How much did the armor of 13th century knights weigh? Knight's plate armor: myths and refutations
Chain mail- This is a type of armor that consists of small metal rings connected together in the form of a network.
The word “chain mail” itself denotes the material (fabric of chain mail rings), and not products made from it. For example, a shirt made of chain mail is called hauberk when it is knee-length, haubergon when it is mid-thigh length, and bernie when it is waist-length. Chainmail gaiters are called , a chainmail hood is called a coif, and chainmail mittens are called mitons. A chainmail collar suspended from a helmet is called. A chain mail collar wrapped around the neck is called a pixan. Chainmail was often used for decorative purposes and in jewelry.
Story
Earliest finds chain mail date back to the 4th century BC, they were found in Celtic burials in Romania. It is believed that the Roman Republic first encountered chain mail during battles with the Gauls in Cisalpine Gaul (now Northern Italy). The Roman army adapted the technology for its troops in the form, which was used as the main form of armor during the Imperial period.
The use of chainmail can be traced throughout the Dark Ages, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and reached its apogee (in terms of body covering) in Europe during the 13th century, when chainmail covered the entire body.
In the 14th century they were widely used to strengthen chain mail. Typically, chain mail was reinforced with plates in most parts. However, chain mail was still widely used by many soldiers, along with brigands and quilts. These three types of armor made up the vast majority of all types of armor used at the time, and chain mail was the most expensive of them all. Often chain mail was more expensive than plate armor. A chainmail shirt woven between two layers of fabric was called a jazzerant, and could be worn as protective clothing.
The chain mail that has survived to this day is represented in various museum collections.
The Japanese used chain mail (kusari) in limited types of armor during the early Nambokuchi period (1336-1392). Two basic weaving methods were used: a 4-in-1 square (husari) and a 6-in-1 hexagon (khana gusari). Kusari was usually made from rings much smaller than those used in European chain mail, and kusari was used on a much smaller scale - instead of making a full coat of mail, small pieces of it were used to connect armor plates and to cover vulnerable areas such as the armpits. The rings were neither welded nor riveted, although some sections were woven from rings with two or more twists, similar to modern key chains. The rings were varnished to prevent corrosion, and were always sewn to fabric or leather. Kusari was sometimes hidden between layers of fabric or leather.
The effectiveness of chain mail
Mail armor provides effective protection against cutting blows and against penetrating blows of piercing weapons; The Royal Armories in Leeds (Great Britain) concluded that “... it is practically impossible to pierce chain mail with any conventional weapons" In general, chainmail's resistance to weapons is determined by four factors: the type of joint (jointed, riveted, or welded), the materials used (iron, bronze, or steel), the density of the weave (tighter weave requires a thinner weapon to penetrate the chainmail), and the thickness of the rings (usually 1-3 mm). Chainmail, if a warrior could afford it, gave a significant advantage to the warrior when using appropriate fighting techniques. However, a strong blow with a sword perpendicular to the surface of the chain mail could cut its rings; if the chain mail was not riveted, a precise blow from a spear or thin sword could penetrate it; a blow from a pollax or halberd could also penetrate chain mail. Special arrows, known as awls, were specifically designed to penetrate light chain mail through holes in its rings. Surviving evidence suggests that during combat the main tendency was to bypass armored areas rather than trying to penetrate them - this is shown by a study of skeletons found in Visby, Sweden - most of the skeletons had wounds on the less protected legs.
The flexibility of chainmail meant that a crushing blow could often wound the warrior wearing it, causing serious bruises and fractures, and chainmail was poor protection for the head. Mail-clad warriors usually wore separate helmets over their mail coifs to protect their heads. Moreover, blunt weapons such as clubs and war hammers could inflict injury through chain mail without destroying it, so it was common to wear soft armor such as padded armor underneath the chain mail. Chain mail was nevertheless of great importance in reducing the risk of cuts and infections, which were very dangerous to the life of a soldier at that time.
Making chain mail
Several ways to connect rings chain mail have been known since ancient times, of which the most common was the 4-in-1 weave (when each ring is connected to four others). In Europe, 4-in-1 weaving had complete dominance. Chain mail was also widespread in East Asia, mainly in Japan, where several other weaving methods were used.
Historically, in Europe, in the pre-Roman period, the rings of chain mail were riveted to reduce the likelihood of the rings coming apart when stabbed or hit by an arrow. Until the 14th century, European chain mail was made from successively connected riveted and welded rings. Later, chain mail was made only from riveted rings. The rings were made of wrought iron. Some later mail pieces were made from forged steel with a noticeable carbon content, allowing for hardening.
Wire for riveted rings was made in two ways. One method was to hammer the iron into plates, which were then cut. These thin strips were then pulled through a drawing board until the required diameter was achieved. Several manuscripts from the time show a water wheel used for this operation. Another method was simply forging iron rods and then drawing them into wire. The ends of the rings were connected using a punch. Forge welding was also used to join rings, but the only known example of such chain mail in Europe dates back to the 7th century - the Coppergate Mail Cape. Outside Europe, this method was more common, for example the well-known “theta” weaving from India.
Historical reconstruction
Many historical reenactment clubs, especially those focusing on antiquity and the Middle Ages, make extensive use of chain mail as armor and as part of costume. Chain mail is especially popular with clubs that use steel weapons. A warrior wearing a hauberk and shosse can run, get up from the ground, jump, somersault, and even swim while fully equipped, depending on his fitness level. Modern reconstruction A hauberk made of rings with an internal diameter of 10 mm weighs about 10 kg, and contains from 15,000 to 45,000 rings. Chain mail can be worn under everyday clothing, and some reenactors wear a hauberk under their regular clothing to get used to it.
One of the two main disadvantages of chain mail is that its weight is unevenly distributed; The main burden falls on the shoulders. Weight can be more evenly distributed by using a belt worn over the chain mail, which provides another point of support.
