Medieval artillery piece. Artillery in the Middle Ages
Technical aspects
The history of the invention of gunpowder and the appearance of guns and ammunition very soon became overgrown with myths and legends. Petrarch, who was in awe of the Greco-Roman civilization, believed that the ancients could not have been unaware of the use of gunpowder. The same judgment is found in a letter from Pope Pius II to Duke Federigo of Urbino: "In Homer and Virgil one can find a description of all types of weapons used in our century." Valturio, the author of the treatise "On Military Affairs" (1472), sees in Archimedes the inventor of cannons. True, at the same time, Francesco di George Martini noted that if the ancients had guns, there would have been loopholes in the ruins of their fortresses.
The authors, who deplore the invention of artillery and gunpowder, attribute it to foreigners, or rather "infidels" (Turks and Chinese). Flavio Biondo in "Rome Triumphant" (1455-1463) places the responsibility for the invention of gunpowder on a German in the middle of the 14th century. and relates its first use to the Chiogina War between Genoa and Venice (1378-1381). In 1493, Antonio Cornazano adds to the legend, stating that this German was an alchemist monk and taught the Venetians in 1380. This monk was later relocated at the end of the 13th century. and gave him a name - Berthold Schwarz from Freiburg. Spanish sources offer a different version: the Moors were the first to use gunpowder in 1343, during the war with Alfonso XI.
Traditionally, the diabolical nature of this invention was emphasized. John Mirfield, about 1390, speaks of "that deadly diabolical instrument, which is commonly called a cannon." Francesco di George, himself a military engineer, joins those who define this invention as "not human, but diabolical." In the XV century. The Book of the Secret of Artillery and Cannoncraft attributes him to "master Bertrand, the great warlock" and alchemist. But the main role here allegedly played a case. At first, the master simply wanted to get "a beautiful paint, similar to gold, for the manufacture of which he took saltpeter, sulfur, lead, oils and these substances mixed and placed the mixture in an earthen pot, which, having properly sealed, put on fire." As the ingredients heated up, the pot, of course, exploded. The alchemist repeated the experiment using a carefully closed copper pot. Then he realized how to use this explosive power, improved the proportions and "ordered a device in the manner of a cannon." Thus, allegedly, the "cannon business" was opened. The connection between magic and artillery is also found in the story of the “bombardier” from Metz named Camoufle, about whom, around 1437, it was said “that he fired three times a day when he liked, and resorted to magical art.”
Let's get back to what we know more or less reliably. The first mention of the formula for cannon powder is found in the Chinese text of 1044 "Wujun zongyao". This gunpowder served for the production of smoke, incendiary, explosive shells. At the end of the XIII century. it was widely used by the Mongols, for example, when they tried to invade Japan (1274 and 1281). Soon, shells (primarily incendiary arrows) began to be thrown using gunpowder, after inserting them into a guide tube made of thick bamboo, wood, iron or bronze.
These inventions and technologies came to the West from Muslim countries. An Andalusian botanist who died in Damascus in 1248 calls saltpeter "Chinese snow"; in Persia, the same substance was called "Chinese salt." It is possible that the Mongols used primitive firearms at the Battle of Sayo in Hungary (1241). From the middle of the XIII century. the Moors put gunpowder in various projectiles thrown from catapults or trebuchet (a medieval stone-throwing tool). In the West, the first known recipe for gunpowder dates from 1267 (Roger Bacon).
Scopitus (primitive firearms of the cavalry: a tube with a butt resting on the rider's chest and a bipod) were allegedly used in the defense of Forlì by the warriors of Guido di Montefeltro in 1284. A single evidence is doubtful. The first reliable data appear forty years later. The image of a cannon in the form of a pot lying horizontally on the goats, from which an arrow emerges, is found in one miniature from the treatise “On the remarkable, wise and prudent” by Walter of Milimet (1326). This probably refers to one of the machines for throwing "bolts" (short and thick arrows designed for shooting from a crossbow), which are often mentioned in mid-14th century sources. and later.
As for the word "cannon" (French canon), which comes from the Greek kanun or the Latin sappa - "pipe", it first appears in a Florentine document dated February 11, 1326, by which the Signoria appoints two persons "for the manufacture<...>iron pipes and metal cannons. The new artillery was probably used during the War of Metz in 1324 and definitely by two German knights at the siege of Cividale (Friuli) in 1331. Bombards are mentioned in reports of the siege of Berwick-on-Tweed in 1333. In 1341 the city of Lille kept "masters of thunder". In 1346, Aachen had an "iron trumpet for thunder shooting." Two years later, Deventer had three "guns". In 1341, Lucca handed over to Giberto da Fogliano, his captain, "an iron cannon for throwing iron balls", and at the same time in Brescia two blacksmiths received materials ordered to forge a "pipe for throwing balls" and "an iron cannon tubular and iron cores. In the Papal State, cannons and bombards are mentioned in 1350 in connection with the war in Romagna.
The accounts show "1,050 pounds of iron, whether or not worked, for making bombard cores" and "226 iron cores for bombards," totaling 88 pounds. The English not only almost certainly used gunpowder and fired a few shells at the Battle of Crécy (1346), but also sent ten cannons, firearms fighting wagons, lead shots and gunpowder from London to the siege of Calais (1346-1347). One document dated May 10, 1346, speaks of 912 pounds of saltpeter and 886 pounds of sulfur purchased from an apothecary in London "for the cause of the king himself for the sake of his cannons." In France, the first mention of artillery pieces dates back to 1338. In 1340, during the siege of Cambrai, a nobleman, a specialist in new weapons, Sir Hugues de Cardillac, ordered ten cannons for a modest sum of 25 livres 2 sous 6 Tour deniers, while extremely needed for the use of these tools, saltpeter and lump sulfur cost 11 livres 4 sous 3 Tour denier. In 1346, the same lord proposes to use 22 cannons to defend the castle of Bioulle (Tarn-et-Garonne). April 29, 1345 Ramundus of Arceria, "artilleryman of the King of France in Toulouse", signs for a certain amount for "2 iron cannons, 200 lead-filled cannonballs and 8 pounds of gunpowder."
Thus, over twenty years and in ways that cannot be traced, the new invention spread throughout the West - probably starting with Italy. True, in the peripheral regions it was still unknown for a long time: the first mention of artillery in Scotland dates back only to 1384.
From the middle of the XIV century. descriptions of guns appear in educational treatises and narrative sources. One of the first was made by Jean Buridan in his “Questions to the books of Aristotle’s Meteorology”: “The power of this gas is manifested in these devices called cannons (canalibus), from which, by means of a gas generated by a pinch of gunpowder, large arrows or lead cannonballs are emitted with such force that no armor can withstand them. The Chronicle of Tarvis (1376) gives a more detailed account of “these bombards, which have never been seen or heard of in Italy, miraculously made by the Venetians. And it is true that the bombarda is a very powerful iron device: in front of it there is a vast channel, where a round stone of the same shape as the channel is placed, and behind it is a pipe twice as long as the channel with which it is connected, but narrower; and black powder is put into this pipe, which is made from saltpeter, sulfur and willow charcoal, through the entrance to this pipe from the side of the muzzle. And that opening of the aforementioned muzzle is further closed with a wooden shutter inserted inside; after a round stone is inserted on the other side, fire is brought to a small hole in the pipe (meaning the ignition hole), and from the ignited gunpowder the stone erupts with great force.
For a long time, most guns were small. This is evidenced by the masses of 73 cannons made for Richard II of England by William Woodward from 1382 to 1388:
1 gun weighing from 665 to 737 British pounds,
47 "big guns" averaging 380 pounds,
5 guns at 318 pounds,
4 "copper guns" of 150 pounds,
7 "small guns" at 49 pounds,
9 "small guns" of 43 pounds.
