both over the sea and over land, it has high temperature and humidity.
Air masses constantly move after the sun: in June - to the north, in January - to the south. As a result, territories are formed on the surface of the earth where one type of air mass dominates throughout the year and where air masses replace each other according to the seasons of the year.
The main feature of the climate zone is the dominance of certain types of air masses. are divided into basic (one zonal type of air mass dominates throughout the year) and transitional
(air masses change each other seasonally). The main climatic zones are designated in accordance with the names of the main zonal types of air masses. In transition zones, the prefix “sub” is added to the name of the air masses. Main climatic zones: equatorial, tropical, temperate, arctic (Antarctic); transitional:
All climatic zones except the equatorial one are paired, that is, they exist in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
In the equatorial climate zone Equatorial air masses dominate all year round and low pressure prevails. It is humid and hot throughout the year. Seasons of the year are not expressed.
Tropical air masses (hot and dry) dominate throughout the year tropical zones. Due to the downward movement of air that predominates throughout the year, very little precipitation falls. Summer temperatures here are higher than in the equatorial zone. The winds are trade winds.
For temperate zones characterized by the dominance of moderate air masses throughout the year. Western air transport predominates. Temperatures are positive in summer and negative in winter. Due to the predominance of low pressure, a lot of precipitation falls, especially on the ocean coasts. In winter, precipitation falls in solid form (snow, hail).
In the Arctic (Antarctic) belt Cold and dry arctic air masses dominate all year round. Characterized by downward air movement, north- and south-easterly winds, the predominance of negative temperatures throughout the year, and constant snow cover.
In the subequatorial belt There is a seasonal change in air masses, the seasons of the year are expressed. Due to the arrival of equatorial air masses, summer is hot and humid. In winter, tropical air masses dominate, making it warm but dry.
In the subtropical zone temperate (summer) and arctic (winter) air masses change. Winter is not only harsh, but also dry. Summers are significantly warmer than winters, with more precipitation.
Climatic regions are distinguished within climatic zones with different types of climates – maritime, continental, monsoon. Marine climate type formed under the influence of marine air masses. It is characterized by a small amplitude of air temperature across the seasons, high cloudiness, and a relatively large amount of precipitation. Continental climate type forms far from the ocean coast. It is distinguished by a significant annual amplitude of air temperatures, a small amount of precipitation, and distinct seasons. Monsoon climate characterized by changing winds according to the seasons of the year. At the same time, with the change of season, the wind changes direction to the opposite, which affects the precipitation regime. Rainy summer gives way to dry winter.
The largest number of climatic regions is found within the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere.
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