Chain mail in films
Some films use knitted fabric painted with metallic paint instead of chainmail to keep the film's budget down (for example, Monty Paton and the Holy Grail, which was made on a very small budget). Films more attentive to costume precision often use ABS plastic (high-impact engineering resin) to make chainmail rings, to reduce cost and weight. Hundreds of these chainmails were made for the Lord of the Rings trilogy, in addition to regular metal chainmail. Metal chain mail is rarely used in films due to their weight, except for close-up scenes in which chain mail made of ABS plastic no longer look believable.
Scientists became interested in how much energy a person dressed in Western European knightly armor spends. Modern fans of reenacting historical battles wear lighter armor than the warriors who wore them in the 15th century. Solid articulated armor was produced only in Europe, so to speak, for their own needs, because they fought in such clothing only in Europe. In Asia, it was rarely found only among Turkish sipahis.
At one of the festivals "Crossroads of Times", dedicated to the Day The baptism of Rus', which took place in the format of a knightly tournament, men dressed in knightly costumes of various eras participated in impromptu duels and mass battles. Weigh modern armor from 10 to 30 kilograms. When the thermometer exceeds 30 degrees, fighting with such equipment is not at all easy. Medieval warriors had it even worse - in the 15th century knight's armor ranged from 30 to 50 kilograms.
Researchers from the University of Leeds have found that moving with armor is twice as difficult as without it. According to the biology web journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, volunteers participating in the experiment donned knight's armor and stood on treadmill. Sensors were attached to them to record exhaled air, heart rate, blood pressure and other physiological parameters while the subjects walked or ran.
The experiment showed that walking in armor consumes 2.1-2.3 times more energy than without it. During running, this figure increased by 1.9 times. The researchers also found that energy consumption when wearing armor is higher than when moving with an equal weight load on the hands. This is due to overcoming the resistance of the armor when moving the limbs.
Answering the simple question of how much knightly armor weighed on average is not so simple. The whole problem lies in the evolution that this military vestment has undergone. The immediate predecessors of Western European knights were heavily armed horsemen - cataphracts (translated: “armored” or “clad in iron”). In late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages, they were part of the Iranian, late Roman and Byzantine armies. Accordingly, the prototype for knightly armor was the protective vestment of cataphracts.
From the first half of the 12th century, chain mail woven from steel rings (sometimes in two or three layers) became widespread. Chain mail existed until the middle of the 14th century.
In the next century, armor appeared that protected the most vulnerabilities. In addition, chain mail could no longer protect against a novelty that had appeared in military affairs - firearms.
English armor of the 14th century
The individual parts of the knight's armor were connected to each other with rivets, and the parts were fastened with straps and buckles. Total parts of Western European knightly vestments sometimes reached two hundred, and their total weight could be 55 kilograms.
Russian warriors, for the most part those who fought with the steppe nomads dressed in more light armor, which weighed about the same as the average load of a modern paratrooper, that is, about 20-35 kilograms.
The armor of the 15th century reliably protected against damage from arrows from a bow, and withstood the blows of crossbow bolts and arquebus bullets fired from a distance of 25-30 meters. Neither darts, nor spears, nor even swords, with the exception of heavier two-handed swords, could penetrate them.
English armor of the 15th century
In the second half of the 15th century, the art of forging knightly armor reached its peak highest development, not only from a technological point of view, but also from an artistic one. Knightly armor for the nobility was decorated very richly: they were covered with niello (a special alloy of silver, lead and sulfur), they were tauched (inlaid with metal on metal) or notched (filling specially made “grooves” in the armor with non-ferrous metal - gold, silver, aluminum). Deep embossing and bluing were also used, that is, obtaining iron oxides on the surface of the steel.
Moreover, the latter was used not only for decorative purposes, but also for pragmatic ones, as it helped reduce metal corrosion. Also used was a method of decorating armor such as gold plating or gilding. To cover military vestments with a layer of this precious metal, gold was first dissolved in mercury and stirred with a graphite rod until completely dissolved. The resulting amalgam was poured into water and cooled, after which it was applied to the prepared product. The “uniforms” of the Italian knights were considered the most beautiful.
Maximilian armor
In the 16th century, a new “style” of knightly armor appeared, which, unlike the Gothic ones, began to be called Maximilian, in honor of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (1459-1519), nicknamed the “last knight.” However, in German for their name there is another equivalent - Riefelharnisch, and in English they are also not always called Maximilian armor, but fluted armor.
The armor was a complex mechanical structure, consisting of more than two hundred individual parts, made individually for a specific person. To wear it you needed a good physical training, since its weight without weapons was at least three poods (fifty kilograms).
The main part of Maximilian's armor is the aventail, a plate with a cutout for the neck, it was intended to protect the collarbone and shoulders. The remaining parts of the armor were attached to it. The chest and back of the knight were protected by armor, which consisted of two halves. In front, for greater reliability, a belly pad was put on the armor. It was made from a set of metal plates connected by hinges. The upper part of the armor was reinforced by mantles, to which bracers were attached. They consisted of two parts, connected by a hinged elbow pad, which allowed the knight to bend his arm. A belt or spring mechanism connecting the armor and mantles ensured free movement of the arms.
But that's not all. A special throat plate and butt plate were attached to the top of the aventail, which protected the neck from a slashing blow from behind.
The lower part of the helmet rested on the throat plate, protecting the chin and bottom part faces. The upper part was lined with soft leather from the inside and lay loosely on the knight's head. Only when the visor was lowered were the parts of the helmet connected into a single rigid structure.
The knight's legs were protected by steel legguards, to which hinged knee pads were attached. The shins were covered with special leggings, consisting of a front and back half.
Not only the inside of the helmet, but also the surface of the armor was covered with leather, and in places of possible impacts, felt or woolen plates were inserted under the skin. On the outside, Maximilian armor was decorated with various patterns and engravings.
To prevent the metal armor from chafing the body, the knight wore a gambizon underneath - a thin quilted robe consisting of a short jacket and pants. After the advent of lightweight tournament armor, the gambizon was no longer used, replacing it with a leather camisole and leggings.
Dressed in Maximilian armor, the knight was practically unable to move without assistance. In a combat situation, he was constantly accompanied by a squire. He served necessary weapons and helped the knight get off his horse.