As for the consumption of gunpowder, it remained very modest. In 1375, during the siege of Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte by the troops of Charles V, 31 pounds of gunpowder was enough to load three "big iron cannons" that fired stones, 24 copper cannons that fired lead cannonballs, and 5 iron cannons that also fired lead cannonballs. . In 1376-1377. the powder charge of "an iron cannon throwing a weight of 60 pounds" is one and a half pounds. In 1383, for the so-called naval army, “four large cannons on carriages, equipped with iron protrusions and hinges, with four wooden goats, one hundred and sixty-six pounds of gunpowder and one hundred and sixty stones for these cannons” were loaded onto barges, i.e., per pound gunpowder per shot.
As an exception, very large caliber guns were made: in Mons in 1375, a gun weighing 9500 pounds was noted. However, from the beginning of the fifteenth century big changes begin. In 1410, Christina of Pisa recommends that four large cannons bearing their own names be used to storm a well-fortified fortress, the largest of which will fire cannonballs weighing from 400 to 500 pounds. Indeed, from that moment on, the largest cannons were given names designed to instill fear or related to the circumstances of their manufacture and first use, or to the position of their owner.
So it was the same with big guns as with ships or bells: they acquired an individuality, becoming in some way living beings.
The fact that the recommendations of Christina of Pisa were not at all purely theoretical is proved by a contract signed a year earlier between the "masters of bombards and cannons" and the Duke of Burgundy, John the Fearless, for the casting in Ausonne of a large "copper" bombard of 6900 pounds, with the expectation of a stone ball weighing 320 pounds. . In 1412 there was a bombardment of 10,000 pounds in Carcassonne. Mons Meg, an iron bombard now kept at Edinburgh Castle, was commissioned in 1449 by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, the "dealer in artillery" Jean Cambier, for 1,536 livres 2 sous. This cannon had an overall length of 15 feet (a unit of length in England equal to 0.3048 m) and weighed 15,366 pounds. According to an 18th century examination, the powder charge was 105 pounds for a stone ball of 549 pounds. The bombardment "Mad Greta", still standing on the Market Square in Ghent, has a length of more than 5 m; its diameter is 0.64 m, and its weight is 16400 kg. Another monstrous weapon is the "large cast bombard" ordered in 1457-1458. Philip the Good "in his Lebbre Palace in Brabant with Jacquemin de l" Espina, a master of bombards and other guns. This gun had a mass of 33,000 -34,000 pounds and fired stone balls 17 inches "in diameter." "Behind the aforementioned bombard, in order to shoot from it was safer ", a lead plate weighing 800 pounds was installed. One of the heaviest artillery pieces was ordered in Brussels in 1409-1411 by the Duke of Brabant: the mass of this gun reached 35 tons - a little less than the 40-ton Raja-Gopal, a giant cannon from the Mughal era, stored in Thanjavur, in the state of Madras.
If in the 14th century, at least in France, there were only two terms for artillery pieces: “cannon” and “bombard”, then in the 15th century. vocabulary expands:
By 1410 - kulevrina and pishchal;
By 1430 - serpentines, krapodos, krapodins;
By 1460 - courtods and mortars;
By 1470 - arquebuses;
By 1480 - falcos and falconets.
Based on the work of Francesco di George Martini (1487-1492), the following highly idealized table can be drawn up, which gives an idea of what artillery was, or, more precisely, should have been.
Gun name | ||||
Bombard (general or average) | Mortar | Bombard | Kurtoda | |
Length (in feet) | 15-20 | 5-6 | 10 | 12 |
projectile material | Stone | Stone | Stone | Stone |
Projectile weight (in pounds) | 300 | 200-300 | 50 | 60-100 |
The ratio of the mass of gunpowder and projectile | 16/100 | 16/100 | 16/100 | 16/100 |
Gun name | ||||
Pass Volant | Basilisk | Serbatan | spingarda | |
Length (in feet) | 18 | 22-25 | 8-10 | 8 |
projectile material | Lead or iron | bronze or iron | Lead | Stone |
Projectile weight (in pounds) | 16 | 20 | 2-3 | 10-15 |
Powder to projectile weight ratio | 10/100 | 10/100 | 10/100 | 10/100 |
Artillery underwent other transformations as well. Instead of cannons, made by joining strips of wrought iron (back in 1456, a large bombard consisted of 38 narrow strips and 33 iron hoops), cast iron guns appeared. “Molten metal was poured into a mold in the form of a hollow cylinder, along the axis of which the core was located,” or a mandrel. The correctness of the channel was ensured by boring it with a steel countersink. The use of injection molds of the same size allowed the calibers to be standardized. In addition, here, as in the manufacture of bells, bronze was used, in which the copper content was increased, and tin was reduced. Bell makers could also make cannons; if necessary, the bells could be melted down into cannons. Here, for example, is a deal concluded in 1488 between the city of Rennes, on the one hand, and a gunner-caster and gunner-blacksmith, on the other. The caster will have to cast several falks, one bell, as well as two containers that will serve as hinged chambers (a chamber is a space in the breech of a gun for a powder charge) for forged iron serpentines. He will receive the necessary "metal and copper" weighing up to 6,000 pounds. The blacksmith will forge two iron serpentines. One of them will have a prefabricated copper chamber and be breech-loaded, while the other will be forged in one piece, muzzle-loaded and have trunnions to fire from a wheeled carriage. Both serpentines "will throw iron balls".
Improvements affected both the transportation of guns and their installation in a combat position. For a long time, artillery pieces (with the exception of cannons and hand-held culverins, which began to appear at the end of the 14th century) were transported on carts, wagons, usually four-wheeled. In order for them to fire, they had to be removed. The guns were mounted on goats or a frame. However, from the middle of the fifteenth century guns equipped with trunnions and lying on a carriage mounted on an axle with two wheels are mentioned. On August 19, 1458, the city of Rouen buys a 100-pound cannon "in the shape of a small serpentine of bronze, firing lead balls the size of a small ball, erected on a carriage and transported on two wooden wheels." In 1465-1466. a certain carpenter from Nevers delivers eight wheels ordered to him: four medium ones for a large iron bombard (from which it can be concluded that it fit on a wagon) and four more large ones for two serpentines. In 1490, the castle of Angers takes into custody three large serpentine cannons weighing about 7,000 pounds, with six large wheels. Thus, trailed artillery arose, which was easy to put in a combat position and move; Since 1470, such guns have been depicted on numerous miniatures, and individual copies of them have been preserved among the trophies taken by the Swiss after the victory over Charles the Bold at Gransonev in 1476.
For a long time it was obligatory to use obturators (a cannon device to eliminate the breakthrough of powder gases when fired), which hermetically closed the hole in the chamber where the powder charge was placed. Textbook on cannon business of the 15th century. describes this process in some detail: “If you want to make good shutters for bombards, you need good alder or poplar wood, completely dry, and make them in such a manner that the front part is thinner than the back, so that when you hammer the shutter into the chamber stick, he entered exactly and did not stick out of the chamber at all. The obturators had to be made of wood that could swell when exposed to the vapors released during the combustion of gunpowder. At the moment when the pressure became high enough, the obturator flew out, almost like a champagne cork, and then the released explosive force of the gunpowder imparted motion to the core. The entire inner length of the chamber was recommended to be divided into five equal parts: the first part, near the hole, was reserved for the obturator, the second remained empty, the remaining three were filled with gunpowder.
It seems that at the end of the 15th century, at least in France, obturators were no longer used in some guns. Either the combustion of the gunpowder had already become so fast that there was no longer any need to build up pressure, or the perfect fit of the cores to the bore did not allow the gases to escape too quickly. In any case, monolithic guns without a separate chamber are mentioned. First, gunpowder was poured into the bottom of the barrel with the help of “spruce poles called loading spoons,” and then a core was inserted through the muzzle. Another guide to cannon business said: “In order to charge your gun, they take a tool, which the gunners call a shuffle, made of iron plates or copper, three times longer than the diameter of the cannonball, planted on the end of the pole, and fill up a full shuffle of gunpowder, and push to the bottom of the barrel, and turn with your hand so that your gunpowder falls out and spills out of the drawer, which should be taken out again, and repeat this two or three times, depending on how fine and good the gunpowder is or how large the gunpowder is, until you fill the gunpowder with a weight of two-thirds of the weight of the kernel."
For the first shells of the middle of the XIV century. used lead and iron. But soon most of the cores, especially starting from a certain size, were made of stone: sandstone, marble, alabaster, etc. The masons made ammunition in advance, using a model (“template”) made of wood, paper, parchment. Then the iron cores reappeared. In 1418 the city of Ghent purchased 7200 cast cannonballs. In the French royal artillery, cast iron cannonballs were especially often used from the second half of the reign of Charles VII. Probably the decisive role here was played by the activities of the Bureau brothers, Jean and Gaspard. This trend intensified under Louis XI: in 1467 the king orders Michaud Baudouin to cast 1000 iron cores for each of his large serpentines and 100 cores for each bombard. Karl the Bold did not remain in debt either: his large culverins used iron "cobblestones". In 1473 he buys 1335 cast cores. This innovation strangely remained unknown on the other side of the Alps: according to Biringuccio, Charles VIII "was the first to introduce us in Italy to iron balls when he came to besiege Naples in order to expel King Ferrante, and this was in one thousand four hundred and ninety fifth year."
Even small “trunks” were improved: in the middle of the 15th century in Germany, matchlocks began to be used for arquebuses.
There were two trends: on the one hand, a decrease in the mass of the core in relation to the total mass of the gun, on the other, an increase in the mass of gunpowder in relation to the mass of the core. This conclusion allows us to compare the Milanese bombards of 1472 and the English artillery under Henry VII and Henry VIII - see tables below: I and II, which are given in the work of F. Contamine (pp. 164-165).
Table I
Milan bombards of 1472
Weight of gunpowder (in pounds) | Core mass (in pounds) | |
50 | 400 | 12,5 |
40 | 300 | 13,3 |
33 | 225 | 14,6 |
100 | 626 | 15,9 |
Table II
English artillery of the 15th - early 16th centuries.
Gun name | Weight of gunpowder (in pounds) | Core mass (in pounds) | Powder mass / core mass (%) |
Bombard | 80 | 260 | 30,77 |
Courtauld | 40 | 60 | 66,66 |
Kulevrina | 22 | 20 | 110 |
"Nuremberg gun" and "Apostle" | 20 | 20 | 100 |
Lezar | 14 | 12 | 117 |
Minion | 8 | 8 | 100 |
Serpentine | 7 | 6 | 117 |
Falk | 1 | 1 | 100 |
So, at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. abandoned gigantomania and preferred standardized, reliable, easily transportable and positionable guns, with a relatively high rate of fire, used convenient projectiles, the movement of which was imparted by a significant powder charge. Finally, they tried to keep the range of flat shooting at a level below average. Of course, in some places there is a higher range. During the siege of Am in 1411, the Flemings released from the "Big Bird" a stone "larger than a barrel", which flew over the city. In 1465, according to F. Commin, “Louis XI<…>had strong artillery, and the guns located on the walls of Paris gave<…>a few bursts. It is surprising that their cores reached our troops, because the distance was two leagues, but they probably raised the muzzles of their cannons very high. The artillery of Francis I, whose technical data is given in the following table (see below), is closer to the artillery of Charles VIII than that of Charles VII.
French artillery in 1530-1540
Table III
Gun name | Gross weight (in pounds) | Mass of metal (in pounds) | Core mass (in pounds) | Core mass / metal mass (%) |
A gun | 8200 | 5000 | 23 | 4,6 |
Big cooler | 6380 | 4000 | 15,25 | 3,8 |
"Illegal" culverin | 4773 | 2500 | 7,25 | 2,9 |
Medium culverin | 2575 | 1500 | 2,5 | 1,6 |
Falk | 1240 | 800 | 1,5 | 1,8 |
Falconet | 880 | 500 | 0,75 | 1,5 |
Gakovnitsa | 50 | 45 | 0,1 | 2 |
Gun name |
Mass of charge (in pounds) in % | Charge mass / core mass | Number of shots per day | Firing range "to the center of the target" (in steps) |
A gun | 20 | 87 | 100 | 500 |
Big cooler | 10 | 66,6 | 100 | 700 |
"Illegal" culverin | 5 | 68,9 | 140 | 500 |
Medium culverin | 2,5 | 100 | 160 | 400 |
Falk | 1,5 | 100 | 200 | 300 |
Falconet | 250 | 200 | ||
Gakovnitsa | 0,1 | 100 | 300 | 120 |
Quantitative aspects
For a long time, artillery pieces were not only small and ineffective, but few in number. However, from 1360-1370. in the West, many cities and almost all large states have their own arsenals. Quartermaster of the King of England at Ponthier in 1368-1369. acquires for the fortresses of this county 20 copper and 5 iron cannons, 215 pounds of saltpeter, sulfur and ambergris for the production of gunpowder and 1300 large "bolts" for cannons. When planning a campaign in France in 1372, the British government planned to use 29 iron cannons and 1050 pounds of saltpeter. In 1388, the arsenal of the Tower of London contained 50 cannons, 4,000 pounds of gunpowder and 600 pounds of saltpeter.
In the same year, the castle of Lille had 59 pounds of gunpowder, 652 pounds of saltpeter and 114 pounds of sulfur. Rent in 1380 acquires 70 firearms, Ypres in 1383 purchases 52. From 1372 to 1382, Mechelen increases its stocks by an average of 14 guns per year. At the end of the XIV century. the garrisons in the north of the French kingdom that control Calais, as a rule, have one gunner (gunner, artilleryman) per fortress.
At the turn of the XIV and XV centuries. changes are taking place. In 1406, in anticipation of the siege of Calais, at least fifty gunners were kept in the service of the Franco-Burgundian army; a minimum of 20,000 pounds of gunpowder was purchased. Four years later, Christina of Pisa believed that 12 stone throwers, 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of gunpowder, and 3,000 pounds of lead for cannonballs and 200 stones were needed to defend any fortress; for an attack, in her opinion, 128 cannons, 1,170 stones, 5,000 pounds of lead for cannonballs, 30,000 pounds of gunpowder are required. In 1417, Dijon City Hall decides that 5,000 pounds of gunpowder must be purchased to defend the city. In 1431, during the crusade against the Hussites, the army of the German Empire had about a hundred bombards.
A good criterion for assessing the number of artillery is the need for gunpowder. In 1413 Francois Pastouro, a Parisian merchant, sells John the Fearless about 10,000 pounds of gunpowder, saltpeter and sulfur. Document for 1421-1422. claims that in Paris it was possible to purchase raw materials for the manufacture of 20,000 to 25,000 pounds of gunpowder right on the spot.
In some cases, it was possible to find out the consumption of gunpowder for military operations. In 1425, Lancelot de Lisle, Governor of Chartres, on behalf of Henry VI of England and Marshal of the troops of the Earl of Salisbury, received from John Harbotle, commander-in-chief of artillery under the regent of Bedford, 1000 pounds of gunpowder for the siege of Beaumont, 3000 pounds - Mana, 2800 pounds - St. Suzanne, 5800 pounds - Mayenne. During the siege of Compiègne in 1430, the army of Philip the Good used up 17,000 pounds of gunpowder against 10,000 in 73 days, during which the 1436 campaign near Calais continued.