Special steel recipes were developed for armor. Thanks to special hardening, they protected from almost all types of throwing and cutting weapons. Making armor was a long and difficult task, since all the parts were bent by hand using cold forging.
Curiously, hard metal armor became widespread only in Europe. In the countries of the East, Maximilian armor was replaced by long metal chain mail, to which metal plates - mirrors - were attached to the back and chest.
The use of chain mail was explained by the fact that the main branch of the military in the East was cavalry, the success of which was ensured by speed and maneuverability. But it is difficult to even imagine how a cavalry charge could be carried out if it involved horses loaded to the limit with metal.
turkish armor
Russian armor
On average, the weight of knightly armor reached 22.7-29.5 kilograms; helmet - from 2.3 to 5.5 kilograms; chain mail under the armor - about seven kilograms; shield - 4.5 kilograms. The total weight of knightly armor could be close to 36.5-46.5 kilograms. Knocked out of the saddle, the knights could no longer mount their horses on their own. For foot combat they used special armor with a steel skirt instead of leggings and boots.
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Chain mail:
1. Chain mail. (Germany, XV century) Length 73 cm, sleeves to the elbow, ring diameter 11 mm, wire 1.6 mm, weight 4.47 kg.
2. Chain mail. Length 71 cm, sleeves to the elbow, wire 0.9 mm (flat rings), ring diameter 4 mm, weight 8.8 kg.
3. Long-sleeved chain mail. (first half of the 15th century, Germany). Length 68 cm, Sleeve length (from the armpit) 60 cm, wire 1 mm (semicircular rings), ring diameter 11 mm, weight 9.015 kg.
4. Long-sleeved chain mail. (end of the 15th century) Length 71 cm, wire 1 - 1.2 mm (flat rings), ring diameter 11 - 9.9 mm, weight 7.485 kg.
5. Chainmail sleeves. (XV - XVI centuries) Total length 90 cm, sleeve length 64 cm, rings with a diameter of 5.4 mm of two types: riveted (wire 0.9 mm) and stamped (0.4 mm), weight 1.94 kg.
6. Chainmail sleeves. (XVI century) Total length 60 cm, sleeve length 53, rings with a diameter of 7 mm, weight 1.57 kg.
7. Chain mail cap (Germany(?) XV century) Weight 0.59 kg.
Helmets:
1. Tophelm 1376-1448 The thickness of the front plate is 3-3.4 mm, the occipital plate is 2.3-2.7 mm, the crown is 1.7-22 mm, the weight of the helmet is 6.46 kg.
2. Tophelm approx. 1300 g. Weight 2.45 kg.
3. Tophelm found in a tower in Bolzano – Italy ca. 1300 Frontal height 29 cm; back height 21.5 cm; circumference 31x22 cm; weight 2.5 kg.
4. Tophelm. Height (of the preserved part) 28 cm, weight 2.48 kg.
5. Tophelm approx. 1300 Weight 2.34 kg.
6. Tophelm end of the 14th century. Weight 5.15 kg.
7. Tophelm, late 14th century. Weight 4.5 kg.
8. Tophelm approx. 1350 g. Weight 2.94 kg.
9. Tophelm. Weight 2.625 kg.
10. Tophelm Thickness 3 mm, weight 2.6 kg.
11. Tophelm 1352 Helmet height 35.56 cm, weight 3.6 kg.
12. Tophelm ca. 1350 g. Weight 3.75 kg.
13. Barbut, Italy, about 1440 g (Wallace collection, London, 39) - 2.66 kg.
14. Bascinet Hundsgugel. Weight with aventile 7.1 kg.
15. Bascinet 14th century. Weight 3.37 kg
16. . Bascinet (hunsgugel type), Hermitage: back of head 2.8mm forehead - 3mm.
17. Barbut, Italy, about 1440 g (Wallace collection, London, 39) - 2.66 kg.
18. Salad Germany 1480-90, Weighs about 3.8 kg.
19. Salad Germany Innsbruck(?), approx. 1490. Height 26 cm. Length 37 cm. Weight 2.65 kg.
20. Salad of Baron de Casson. Weight 2.3 kg
21. Salad, Hermitage: thickness at the crown 2.1 mm, thickness at the side 1.8 mm, bivor 1.5 mm.
22. Salad, Innsbruck, around 1485 (Cherburg, 62) - 3.33 kg.
23. Venetian salad, knight's hall in the Hermitage: thickness at the top 1.9 mm, thickness at the side 1.7 mm.
24. Salad on the German infantry Gothic Knights' Hall in the Hermitage: thickness at the top 1.7 mm, thickness at the side 1.4 mm.
25. Salad (in Italian Gothic), Artillery Museum: thickness at the top 1.6 mm, thickness at the side 1.4 mm.
26. German Salad, Hermitage Arsenal: thickness at the crown 2.2 mm, thickness at the side 1.9 mm.
27. Arme, Hermitage: thickness at the crown 1.9 mm, thickness at the side 1.7 mm.
28. Arme, Hermitage: thickness at the crown 2.3 mm, thickness at the side 2 mm.
29. Arme 1530 - 40, Hermitage: thickness at the top - 2.2 mm, thickness at the side - 2 mm.
30. Arme, Hermitage thickness at the crown 2.3 mm, thickness at the side 1.9 mm.
31. Arme, Hermitage thickness at the crown - 1.4 mm, thickness at the side 1.3 mm.
32. Arme Milanese, Missaglia, second half of the 15th century, Hermitage (heavily damaged by corrosion, all the way through) thickness at the top 1.3 mm, thickness at the side 1.2 mm.
33. Arme in the Maximilian style, 1530s, Augsburg, private collection: crown 2mm, frontal part 1.7mm, visor 1.7mm, weight 2.2kg.
34. Arme, Italy, about 1450 g (Wallace collection, London, 85) - 3.6 kg.
35. Closed helmet, Germany, around 1530 (Wallace collection, London, 245) - 3.13 kg.
36. Morion, Nuremberg, circa 1580 (Wallace collection, London, 778) – 1.79 kg.
Armor and its elements.
1. Set of Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst Master Jacob Halder, Greenwich, 1590-1600.
The unengraved parts (dark in the photo) were painted purple (the drawing was preserved in the gunsmith’s “catalog”)
Weight: helmet (without pad) 2.8 kg; buff 1.42 kg; necklace 1.7 kg; cuirass front plate 5.38 kg; back plate 4.03 kg; skirt and balaclavas 2.3 kg; left shoulder pad 3.7 kg; right shoulder pad 3.5 kg; gloves - 0.705 kg each; thigh guards with knee pads 1.2 kg each; left leggings and boots 1.5 kg; right leggings and boots 1.6.
Total weight 32 kg.
Of the tournament parts for this armor, there is only a poster (placate - reinforcement of the cuirass breastplate) weighing 4 kg.
2. Maximilian armor (1540) Total weight 29 kg.
3. Full Late Gothic armor. Southern Germany, 1475-1485
The weight of the rider's armor is 27 kg, plus 7 kg of chain mail.
The weight of horse armor (including an armored saddle 9 kg) is 30 kg plus 3 kg of chain mail. Total weight 67 kg.
4. Tournament half-armor "Stekhtsoig", Auksburg, ca. 1590
The thickness of the helmet (at the front at the slot) is 13 mm, the weight of the helmet is 8 kg; The thickness of the bib is 3 - 7 mm.
Total weight - 40.9 kg.
5. Tournament armor by master Anton Pefenhauser. Total weight - 31.06 kg.
6. Battle armor by master Anton Pefenhauser. Total weight 25.58 kg.
7. Composite armor (Germany, Austria, Italy) 1490-1510. Weight 24.6 kg.
8. City guard armor: brigantine thickness 0.5-0.8 mm, helmet thickness 1.2-1.5 mm.
9. Battle armor, Italy, circa 1550-1560. (Wallace collection, London, 737) 20.8 kg.
10. Battle armor, Italy, around 1590 (Wallace collection, London, 434-439) 32.6 kg.
11. Breastplate for tournament armor 1510-1520. Height 37.5 cm. Weight 7.8 kg.
12. Infantry bib with skirt Milan 1480. 35cm wide, 52.5cm high, 17.5cm deep. Weighs 2.835 kg.
13. Elbowpiece from Rhodes 1490-1500. Width about 12 cm, length about 14 cm and depth 10 cm. Weight 170 g
Sources:
www.tgorod.ru
www.holger.sitecity.ru
K. Blair "Knight's armor of Europe" Moscow 2006
“Oh, knights, arise, the hour of action has come!
You have shields, steel helmets and armor.
Your dedicated sword is ready to fight for your faith.
Give me strength, oh God, for new glorious battles.
I, a beggar, will take rich booty there.
I don’t need gold and I don’t need land,
But maybe I will be, singer, mentor, warrior,
Rewarded with heavenly bliss forever"
(Walter von der Vogelweide. Translation by V. Levick)
It has already been published on the VO website sufficient quantity articles devoted to the topic of knightly weapons and, in particular, knightly armor. However, this topic is so interesting that you can delve into it for a very long time. The reason for turning to her again is banal... weight. Weight of armor and weapons. Alas, recently I asked students again how much it weighs knight's sword, and received the following set of numbers: 5, 10 and 15 kilograms. They considered chain mail weighing 16 kg to be very light, although not all of them did, and the weight of plate armor at just over 20 kilos was simply ridiculous.
Figures of a knight and a horse in full protective equipment. Traditionally, knights were imagined exactly like this - “chained in armor.” (Cleveland Museum of Art)
At VO, naturally, “things with weight” are much better due to regular publications on this topic. However, the opinion about the excessive weight of the “knightly costume” of the classical type has not yet been eradicated here. Therefore, it makes sense to return to this topic and consider it with specific examples.
Western European chain mail (hauberk) 1400 - 1460 Weight 10.47 kg. (Cleveland Museum of Art)
Let's start with the fact that British weapons historians created a very reasonable and clear classification of armor according to its specific characteristics and as a result, they divided the entire Middle Ages, guided, naturally, by available sources, into three eras: “the era of chain mail,” “the era of mixed chain mail and plate protective weapons,” and “the era of solid forged armor.” All three eras together make up the period from 1066 to 1700. Accordingly, the first era has a framework of 1066 - 1250, the second - the era of chain mail-plate armor - 1250 - 1330. But then this: the early stage in the development of knightly plate armor stands out (1330 - 1410), “ great period"in the history of knights in “white armor” (1410 - 1500) and the era of the decline of knightly armor (1500 - 1700).
Chain mail together with a helmet and aventail (aventail) XIII - XIV centuries. (Royal Arsenal, Leeds)
During the years of “wonderful Soviet education” we had never heard of such periodization. But in the school textbook “History of the Middle Ages” for VΙ grade for many years, with some rehashes, one could read the following:
“It was not easy for the peasants to defeat even one feudal lord. The mounted warrior - knight - was armed heavy sword and a long spear. He could cover himself from head to toe with a large shield. The knight's body was protected by chain mail - a shirt woven from iron rings. Later, chain mail was replaced by armor - armor made of iron plates.
Classic knightly armor, which was most often discussed in textbooks for schools and universities. Before us is Italian armor of the 15th century, restored in the 19th century. Height 170.2 cm. Weight 26.10 kg. Helmet weight 2850 g (Metropolitan Museum, New York)
Knights fought on strong, hardy horses, which were also protected by armor. The knight's weapons were very heavy: they weighed up to 50 kilograms. Therefore, the warrior was clumsy and clumsy. If a rider was thrown from his horse, he could not get up without help and was usually captured. To fight on horseback in heavy armor, long training was needed; feudal lords prepared for military service from childhood. They constantly practiced fencing, horse riding, wrestling, swimming, and javelin throwing.