In the second half of the XV century. there is a new quantitative leap. During the reign of Louis XI, the budget for artillery increases almost fivefold. Cities are more interested than ever in arming with artillery. In 1452-1453. gunpowder stocks at Rennes exceeded 5,000 pounds. From 1450 to 1492, this city acquires 45 cannons, 32 serpentines, 65 kulevrins, 149 arquebuses, 7 squeakers and 45 falcos. Ghent in 1456 had 189 guns of various calibers, in 1479 - 486 guns. For Cologne, these figures for 1468 are 348, for Nuremberg for 1462 - 2230, for Strasbourg for 1476-585.
At the end of the 15th century, as confirmed by the Italian Wars (1494-1559), French artillery was the first in the world in terms of numbers and quality. An account for 1489 shows that Charles VIII had five artillery battalions, numbering dozens of gunners, about 150 guns, a thousand horses and tens of thousands of pounds of gunpowder. This year, artillery expenditures accounted for 8% of all military expenditures of the French monarchy, compared to 6% in 1482.
Even such a small state as the Duchy of Brittany could not afford to remain without guns: an inventory for 1495, immediately after joining France, lists 707 guns distributed over a dozen and a half fortresses.
Olivier de La Marche (possibly exaggerating) says that Charles the Bold had a fleet of 300 guns; it is known that during the Geldern campaign of 1472 there were 110 of them, during the siege of Neisse (1474-1475) - 229, during the first conquest of Lorraine (1475) - 130.
Despite a certain technical backwardness, the Italian states also spent significant sums on new weapons. The artillery of Milan in 1472 supposedly consisted of 8 bombards, 8 spinguards and 100 scopitus, and for each bombard there were a hundred cores. The requirement for gunpowder was about 34,000 pounds. To transport and move all this, 334 wagons and 754 bulls or oxen were required. Gunpowder in the same duchy for 1476: 138,847 pounds in Milan, 26,252 in Padua, 24,399 in Cremona.
By 1500, fortresses and castles, at the expense of sovereigns and rulers, had a considerable amount of artillery pieces and ammunition: in Castel Nuovo in Naples there were 321 guns, 1039 barrels of gunpowder, saltpeter and sulfur, 4624 cores. The arsenal of Venice, according to the German pilgrim Arnold von Harff, included 12 horse-drawn powder mills and contained 80,000 ducats of saltpeter. The same source reports that two "artillery houses" built in Innsbruck by Maximilian of Habsburg contained 280 artillery pieces, 18,000 arquebuses and 22,000 hand culverins. In the citadel of Perpignan in 1503, Antoine de Lalin allegedly counted "from four to five hundred pieces of artillery, such as curto, serpentines and falcos."
Even private individuals are increasingly in possession of personal firearms: since 1470, "lists" of townspeople in the cemetery of Neuchâtel in Switzerland show that out of 523 recorded people, 100 have a hand culverine.
By the end of the XV century. artillery was still on the rise, and there was no tendency to decrease in its importance. She had to develop at the same pace. In 1513, during the siege of Tournai, the army of Henry VIII of England consisted of 180 guns, which, when fully loaded, could consume up to 32 tons of gunpowder per day; 510 tons were brought for the campaign. Almost at the same time, in various cities and castles of France, from Boulogne-sur-Mer in the north to Bayonne and Beziers in the south, as in many fortresses of Northern Italy conquered by that time, the Valois monarchy had 4 bombards , 2 small bombards, 88 serpentine cannons, 38 large culverins, 86 medium culverins, 2 curtos, 254 falcos and 947 arquebuses. Total - 1430 "large and small" guns
In 1453, two significant events take place in opposite ends of Europe: the end of the Hundred Years War between France and England (as well as the pogrom that preceded it, perpetrated by the Franco-Burgundian army against the English fortresses in Normandy and Guyenne) and the fall of the capital of the Byzantine Empire - Constantinople. These events end the "Artillery Revolution", which began around 1420. The “sudden” and complete failure of the old fortresses before the power of new siege weapons opens the “age of great cannons”, lasting from about 1420 to 1520, when it is “closed” by new fortification systems.
The age of great guns begins
By the middle of the 15th century, Italy and Germany became the main centers of European arms production. Secondary centers are France, Flanders, Spain, Switzerland (however, the military-technical breakthrough of Spain will have to wait another half a century). Since the 14th century, all other countries have been ahead of the Italian city-republics in the development of artillery technology. It is here that they begin to systematically use cast bronze tools and an iron projectile. Here, in the middle-third quarter of the 15th century, the first attempts at a physical and technical understanding of artillery issues were made (works by Taccola and Leonardo da Vinci).
From about the third quarter of the 15th century, the leading role of Italy in the development of artillery technology was "intercepted" by France. Often this is considered the merit of the Bureau brothers, Jean and Gaspard (“chief commanders of the royal artillery” from 1439 and 1444, respectively), and the allocation of artillery with their participation to the “arms of the army” during the military reforms of King Charles VII.
Bombard (or large curto) and mortar. The siege of a fortress as seen by a French or Flemish artist of the 1470s-1480s. Handwritten "Chronicles of England" by Jean Vavrine ("Recueil des croniques d'Engleterre"; Royal 14 E IV)
Mainly, however, the success of France should be attributed to the strengthening of the central authority - and with it the financial power of the state. The scope of the use of resources, which the new level of artillery technology required, was simply unbearable for smaller or weaker state formations. The leading military-technical force of the Muslim world - comparable to European centers - at that time was the Ottoman Sultanate, and what was said about France fully applies to its success.
There are numerous examples of the successes of the siege or siege artillery in the 2nd half of the 15th century, so we will list only the most famous or characteristic of them. We are talking about the successes of the Franco-Burgundian forces in the sieges of the 1450s. was already underway. Their "reflection" on the other side of Europe is the fall of Constantinople.
The so-called "Dardanelles cannon", made by the Turks in 1464. Most likely, it is very similar in design to the "Urban cannons" used in the siege of Constantinople in 1453.
During the siege of Constantinople in 1453, which had powerful fortifications with walls up to 12 m high and up to 7.5 m thick, the Ottoman army had numerous artillery and handguns. The famous 1200-pound "Hungarian Urban cannon" was included in the main 4-gun siege battery of the Ottoman army, installed against the gates of St. Roman. In addition, eight other large guns made up three more siege batteries. The largest of these fired 800-pound cannonballs, while the others fired much smaller ones, from 500-pound to less than 200-pound caliber. For the manufacture of cores, marble was used, which was taken from ancient Greek buildings.
Western historians have an opinion that on the second day the “Urban cannon” cracked, and on the 4th or 5th day of the bombing, which began on April 12, it fell into complete disrepair. Then it was allegedly repaired by May 6 and used during the last assault on May 28. If all this is true, then it is more likely that the cannon was still of traditional iron construction. However, a certain Nestor-Iskander, who saw the siege from the Turkish side, reports that the successful shot of the defenders spoiled the gun. Then it was repaired, strengthened with iron hoops, but unsuccessfully. And only after some major repairs
“... you hit from big cannons, and there is a lot of stone fall. They hit others, and the walls collapsed in a great place ... packs the Turks hit from big cannons below that place, and knocked out a lot of walls; and tacos in another and in a third.
It is reported that Urban, it turns out, was not very experienced in directing the fire of siege artillery, and he was helped by practical advice from the envoy of the removed Hungarian regent Janos Hunyadi. Under the fire of siege batteries in the end “two walls and a tower between them, as well as the tower of St. Roman near the gate, collapsed to the ground, and the Turks saw the defenders inside, and they saw them”. The Turks had to bombard the city for more than six weeks in a row, until the very last assault.
In 1456, in the penultimate siege of Belgrade, the Ottoman army again used many artillery pieces. This time the Turks failed to repeat the success of Constantinople. In this regard, the message of Dollecek, who says that “The Turks are fighting against Belgrade 12 [cast bronze] cannons with a barrel length of 5–6.5 m and a caliber of up to 1500 mm, but almost all of them are torn”. It is likely that the casting of bronze cannons, especially such large ones, is still a new thing, including for the Turks, and the hope for untested samples is not justified. Only in the 1480s. this technique becomes, according to the same Dollecek, commonplace.