German armor 1535. Presumably from Brunswick. Weight 27.85 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
A war horse and knightly weapons were very expensive: for all this a whole herd had to be given - 45 cows! The landowner for whom the peasants worked could perform knightly service. Therefore, military affairs became an occupation almost exclusively of feudal lords” (Agibalova, E.V. History of the Middle Ages: Textbook for the 6th grade / E.V. Agibalova, G.M. Donskoy, M.: Prosveshchenie, 1969. P.33; Golin, E.M. History of the Middle Ages: Tutorial for 6th grade evening (shift) school / E.M. Golin, V.L. Kuzmenko, M.Ya. Leuberg. M.: Education, 1965. P. 31-32.)
A knight in armor and a horse in horse armor. The work of master Kunz Lochner. Nuremberg, Germany 1510 - 1567 It dates back to 1548. The total weight of the rider's equipment, including horse armor and saddle, is 41.73 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Only in the 3rd edition of the textbook “History of the Middle Ages” for VΙ grade high school V.A. Vedyushkin, published in 2002, the description of knightly weapons became somewhat truly thoughtful and corresponded to the above-mentioned periodization used today by historians around the world: “At first, the knight was protected by a shield, helmet and chain mail. Then the most vulnerable parts of the body began to be hidden behind metal plates, and from the 15th century, chain mail was finally replaced by solid armor. Battle armor weighed up to 30 kg, so for battle the knights chose hardy horses, also protected by armor.”
Armor of Emperor Ferdinand I (1503-1564) Gunsmith Kunz Lochner. Germany, Nuremberg 1510 - 1567 Dated 1549. Height 170.2 cm. Weight 24 kg.
That is, in the first case, intentionally or out of ignorance, the armor was divided into eras in a simplified manner, while a weight of 50 kg was attributed to both the armor of the “era of chain mail” and the “era of all-metal armor” without dividing into the actual armor of the knight and the armor of his horse. That is, judging by the text, our children were offered information that “the warrior was clumsy and clumsy.” In fact, the first articles showing that this is actually not the case were publications by V.P. Gorelik in the magazines “Around the World” in 1975, but this information never made it into textbooks for Soviet schools at that time. The reason is clear. Using anything, using any examples, show the superiority of the military science of Russian soldiers over the “dog knights”! Unfortunately, the inertia of thinking and the not-so-great significance of this information make it difficult to disseminate information that corresponds to scientific data.
Armor set from 1549, which belonged to Emperor Maximilian II. (Wallace Collection) As you can see, the option in the photo is tournament armor, as it features a grandguard. However, it could be removed and then the armor became combat. This achieved considerable savings.
Nevertheless, the provisions of the school textbook V.A. Vedyushkina are completely true. Moreover, information about the weight of armor, well, say, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (as well as from other museums, including our Hermitage in St. Petersburg, then Leningrad) was available for a very long time, but in the textbooks of Agibalov and Donskoy For some reason I didn’t get there in due time. However, it’s clear why. After all, we had the best education in the world. However, this is a special case, although quite indicative. It turned out that there were chain mail, then - again and again, and now armor. Meanwhile, the process of their appearance was more than lengthy. For example, only around 1350 was the appearance of the so-called “metal chest” with chains (from one to four) that went to a dagger, sword and shield, and sometimes a helmet was attached to the chain. Helmets at this time were not yet connected to protective plates on the chest, but under them they wore chain mail hoods that had a wide shoulder. Around 1360, armor began to have clasps; in 1370, the knights were almost completely dressed in iron armor, and chain mail fabric was used as a base. The first brigandines appeared - caftans, and lining made of metal plates. They were used both as an independent type of protective clothing and worn together with chain mail, both in the West and in the East.
Knight's armor with a brigandine over chain mail and a bascinet helmet. Around 1400-1450 Italy. Weight 18.6 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Since 1385, the thighs began to be covered with armor made of articulated strips of metal. In 1410, full-plate armor for all parts of the body had spread throughout Europe, but mail throat cover was still in use; in 1430, the first grooves appeared on the elbow and knee pads, and by 1450, armor made of forged steel sheets had reached its perfection. Beginning in 1475, the grooves on them became increasingly popular until fully fluted or so-called “Maximilian armor”, the authorship of which is attributed to the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, became a measure of the skill of their manufacturer and the wealth of their owners. Subsequently, knightly armor became smooth again - their shape was influenced by fashion, but the skills achieved in the craftsmanship of their finishing continued to develop. Now it was not only people who fought in armor. The horses also received it, as a result the knight with the horse turned into something like a real statue made of polished metal that sparkled in the sun!
Another “Maximilian” armor from Nuremberg 1525 - 1530. It belonged to Duke Ulrich, the son of Henry of Württemberg (1487 - 1550). (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)
Although... although fashionistas and innovators, “running ahead of the locomotive,” have always been there too. For example, it is known that in 1410 a certain English knight named John de Fiarles paid Burgundian gunsmiths 1,727 pounds sterling for armor, a sword and a dagger made for him, which he ordered to be decorated with pearls and... diamonds (!) - a luxury that was not only unheard of time, but even for him it is not at all characteristic.
Field armor of Sir John Scudamore (1541 or 1542-1623). Armourer Jacob Jacob Halder (Greenwich Workshop 1558-1608) Circa 1587, restored 1915. Weight 31.07 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
Each piece of plate armor received its own name. For example, plates for the thighs were called cuisses, knee pads - logs (poleyns), jambers (jambers) - for the legs and sabatons (sabatons) for the feet. Gorgets or bevors (gorgets, or bevors) protected the throat and neck, cutters (couters) - elbows, e(c)paulers, or pauldrones (espaudlers, or pauldrons) - shoulders, rerebraces (rerebraces) - forearm , vambraces (vambraces) - part of the arm down from the elbow, and gant(e)lets (gantelets) - these are “plate gloves” - protected the hands. The full set of armor also included a helmet and, at least at first, a shield, which subsequently ceased to be used on the battlefield around the middle of the 15th century.
Armor of Henry Herbert (1534-1601), Second Earl of Pembroke. Made around 1585 - 1586. in the Greenwich armory (1511 - 1640). Weight 27.24 kg. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
As for the number of details in the “white armor”, in the armor of the mid-15th century there are total number could reach 200 units, and taking into account all the buckles and nails, along with hooks and various screws, even up to 1000. The weight of the armor was 20 - 24 kg, and it was distributed evenly over the knight’s body, unlike chain mail, which pressed on the person on shoulders. So “no crane was required to put such a rider in his saddle. And knocked off his horse to the ground, he did not at all look like a helpless beetle.” But the knight of those years was not a mountain of meat and muscles, and he by no means relied solely on brute strength and bestial ferocity. And if we pay attention to how knights are described in medieval works, we will see that very often they had a fragile (!) and graceful physique, and at the same time had flexibility, developed muscles, and were strong and very agile, even when dressed in armor, with well-developed muscle response.
Tournament armor made by Anton Peffenhauser around 1580 (Germany, Augsburg, 1525-1603) Height 174.6 cm); shoulder width 45.72 cm; weight 36.8 kg. It should be noted that tournament armor was usually always heavier than combat armor. (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)
In the last years of the 15th century, knightly weapons became the subject of special concern for European sovereigns, and, in particular, Emperor Maximilian I (1493 - 1519), who is credited with creating knightly armor with grooves along their entire surface, eventually called “Maximilian.” It was used without any special changes in the 16th century, when new improvements were required due to the ongoing development of small arms.
Now just a little about swords, because if you write about them in detail, then they deserve a separate topic. J. Clements - famous British specialist on edged weapons of the Middle Ages, believes that it was the advent of multi-layer combined armor (for example, on the effigy of John de Creque we see as many as four layers of protective clothing) that led to the appearance of a “sword in one and a half hands.” Well, the blades of such swords ranged from 101 to 121 cm, and weight from 1.2 to 1.5 kg. Moreover, blades are known for chopping and piercing blows, as well as purely for stabbing. He notes that horsemen used such swords until 1500, and they were especially popular in Italy and Germany, where they were called Reitschwert (equestrian) or knight's sword. In the 16th century, swords appeared with wavy and even jagged sawtooth blades. Moreover, their length itself could reach human height with a weight of 1.4 to 2 kg. Moreover, such swords appeared in England only around 1480. Average weight sword in the X and XV centuries. was 1.3 kg; and in the sixteenth century. - 900 g. Bastard swords “one and a half hands” weighed about 1.5 - 1.8 kg, and the weight of two-handed swords was rarely more than 3 kg. The latter reached their peak between 1500 and 1600, but were always infantry weapons.
Three-quarter cuirassier armor, ca. 1610-1630 Milan or Brescia, Lombardy. Weight 39.24 kg. Obviously, since they have no armor below the knees, the extra weight comes from thickening the armor.
But shortened three-quarter armor for cuirassiers and pistoleers, even in its shortened form, often weighed more than those that offered protection only from edged weapons and they were very heavy to wear. Cuirassier armor has been preserved, the weight of which was about 42 kg, i.e. even more than classic knightly armor, although they covered a much smaller surface of the body of the person for whom they were intended! But this, it should be emphasized, is not knightly armor, that’s the point!
Horse armor, possibly made for Count Antonio IV Colalto (1548-1620), circa 1580-1590. Place of manufacture: probably Brescia. Weight with saddle 42.2 kg. (Metropolitan Museum, New York) By the way, a horse in full armor under an armored rider could even swim. Horse armor weighed 20-40 kg - a few percent of own weight a huge and strong knight's horse.
Chain mail is one of the oldest metal armor. It was considered a universal means of protecting a warrior in battle.
Lexical meaning of the word "chain mail"
It should be said that there is no single approach to the question of the origin of the term.
When studying etymology of the word "chain mail""Researchers turn mainly to Polish and Russian sources. In the former, the concept kolczuga is found. Accordingly, the Russian word “chain mail” is a borrowing from Polish. According to another version, the term comes from the word “ring.” The meaning of the word "chain mail"" in this case - "consisting of rings".
General information
In all areas where the art of blacksmithing was well developed and there was enough iron, chain mail. Armor used by Roman legionnaires, barbarians, and European knights. They were actively used in the North Caucasus and North Africa.
Currently, chain mail gloves are used in the meat industry. Scuba divers often wear titanium chain mail. This piece of equipment provides protection against sharks. During World War I, tank crews wore masks with a visor made of metal rings.
Peculiarities
Chain mail is a kind of metal network woven from rings. It provided protection for warriors from attacks with cold weapons.
In ancient times, various types of chain mail were used. These were chain mail shirts that covered only the torso, and full hauberks that covered the warrior from head to toe. In any case, their advantages were their relatively low weight and ease of manufacture.
To create chain mail, iron (several kilograms) and a device for drawing wire were required. Of course, the person making the armor had to be patient. It took quite a lot of time to create one such shirt. It was necessary to make rings, then fasten them. Iron chain mail could last for many years. Any damage could be patched up fairly quickly with new rings.
Story
It is believed that armor "chainmail" appeared approximately 1 thousand years BC. e. in Assyria. From there it spread throughout almost the entire Eurasian territory. The earliest finds date back to the 4th century. BC e.
Meanwhile, many researchers believe that chain mail, the photo of which is presented in the article, began to be manufactured independently in Asia and Europe.
In Scythian cemeteries, the first finds of ammunition date back to the 5th century. BC e. Celtic and Etruscan examples were created around the 3rd century. BC e. The Roman Empire first learned about the possibility of protection with chain mail during the conquest of the Gauls. Legionnaires quickly adopted the technology of making armor. Before the advent of firearms, chain mail began to be used everywhere.
From the 10th century the prevalence of ammunition has reached its limit. Hauberks appeared during this period. In the 13th century, Europeans sometimes reinforced chain mail with breast and shoulder plates. In addition, other solid metal elements of protection (leggings, bracers, legguards, etc.) began to be actively used. As a rule, they were complemented with chain mail or leather inserts.