On the other hand, in the Belgrade fortress back in 1432 there were “3 bombards made of bronze, of which two [have barrels] in two parts, and one is so large ... 42 inches across where the stone enters [caliber ca. 1100 mm]". According to an eyewitness, "she's too short"- i.e., most likely, this refers to the prototype of later mortars.
Iron bombards behind wooden covers roughly correspond to what could be seen during the siege in England in the second half of the 15th century. However, long-barreled handguns appear here only approximately in the last quarter of a century. Handwritten "Chronicles of England" by Jean Vavrine ("Recueil des croniques d'Engleterre")
In 1464, during the Wars of the Roses, after the Battle of Hexham, Sir Gray withdrew to Bamburgh Castle, where it was besieged by the Duke of Warwick, the "Kingmaker". The duke's army is carrying two "huge bombers" ("cum maxemis bombardis"), referred to as "London" and "Newcastle". "So Far Unapproachable", Bamburgh Castle for rent. The same guns were apparently used in the successful siege of Dunstenburg in 1465.
The general military failures of the Duchy of Burgundy in the 1470s, indirectly related to artillery, seem to “cast a shadow” on the capabilities of Western European guns of that time. However, rather, they testify to the comparative lag in tactics and technology of other branches of the armed forces.
The Siege of Orléans in 1429 as seen by a Flemish painter around 1490. According to the composition of the equipment, it may well refer to the Burgundian sieges. Shown is a long-barreled bronze bombard, a field gun and a long-barreled handgun.
So, during the siege of Beauvais (1472), where, by the way, another Jeanne became famous - Jeanne Leni, nicknamed Jeanne Hachette (Axe), - the Burgundians made a hole in the wall with their first shots. During the siege “stones [cores] fell everywhere, some in a circle from the bottom of a barrel, and others from a dish ...”. At the siege of Neiss (1474–1475), siege artillery "turns the gates and walls of the city into ruins." However, both of these sieges were ultimately unsuccessful. In three unsuccessful battles 1476-1477. (under Granson, Morat and Nancy) the Burgundians do "guns handed out" the Swiss. This testifies to the weak interaction of the combat arms on the battlefield.
The siege by the Turks in 1480 of the fortress on the island of Rhodes, belonging to the knightly Order of the Hospitallers, ended in failure. Siege artillery ( "16 great cannons, each 22 feet long") destroyed several towers, walls and the palace of the Grand Master. When bombed "the earth trembles underfoot", and the only safe place in the city is "cellar or cave". However, all assaults are repulsed, and the siege is lifted. It is noteworthy that a German pilgrim who described the siege claimed that almost all the gunners in the Turkish army were Germans.
The Italian wars, which began with the conquest of the French king Charles VIII in 1494-1498, were already fought during the siege artillery, using iron cannonballs, and field artillery on mobile wheeled carriages. The sieges of the Italian cities by the French army, in comparison with the final times of the Hundred Years War, were the same as the sieges of the end of the Hundred Years War were in comparison with the sieges of the beginning of the 15th century. Cities with powerful (according to old concepts) fortifications not only surrendered in a few days - many surrendered without a fight at all. Half a century later, Venice and Genoa remained the only militarily significant Italian states.
Types and design of guns
By the middle of the 15th century, the main type of siege weapon was a bombard with an iron forged-welded barrel (French, English, Flemish and German lands) and, much less often, with a bronze cast barrel (Italian and, probably, Spanish lands, where large tools are "pawnshops "- came from Italy).
Bombard barrel from 1410–1420s. lengthened, although short-barreled bombards of "old proportions" were also used ("mortar bombers" in modern classifications). Moreover, the weight of the core was becoming a few hundred pounds. If in 1427 the city of Nuremberg bought a 200-pound bombard, then in 1434 the British threw cannons, of which the largest was designed for a 330-pound caliber cannonball. In 1435, a bombard of approximately 700-pound caliber was made in Ghent. In 1457, the Scottish king received a bombard of approximately 330-pound caliber as a gift.
By the end of the 15th century, large forged-welded iron tools were replaced by cast bronze ones, and stone cannonballs were replaced by cast iron ones. So, in Nuremberg (1445), master Hans von Rosen cast a bombard weighing 519 centners (up to 20 metric tons), decorated with the image of St. Sebald. In 1451, in Luxembourg, he cast the Luxembourg bombard, which weighed 36 thousand pounds (up to 18 tons).
Master Jacquemain de l "Espin in 1457-1458 made for the Duke of Burgundy "large cast [bronze] bombard" weighing 33-34 thousand pounds of "metal" (up to 16 tons), firing stone cannonballs "17 inches across". Perhaps this weapon was expected to be used with an iron core. By the way, "behind the indicated bombard, in order to shoot from it was safer", a lead plate weighing 800 pounds was installed.
Monstrelet writes of a large bombard made by Jean Maug in Tours (1478), whose iron core weighs 400 pounds. In 1477, by decree of Louis XI, "a dozen huge bronze bombards firingiron core500 pounds".
In addition to the bombards, the siege artillery of that time included any smaller guns, but large enough to cause damage to fortifications. Their common names are "cannon" or "big gun" and also (large) "vogler". In this order they are listed in the sources of the middle of the XV century: "...lots of big bombards, big guns, voglers...".
By the last quarter of the 15th century, mortars proper appeared, i.e. specialized guns with low muzzle velocities capable of firing at very high elevation angles. These guns are finally replacing mortar bombards. Mortars have been mentioned in French sources since the 1460s. Mortars are rarely mentioned in Burgundian sources before 1485, mainly as a comparison ("the gun shoots like a mortar"). Mortars have been mentioned in German military manuals since the 1470s. However, they will be truly useful and widespread only in the 16th century, with the advent of an effective explosive projectile.
Approximately in the 1460s-1470s. in France and Burgundy, and later in England, a type of large-caliber gun called “court” (French “courtau”, English “courtaw”) stands out. Curtos are capable of conducting more frequent fire than bombards, both direct fire and mounted ( "over obstacles"). That is, they are the prototype of howitzers. These smaller (and cheaper) bombard guns have combat mobility: they are mounted on a wheeled carriage. Kurto could be muzzle-loading or have a removable charging chamber.
The barrel of large bronze bombards (Italian, Turkish) for ease of transportation could be made of two or even three parts, which were equipped with threaded connections. In this case, parts of the barrel had conspicuous belts of square holes for inserting levers with which the parts were rotated during assembly and disassembly.
Any of the named types of guns could have a removable charging chamber, if the size and weight allowed it at all. Larshey gives examples of charging chambers - archaeological finds weighing up to 1.5 tons. It is possible, however, that these are just parts of finished tools, since even non-removable charging chambers could be made separately.
However, by the end of the century, the increase in the power of gunpowder with the imperfection of the locking structures put an end - for three and a half centuries - to large breech-loading guns. Small "breech charges" did not go out of use for much longer. The expression "breech loading" refers here only to a charge of gunpowder placed in a removable chamber. The wad (wooden pallet), and then the core, was loaded from the muzzle, as in subsequent purely muzzle-loading designs.
shells
The events of 1453 are the pinnacle of the achievements of siege weapons firing a stone cannonball. Nothing as amazing will ever be achieved by rock-shot artillery again. It should be noted that the actual introduction of a stone projectile in the 1360s–1380s. was a forced measure, generated by the technical imperfection of the then gun barrels and gunpowder and, in parallel, the need to build up calibers.
The density ratio of stone and cast iron can reach up to 1:3, so the stone core is up to 1.4 times larger in diameter than an iron core of equal weight. Accordingly, it loses speed faster. The strength of the stone core is about the same as that of the stone wall opposing it, so the stone core can break. The manufacture of a stone core is difficult and difficult to perform: the wages of a stone cutter in England, according to Oakeshott, in the 1380s. was "equal to the pay of a mounted archer", and in 1399 it was compared with the payment of an equestrian armor. In the 16th century, the cost of making stone shells increased even more.