In the 14th century, solid steel armor began to replace chain mail. However, they could not completely replace it due to its high cost. When developing ammunition, chain mail inserts were often used together with armor. The first covered the gaps and joints in the armor. In Russia, the word "chain mail" was used in everyday life until the end of the 17th century, in the East, Central Asia and the Caucasus - until the beginning of the 19th century.
Japanese production
In the 14th century in the Land of the Rising Sun was created completely unique look chain mail. It was distinguished by its special weaving of rings and structure.
The Japanese used metal washers, which were additionally woven with flattened wire, wrapping it twice. The rings made in this way were sewn onto fabric. Typically, two types of elements were used. The larger ones were located parallel to the base. They were held together by smaller, often oval rings. They were placed perpendicular to the surface. The large rings were connected to each other using six small ones. All elements were coated with varnish to prevent rust.
The classic version was unknown to the Japanese. In neighboring China, with which trade was established, the technology for making ammunition was kept strictly secret. The Japanese first learned about chain mail from European sailors.
Varieties
In the Middle Ages, 3 main types of chain mail were used (their differences are visible in the photo):
- Short. The sleeves of such a shirt did not reach the elbows. This type of ammunition was used by those who were unable to purchase the classic version. However, in some cases, a short chain mail shirt acted as additional protection.
- Long with short sleeves. The hem could cover the legs completely or only to the knees. At the same time, cuts were made at the bottom of the shirt so that the warrior could mount his horse. This kind of chain mail was more common in the East. As a rule, it was worn together with leggings and bracers.
- Long with long sleeves. Usually chain mail stockings came with it. The hauberk additionally had a hood, which was integral with the shirt. However, it came separately to some models.
In Europe, chain mail was supplemented with mittens. They were quite unpopular in the East, as they were difficult to shoot with a bow. In Rus', the presence of mittens determined the ability to use a bow. For example, if you look at chain mail of heroes in Vasnetsov’s painting, you can see that Alyosha Popovich has a bow, but no mittens, and Ilya Muromets has mittens, but no bow.
In Eastern Europe, fully preserved specimens were discovered near Chernigov in the Black Grave. They date back to the 970s.
Flaws
Despite the fact that chain mail ammunition was very common, it provided quite weak defense warrior. Soft iron was used for manufacturing, since hard steel would break upon impact.
The armor could easily be pierced with a saber or spear, or cut with a sword. On impact heavy weapons, even if the integrity of the defense was preserved, the warrior was mortally wounded.
Chain mail was not intended to protect against direct piercing or slashing weapons. It protected against sliding or cutting blows. For shock absorption, underarmor was worn under it - a padded jacket, aketon, tegilyai. In Europe, knights used quilting. It was a jacket stuffed with bristles, tow and consisting of 8-10 layers of canvas.
Chain mail did not protect very well from arrows: ordinary ones easily penetrated the hole, and special ones - with a faceted tip - pierced the armor.
Additional items
At a distance of 50 m, the warrior in chain mail was not protected. To increase safety, in addition to it they wore:
- Scales.
- Lamellar.
- Baydan.
- Kuyak.
- Brigantine.
Underarmor
Europeans used quilted linen to make it, while in the East it was made from felt. The underarmor softened blows well. Without chain mail, it was used by ordinary infantrymen. Another name for this element is gambeson. Sometimes pieces of chain mail were sewn onto it, usually in the armpit area - the most unprotected area.
Chain mail was never worn without underarmor, especially on a naked body. During movement, the rings would strongly rub the skin, and upon impact they would be imprinted into the body. In addition, they usually had burrs and rust. A warrior could quickly get blood poisoning.
At the end of the 14th century. full armor began to be produced. Under them, knights wore armor and chain mail. They provided protection for the cracks. However, all the ammunition weighed a lot. The weight of the armor reached 20-30 kg, the chain mail - about ten. In the 15th century the composition of the armor has changed. Full chain mail began to be abandoned. Instead, pieces of it were sewn onto the underarmor.
Important point
Today in some stores you can find chain mail underwear. It is worth saying that it is made of light and soft material, subjected to special treatment. However, it is not intended for constant wear.
Characteristics of some models
Warriors often used a canoe. It was a chain mail made of flat and wide rings. Baidana protected better from sabers, but worse from piercing weapons.
Yushman and bakhterets - chain mail with metal plates on the back and chest. In the latter, the inserts are small and narrow, they are arranged in vertical rows. In this case, the upper elements are superimposed on the lower ones. In Yushman, the stripes are larger and do not overlap each other.
Kolontar is chain mail similar to yushman. It also has metal plates inserted on the back and chest. The yushman did not have sleeves.
Fantasy myths
In many games and books you can come across the concept of chainmail. It is used to indicate chain mail. Analysis of words by composition, however, clearly indicates a tautology. It is enough to use only the term mail. Translated from English it meaning - chain mail. Accordingly, the concept of chain is already superfluous.
The game authors were probably misled by another term, splint mail. This concept can be roughly translated as "plank chain mail". Composition of words allows you to use the Russian term "bakhterets" for translation.
Head and neck protection
The chain mail was worn not only on the torso. IN Western Europe special hoods were used to protect the neck and head. They often wore a pot helmet. Aventail was attached to conical headdresses. It was attached to the edges of the helmet. Often she protected not only the warrior’s neck, but also his face.
In the territory of Eastern Europe used a bowl. It was a lightweight helmet with an aventail attached to a convex metal disk. In its shape it resembled a Jewish kippah and provided protection only for the upper part of the skull.
Protection of other parts of the body
As mentioned above, the warrior’s equipment included mittens. They were not entirely chain mail. They were made of durable fabric or leather. The chain mail was sewn on top. The rings on the palm made it difficult to hold the weapon.
Western European knights in the 11th-13th centuries. used chain mail stockings for the legs. They were called "highways" and reached mid-thigh.
Manufacturing
Only the very first versions of chain mail consisted of joined rings. The ends of the wire from which the ring was made were not fastened.
Subsequently, they began to rivet or weld the elements. In the latter case, they were connected to each other using riveted rings. However, there were also chain mail in which all elements were welded.