On the other hand, a stone core of the same diameter as a metal one requires a smaller powder charge. This not only saves expensive gunpowder, but also allows you to make the walls of the gun thinner, and the gun lighter. These features made it possible for stone-shooting bombards to be used very successfully on Mediterranean military rowing ships as early as the end of the 16th century. The most profitable battle tactic for them was to approach the enemy at close range and longitudinal fire on enemy rowers from bow guns. Under such conditions, large stone cores were in no way inferior to iron ones.
The stone core could be made from local raw materials, without the use of high-tech equipment. Not only Turkish, but also Burgundian siege weapons of the 15th century used marble. The English artillery of the 16th century used Kentish gray limestone cannonballs ("Kentish ragstone").
In addition, the thin-walled gun could use an analogue of buckshot, making it useful in close combat. This allowed stone-shooting guns in the 16th century to linger in the role of anti-assault and in battle formations. Back in the middle of the 16th century, the army of Charles V had breech-loading stone-shooting cannons, and the stone-shooting guns of the German army became trophies of Charles V in the Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547). Stone cannonballs were used in English artillery of the 16th century. The names of these tools in the 16th century directly meant "stone shooter, stone thrower": fr. "perrier", Spanish "pedrero", German. "Steinbüchse", etc.
The Moscow "Tsar Cannon" (1586), designed specifically for firing "stone shot" - buckshot, was made at a time when the Tatar attacks on Moscow were still real. Stone guns (cannons and mortars) remained in use at the end of the 18th century - in outlying fortifications and in the fleet, most often in the breech-loading version. The arsenal of the Spanish fortress of Castillo de San Marcos in America in 1707 consisted of 6,000 stone shells. Manyusi gives an example of a 16-inch Spanish mortar of 1788, designed for mounted shooting with stone buckshot. This tool (and, apparently, similar to it, too) is from the 1750s. could also fire "baskets of hand grenades".
From the 1470s, siege artillery, primarily French and Burgundian (German - closer to 1500, under Maximilian I), began to switch to an iron (cast iron) cast core. However, a reliable technique for casting cores for large iron cannons would not be developed until the 1540s.
For smaller (field) tools, with an imperfect iron casting technique, composite cores were also used - an iron (rarely a stone) core in a lead sheath. Such cannonballs are found in abundance on the island of Rhodes, and the Danish artillery used similar ones even in 1849. There are also mentions of bronze cannonballs, although these are apparently out of the ordinary cases. Bronze is an expensive material, so it can only be used if there are "free resources" (as in the case of the robbery of cities by imperial and French troops in the Italian wars).
An incendiary projectile for relatively small guns in the 14th century was a fire (cannon) arrow. Since the 15th century, treatises on artillery often depict cannonballs emitting fire (that is, filled with an incendiary composition). It is not clear, however, whether this was actually carried out. An incendiary projectile - a red-hot core, the invention of which is attributed either to Franz von Sickingen (1525), or to the Polish king Stefan Batory in the 3rd quarter of the 16th century, is already known from the Ghent siege of Udenar (1452) and is depicted in treatises of the 15th century.
An explosive projectile (cannon bomb) with a cast iron body was first used at the siege of Rouen in 1562. Its prototype with a case of two copper hemispheres was used by the Venetians as early as 1376. Apparently, the same shells were used in 1388 by the army of the Duke of Bavaria against the city of Regensburg. The army of the Duke of Rimini Malatesta used bronze shells filled with gunpowder in 1434. The shells, which consisted of an iron shell, which was densely packed with gunpowder, were mentioned by the Greek historian of the mid-15th century, Duka.
An anti-personnel projectile-buckshot in its “real” (specially made) form was used for the first time only in the last quarter of the 16th century (the naval battle of Lepanto and the siege of Ostend), but the prototypes of buckshot (stone shot, various fragments and pieces of stone and metal) were used as early as the 14th century.
gun carriage
In the 15th century, guns began to be mounted on wheeled carriages, and in the middle of the century trunnions appeared - transverse axles fastened to the barrel and simplifying vertical aiming. Siege weapons of the old design, i.e. with trunks without trunnions, of course, they still used fixed platforms made of beams, equipped with stops.
But the newly made great cannons under the stone core (and therefore having a particularly large caliber) had to be installed in the same way, since they were too heavy for wheeled carriages. Only a new generation of siege weapons designed for an iron core gained mobility - the new "great cannons" in France, the "royal cannons" in Spain, scarves in Germany, etc.
However, in the 1540s. Biringuccio lamented that the wheeled carriages were so bulky that the cannons were barely able to move and slowed down the movement of the troops. According to Devries and Smith, the low mobility of the cannons in the campaign is still exaggerated. The armies themselves of that time did not move faster than large guns, that is, crossings of the order of 12-20 km per day (figures for an army of 10-20 thousand people).
proper names
Large guns in the 15th century, as a rule, received proper names, moreover, the most bizarre ones. In addition to female names, there were often names by “place of birth or residence”, names of fabulous, outlandish and frightening creatures, and even just random or funny names. But the names also had a very practical meaning - in the era of the absence of standards, they helped to distinguish shells and charges for certain guns in the wagon train.
Samples
Even the "great cannons" become too numerous in the second half of the 15th century to list them all. The following are brief descriptions of the most characteristic or known specimens.
"Faule Magdt von Dresden"
German (Saxon) "faule Magd" of the 1st half of the 15th century. The carriage was made much later
Bombard made in Saxony in the 1st half of the 15th century. The exact year of construction is unknown, but some design features (for example, a relatively large charging chamber) indicate an interval of 1430-1450.
An iron barrel with a caliber of 34.5 cm, muzzle-loading, forged-welded construction (20 longitudinal beams and 46 hoops, rarely planted to the muzzle). The length of the barrel is 2.33 m (including the charging chamber 0.81 m) and the weight is 1.32 tons. The estimated weight of the stone core is about 50 kg.
An example of German "ordinary" great cannons of the middle of the 15th century.
"Dulle Griet von Gent"
Flemish "dulle Griet" (c. 1435). Iron tools for protection against rust, as well as for chic, were painted in bright red and in the 15th century
The bombard "Mad Greta (Margarita) from Ghent" was made in Flanders (1435) and named after the character of Dutch folklore - "boy-woman descending to hell and making a scandal there"(sometimes it is said that the name was allegedly given in memory of the cruel Margaret of Flemish, who lived in the 13th century).
Iron barrel with a caliber of 64 cm, muzzle-loading, forged-welded construction (32 longitudinal beams and 61 hoops). The length of the trunk is 5 m, the weight is 16.4 tons. The weight of the stone core is approx. 320 kg.
The gun was used in battle only once, during the siege of the city of Udenar by the Ghent army (1451/1452); after the failure of the siege and the hasty retreat of the Ghents, the gun fell into the hands of the Udenars and was returned to Ghent only in 1578.
The largest surviving European bombardment of forged and welded construction, but far from the largest ever made.
"Mons Meg"
Flemish "Mons Meg" (1449). Decorative carriage
Bombard Meg (Margarita) from Mons was commissioned by the Duke of Burgundy Philip the Good in Flanders (1449) and presented to the Scottish King James II (1457). studying it in the 1980s. made it possible to re-evaluate the possibilities of forged-welded technology of the middle of the 15th century.
Iron barrel with a caliber of 48-50 cm, muzzle-loading, forged-welded construction (25 longitudinal beams and 36 hoops). The charging chamber is made separately and tightly screwed to the barrel. The length of the trunk is 4 m, the weight is 5.8 tons. The weight of the stone core is approx. 150 kg.