The simplest weaving pattern was “4 in 1”. In this case, the ring was connected to four neighboring ones. However, this weaving scheme did not provide necessary protection, so it was complicated. They began to use the options “6 or 8 in 1” or “8 in 2”.
With the increase in protective properties, however, the weight of the ammunition increased. In addition, more complex weaving required more time to produce. As a result, the final cost of the armor increased. Indian craftsmen obtained sufficient strength with simple weaving.
Before that, the wire was made. Two methods were common. In the first case, the blacksmith needed to forge a rod to approximately the required size. The second method was more labor-intensive, but the wire was of higher quality. The blacksmith needed to pull a thin part of the rod through a metal cone to reduce the diameter, lengthen it and give it a round shape. This procedure was performed several times until the required thickness was achieved.
Seamless rings were also used in the manufacture of armor. They were cut out of metal sheets. Welding was primarily used in non-European countries, particularly India.
It is worth saying that in the Middle Ages until the Renaissance, Europeans did not make rings from wire. Each element was forged individually. The fact is that in the Dark Ages the technology of drawing rods was lost.
Main settings
They are the inner diameter of the rings and the cross-section of the wire. Of course, it was necessary that the first parameter be more than the second. Otherwise, it would be inconvenient for the warrior to move. However, if the internal diameter was very large, the armor did not provide any protection at all.
As a rule, the internal size was greater than the wire cross-section of 5 r. The average diameter was about a centimeter. In practice, checking the quality of chain mail was quite simple. If thumb passed into the ring, then the product cannot be used in battle.
Materials
First of all, you need wire. If you take steel rods, you will need 7-8 kg of them per product. In addition, a rod of a certain diameter and wooden blocks are required.
Rings with an internal dimension of 6 mm can be made from a rod with a cross-section of 1.2 mm. For larger elements, you need to take thicker wire. It is worth saying that in Rus' chain mail was also made from rings of various diameters.
The craftsmen tightly welded half of the elements, and the remaining ones were subjected to additional processing. The blacksmiths slightly flattened the ends of the segments and punched a small hole in each. After this, very small rivets were made (about 2 mm). Each open element was threaded into 4 solid ones. After this, the ends were brought together, a rivet was inserted into the hole, which was riveted with a hammer. The result was one welded and one riveted row.
As a rule, chain mail contained at least 15 thousand elements. In some cases their number exceeded 20 thousand. The quantity depended on the size, length of the protective shirt, as well as the parameters of the rings themselves. Of course, the mass was also different. The first versions of chain mail weighed about 12-16 kg, and later ones - no more than 9 kg.
Advantages
Underestimate chain mail armor not worth it. They perfectly protected the warrior from expiring arrows and glancing blows. It was quite difficult to pierce it with a spear or cut it with a sword, especially if the warrior actively resists. Of course, chain mail will not protect you from a bullet.
An important advantage of the protection is that it practically does not hinder the warrior’s movements. If the chain mail is made to size, then a person can even somersault, jump, etc. in it. It will not interfere with archery. You can even sleep in it. You can remove and put on the protection very quickly. No outside help is required for this. In addition, when folded, it fits in a pack bag and does not take up much space.
The underarmor, in turn, can be used as everyday clothing. It perfectly protects against the cold.
The weight of chain mail is small compared to armor, but it is distributed rather unevenly. The main pressure falls on the warrior's shoulders.
It's very easy to repair chain mail. It is enough to replace lost or damaged elements. If there is no blacksmith, you can tighten the hole with a leather belt. If the armor is dented, then the help of a blacksmith is necessary. Without it, it is impossible to repair the armor.
If you remove or add several rows of rings, the chain mail can be worn by another person.
additional information
It is worth saying that even the best chain mail, made of high-quality steel using the latest technologies of past centuries, did not save, and should not have protected, from shots and strong blows with weapons at point-blank range. It was not so much the chain mail that protected the warrior from exposure to blunt objects, but rather the underarmor. At the same time, it was possible to escape from chopping and cutting blows, but not from crushing and piercing blows.
The insufficiently high protective properties of chain mail are evidenced by the fact that until it was the main type of armor until the 14th century, knights used mainly universal weapons of battle. They, in particular, were clubs, swords, and axes. After the appearance and active spread of armor, they began to use weapons designed to destroy armor. These include, for example, klevets and mints, konchars. Accordingly, such weapons were less effective against a lightly armed enemy.
Chain mail has a number of specific disadvantages. First of all, metal is susceptible to corrosion. Rings are very difficult to remove rust from. This is especially problematic in field conditions. To clean the chain mail, it was usually placed in a barrel of sand and rolled in it for some time.
Another disadvantage is the rattling of the rings when walking. It was difficult for warriors in chain mail to get close to their opponents unnoticed. Lubricant was used to reduce noise. However, it did not eliminate the sound completely.
Despite the relatively light weight, the chain mail was still heavy. TO total mass the weight of the underarmor and weapons was added. in summer hot weather After several days of wear, the ammunition acquired a persistent unpleasant odor.
Conclusion
In ancient times, the problem of protecting warriors from arrows and blows was quite acute. The point is that in old times was walking active struggle for the territory. Raids on Rus' by nomadic tribes were especially frequent.
When creating protection, the need to ensure the free movement of the warrior, including in the saddle, was taken into account. Chain mail was the best option at that time. It was flexible, soft, not heavy. Blacksmiths constantly improved armor, added new elements to them, and changed manufacturing technology.
Even with the advent of heavy armor, chain mail continued to be actively used everywhere. She made the armor mobile and flexible without compromising its protective properties. Of course, with the advent of new types of weapons, chain mail gradually began to lose its importance. However, it was widespread in Europe for quite a long time and eastern countries. Moreover, it was constantly improved. Ammunition was actively used nomadic peoples. They were constantly on the move and needed light and mobile protection. Chain mail was perfect for this.
An illustrative example of the merits of chain mail is the Battle of the Ice. Heavy knights, clad in heavy armor, could not move quickly on the ice. turned out to be more mobile.