The gun was used in the sieges of Dumberton (1489), Trive (Thrieve, 1497) and Norham (Norham, 1497) castles. In 1682, in Edinburgh, it exploded during a salute in honor of the Duke of York (later King James II of England), nearly injuring the Duke himself. The decorative two-wheeled carriage in the 20th century was replaced by a decorative four-wheeled one, on which the gun is installed today.
An example of large Flemish/Burgundian bombards from the middle of the 15th century.
"Basel gun"
Basel cannon (left) and curto (right)
This bombard is conditionally called "Basel" by the museum in which it is exhibited. Made according to the Burgundian order, apparently in Flanders around 1450. Captured by the Swiss in 1476 (part of the "Burgundy booty").
Iron barrel with a caliber of 34.5-36 cm, muzzle-loading, forged-welded construction (20 longitudinal beams and 34 hoops). The estimated weight of the stone core is 98 pounds.
An example of "ordinary" Flemish/Burgundian bombards from the middle of the 15th century.
Constantinople bombardment
The famous cannon, made by order of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II in 1453 for the siege of Constantinople, is known only from the descriptions of contemporaries, including eyewitnesses of the siege - Byzantine historians Duka and Chalkokondyles. It is known that it was made by the master Urban, who came either from the Hungarian, or from the Dacian (Greek "∆αξ"), or even from the German lands. Although he created other tools, this is what is usually associated with his name ("Urban's cannon").
The barrel is usually considered to be a cast bronze, consisting of two parts, screwed together when installed in position. Assembled barrel length "40 spans"(not less than 8 m), weight of marble cores "1200 pounds" and their size "11-12 spans in a circle"; caliber, therefore, not less than 70 cm; more likely ok. 75–80 cm. Firing range of at least 1 km. The rate of fire is 4 shots per day (sometimes they say about 7 shots per day).
Dardanelles cannon
Dardanelles gun today
A bombard made in 1464 (or 1467) for the Ottoman sultan and presented to the Queen of England in 1866.
The barrel is bronze, cast, consists of two parts. Caliber 63 cm, length 5.18 m and weight 16.8 tons. The estimated weight for marble cores is at least 290 kg.
The only surviving example of these pores and places of manufacture. The gun is on display at Fort Nelson near Portsmouth. It is assumed that in type it is the same as the bombards of the Constantinople and Belgrade sieges. Given the time of manufacture and the numerous explosions of those guns, it is possible that this gun is of an improved design.
"Tsar Cannon"
The famous gun cast in bronze by master Chokhov (Chekhov) in Moscow (1586); installed in the Kremlin. At first it was called "Shotgun". The name "Tsar Cannon" came into use between 1810 ("History" by Karamzin) and 1865 (work by Khmyrov).
The barrel is bronze, cast, relatively thin-walled. Caliber 89 cm, length 5.4 m ( "2 fathoms 3 feet 9 inches"), the mass of St. 39 t ( "2400 pounds"). The projectile, judging by the name, is a charge of "shot", stone buckshot.
Before the “Shotgun” there was already a “huge“ Tsar Cannon ”(aka“ Debosis Cannon ”), cast in Moscow in 1488 by the invited master“ Fryazin [Italian] Pavel Debosis ”. From it in 1584, “in the early days of the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich”, Muscovites who rebelled against the “hated boyar Belsky” intended to shoot at the locked Spassky (or Florovsky) gates of the Kremlin.
Apparently, just these "two huge guns" in the early 1590s. "were lying on Red Square," according to Karamzin.
Despite the time of construction, Chokhov's Tsar Cannon demonstrates the concepts and construction of the 2nd half of the 15th century. The combat value is incomprehensible, but the demonstrative value is undoubted - including, as an example of the mastery of the technique of casting super-large products.
Courtauld
Courtauld are mentioned in the sources for a relatively short period of time and are not clearly defined in them. Of the surviving specimens, Smith and Devries attribute to the curto a bronze cannon in the Basel Museum, originating from the "Burgundy booty" of the Swiss.
The "Burgunderin" cannon in the arsenals of Maximilian I around 1500–1510. Perhaps it was precisely such a tool that contemporaries called "curto", like the bronze barrel in the Basel Museum.
The gun in question was made in 1474 by Jean de Malin (Johann of Mechelen) for the Duke of Burgundy. It was captured by the Swiss in 1476 under Grandson, and is now exhibited in the Basel Museum. A gun called "Burgunderin", almost identical to this one and mounted on a wheeled carriage, is depicted in the inventory of the storehouses of Maximilian I.
The barrel is bronze, cast, caliber 22.7 cm (bore length approx. 7 calibers), with two trunnions. Barrel length 2.55 m, weight 1956 pounds (up to 1 ton). 85 pound cannonball (in the case of an iron cannonball, "Burgunderin" is shown with stone cannonballs in the illustration).
It is also possible that this weapon is a transitional type from the bombard or great cannon of the 15th century to large siege weapons under the iron core of the 16th century, such as scarves and the like. In this case, the specimen is also notable for the presence of only two trunnions on a large 15th-century tool.
1470s sources they talk about curto in the artillery park of Charles the Bold as guns with a charging chamber, a 4½-foot-long barrel, on a wheeled carriage.
Literature and sources
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- Zeugbuch Kaiser Maximilians I. . Innsbruck, .
Although medieval artillery was not really effective until the 16th century, it was used in battle and in sieges from 1320, and originally came in two distinct forms: siege weapons and field artillery. Siege weapons of the XIV-XV centuries. were made by welding iron rods tightly bound around a wooden core and then fixed by fitting on hoop steel, after which the wooden core was burned out.
One end of this shaped tube was closed off by an iron chamber for the powder charge, located near a wedge between it and the barrier that formed the back of the gun. These chambers were bottle-shaped, and their beginning was attached to the breech and bordered on a hole for igniting the charge.
Medieval tools
Many medieval tools had multiple chambers. So a fairly high rate of fire could be achieved. Around 1430, such guns were made with a caliber of 25 inches, capable of firing stone cannonballs weighing up to 400 pounds (the modern pound is 453.6 g, therefore, the weight of the cannonball could reach about 181.5 kg). A significant part of these largest guns was loaded from the muzzle, the end of the breech was blocked by a metal plug.
Small siege guns were tied to sleds for firing and transportation, while large guns were mounted on the ground, on a supporting structure made of wooden beams, and transported on carriages placed on iron wheels. They were lifted onto carriages with a crane. Small muzzle-loading guns were cast from copper, and in the 14th century they demonstrated firing metal arrows.
Medieval Ribalkins
Another type of early field artillery was ribalkins - several small cannons on a wheeled carriage, capable of firing simultaneously from a single fuse. All of these guns used smokeless powder, which was prepared by mixing in small quantities to prevent explosion or segregation of ingredients during transport.
Loading gunpowder was quite a responsible matter. The person had to be sufficiently qualified in this matter, because if the gunpowder was hammered too hard, it could not instantly ignite, and if it was hammered freely, then the flame would go out before it had time to flare up. In the 15th century, smokeless powder was granulated to make it more stable, but only cast barrels could withstand the greater force of the new explosive.
Medieval bronze tools
Bronze guns began to be produced all over Europe around 1440, and as a result, during the second half of the century, a significant number of long guns of small caliber, firing metal shots, were cast in bronze and their effectiveness against fortifications depended on the highest muzzle velocity.
Around 1470, these lightest, most mobile guns began to be cast with trunnions on each side that allowed the gun to be mounted on a wheeled carriage and served as a fulcrum to give the gun an elevation or descent angle.
Hand.
A derivative of the ribalkina was the hand gun, a small cannon fixed on a wooden stock, which became widespread around 1385. The first handguns were inaccurate and slow to load. At the beginning of the 15th century guns were made smaller, the stock was shaped so that it could hold firmly against the chest, and a trigger was introduced for the application of a slow incendiary charge.
This handgun proved to be effective in shooting short range volleys, which was not the case until the introduction of the wheellock in the middle of the century, when the innovation was called the arquebus, and it became a real effective weapon and provided retaliatory actions against archers and columns of pikemen. Companies of akrebusiers, mainly from Germany, participated in most European wars of the second half of the 15th century.
Centuries passed between the discovery of gunpowder and its use in war.
Initially, he had few supporters in Europe. And therefore, the powder genie was released not by the inhabitants, but by the conquerors of Europe.
It was in the middle of the thirteenth century. The concept of the heroic among the Mongol-Tatars was very different from the knightly illusions of the West. Knowing their shortcomings and weaknesses as warriors, they strove, as they would say now, to "increase personal effectiveness."
But, nevertheless, soon Europe had to abandon the old principles and ideals - the benefits and advantages of gunpowder were too obvious. Moreover, both for an ordinary soldier who seeks to save his life at any cost, and for a commander whose goals are more global.
Fragment of a fresco in the Oratorio dei Dishiplini in Clusone, Lombardy, 15th century.
Gradually, firearms became firmly established in European military affairs. The barrels of field guns became longer and longer-range, while hand-held firearms became more compact and more accurate.
Systematization began to appear, which means that codes and arsenal books on firearms appeared, designed to strengthen it in the minds. New forms were invented for medieval cannons. One of them was ribodekin.
All the advantages of medieval cannons were seriously reduced by one serious drawback - low accuracy and weak destructive power of shells.
The solution to this problem for small field calibers was to increase the number of barrels. Accordingly, the rate of fire of such guns also increased. Around the middle of the 15th century, the so-called "organs of death" (German: Totenorgel) appeared, the first of which appeared in the arsenals of the armies of the Holy Roman Empire.
Fragment of the Armory Book of Kaiser Maximilian I, Innsbruck, 1502
Depicted in the "Zeugbuch Kaiser Maximilians I" (Arsenal Book of Emperor Maximilian I) such a tool could have up to forty barrels connected together, mounted on a single bed. For mobility, it was equipped with wheels.
The volley was fired with the help of a common seed or separately, by means of a wick. The Zeugbuch says: "... and they should be used near the gates and where the enemy is preparing for an assault, they are also useful in".
Bared cannons
In the open field, the artillery system of the totenorgel type was extremely vulnerable.
Antiquity came to the rescue, which seriously influenced the geniuses of the High Middle Ages - not only in art, but also in military affairs. Multi-barreled medieval cannons began to be equipped with scythes and blades, in the manner of ancient war chariots.
So on the battlefields ribaudequins begin to rule the ball. The number of barrels, when compared with the "organs of death" of Maximilian I, was reduced, but a ricochet shield appeared, as well as all kinds of peaks and scythes.
Miniature from the Inventory, Innsbruck, 1511
One of the earliest mentions of ribodekin refers to the arsenal book of the city of Bruges and is dated 1435. The arsenal of Bruges included "6 ribodekins with red-painted chambers."
The battle of Gawer (1453) began with an artillery skirmish between the Burgundian and Ghent Weglers, Ribodekins and Culevrins, which began the battle itself.
In 1458, the arsenal of the city of Lille consisted of approximately 194 units of such weapons. The accounting records of the Lille arsenal for 1465 contain several entries at once, giving an idea of the characteristics of ribodekins:
- "1,200 stones of 2 inches sent for the needs of the army from Lille in the period from May 22, 1465 to January 27, 1466, for artillery ribodekin",
- “4 carriages with ribodekins, of which 3 with 2 “flutes” (flaigeoz) and 1 with 3 “flutes”, “5 wooden carts, called ribodekins, equipped with a drawbar, wheels, platform and pavua”.
It is curious that during the time of Charles the Bold (1433 - 1477), ribodekins were practically not used by the Burgundian troops. However, at the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. these guns experienced a real "renaissance" and appeared in large numbers in the German-Spanish troops.
Giant Ribodekin Monja
The German military engineer Philipp Mönch tried to create a truly invincible combat unit based on ribodekin. To do this, he turned to the beloved German theme of gigantism.
In his Kriegsbuch (1496), Monch depicted and described something that most closely resembled Leonardo da Vinci's tank. A huge ribodekin, driven not by a pair of infantrymen, but by four oxen. On itself, this unit carries guns of medium and close to the main caliber. And in addition to blades and a peak, it also has a ram for destroying obstacles.
Engraving fragment from Kriegsbuch. Philipp Mönch, 1496
According to Monch's idea, such a ribodekin should be as automated as possible. But in his code, he does not make it clear exactly how this can be done. And, there are no facts confirming the use of such huge medieval guns.
The seductive system of autonomous organ guns has not left the minds of engineers alone for four centuries, acquiring quite different, often very bizarre, views. The result of the research was the appearance in the second half of the 19th century of the mitrailleuse, the evil great-grandmother of modern machine guns.
The famous "Gatling gun" from computer games. The correct name is the rapid-fire Gatling gun of the 1862 model. In French - Mitrailleuse Gatling ("mitrailleuse Gatling"). Photo from the Artillery Museum. Saint Petersburg.
To be continued..
Photo: Dmitry Yakushev and from the social. networks "VKontakte"
Throughout human history, people have invented and perfected ways to kill each other. In our review, 15 examples of the most effective medieval weapons that could be called weapons of mass destruction.
1. Armored shield
The armored shield was allegedly used by the guards of Henry VIII in the period from 1544 to 1547. The shield had a viewing slot and a hole through which a pistol could be fired.
2. Swordbreaker
This unusual sword with teeth on the sides was intended to capture the opponent's sword. One wave of the hand was enough to snatch the sword from the hands of the enemy.
3. Spring loaded dagger
A spring-loaded dagger with three blades was used in medieval duels. It was enough to press a button for the dagger to "throw out" two additional blades.
Most often, the weapon with the romantic name "Morning Star", which was a mace on a chain, was used by peasants. But there were also expensive samples made by masters.
5. Trebuchet
Trebuchets, a sort of super-catapults, made it possible to launch stones and other objects for throwing almost a kilometer. With the advent of trebuchets, castles became less reliable fortifications.
6. Carcasses of dead animals
Dead animal carcasses were the most popular ammunition for trebuchets. They were used as bio-weapons as they contributed to the spread of disease outside the castle walls.
7. Chariot with scythes
A scythe protruded from each wheel of the chariot. Such a chariot was designed to cut out enemy troops.
8. Hunga-munga
The weapon, named after the African tribe that used it, was used like a boomerang.
9. Boiling oil
Boiling oil was poured from the walls of the castle on those who tried to capture it. If there was no oil, water was used for the same purposes.
10. Broadsword
The broadsword was used by knights and cavalrymen. With its help, the warrior effortlessly decapitated the enemy or cut off his limb.
11. Warhammer
With the advent of armor and chain mail, there was a need for such unusual hammers - blunt weapons that could deliver strong blows.
12. Ramming
Rams are still used today by the police when you need to open the gate. They were used in the Middle Ages. True, then the stormers of the castle risked getting a portion of boiling oil on their heads.
13. Claw of Archimedes
I consider the claw of Archimedes to be the superweapon of antiquity. It was used to protect Carthage. The work of the gun was to raise the enemy ram from the ground to the maximum height, from where it would inevitably fall after opening the hooks. Sometimes the claw of Archimedes could work according to a different principle: it lifted huge logs and threw them at enemy ships. And he could even turn ships over.
Shuriken is Japanese for "blade hidden in the hand". While the Europeans were inventing technological weapons, the Japanese preferred to inflict mortal wounds on the sly.
fire arrows
It may seem that fire arrows as a weapon are not very effective. But it's not. A dozen hot arrows will not add optimism to the enemy.
Today, it seems, a new era has begun, which will bring the arms race to a new level. may be proof of this.