The system of vowel and consonant phonemes of the modern Russian language The concept of a phoneme. Distinguish between speech sounds and sounds
15. System of vowel phonemes of the SRL (vocalism). Main trends in its development.
Phoneme – a unit of language that provides the translation of sounds into the aspect of their understanding.
Vowels: a, o, y, i, e, s (?).
For MFS: phoneme is a functional type of sound (helps distinguish sound shells). A morpheme is always formed by one phoneme set, so we understand each other. It is believed that Y is a dependent unit - a variation of the phoneme I.
For LFS: phoneme – sound type (the whole word form is important) – it is important how different the phonemes sound. It is believed that Y is a separate phoneme.
Vowels differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone - and the absence of noise.
The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels: 1) the degree of elevation of the tongue, 2) the location of the elevation of the tongue, and 3) the participation or non-participation of the lips. The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, the state of which determines the quality of the vowel.
According to the degree of vertical rise of the tongue, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: vowels of the upper rise [i], [s], [y]; mid-rise vowels e [e], [o]; low vowel [a].
The horizontal movement of the tongue leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front vowels [i], e [e]; middle vowels [ы], [а] and back vowels [у], [о].
The participation or non-participation of the lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) [o], [u] and non-labialized (unrounded) [a], e [e], [i], [s].
The sound meaning of a phoneme depends on the position it occupies in a word. There are strong and weak positions of phonemes. The position in which the largest number of phonemes differs is called strong, the phoneme in this position is also strong; the position in which fewer phonemes are distinguished is called weak, the phoneme in this position is weak.
A strong position is a position of maximum distinctiveness and minimum conditionality. The strong position for vowels is the stressed position; for consonants, the absolutely strong position is the position before the vowels [a], [o], [y]: //san/son/son//- //sam/zam/dam/there//.
In a weak position, phonemes lose some of their characteristics, change their appearance, and it happens that two or even three phonemes coincide in one sound: [l"es/l"isy] - [l"isa] ® //e//, // and//® [and]; [raft] ®//d// and //t// - [t].
Non-discrimination of phonemes in weak position is called neutralization.
A phoneme includes invariant, variants and variations.
An invariant is an ideal (basic) type of sound.
Variants are the sounds of a language that occur in weak positions of minimal distinctiveness and are part of two or more phonemes: fruit - [raft], fruits - [plÙdý] ® //o//®[o],[Ù]; //d//- [d], [t].
Variations are the sounds of a language that occur in positions of maximum conditionality and are part of one phoneme: [luk / l "uk / luk" i / l "uk"i] - [u], ["u", [u"], ["y"] ; [rads "t" / t "ieatr / rub" it];
Development trends.
Gradual reduction in the number of vowels (fall of reduced ones, elimination of long ones).
Formation of hyperphonemes a-o (after hard ones), a-o-e (after soft ones). Now in the younger norm a-o-e-i appears.
And it began to undergo reduction.
The boundaries of vowels are blurred - the spoken language tends to shorten - the differentiating function is taken on by consonants.
Climb | |||
Front |
Average |
Rear |
|
Non-labialized |
Labialized |
||
Foreign languages, philology and linguistics
There is a strict law in the language: sounds are identified, the differences between which are associated with different conditions of their pronunciation. The sounds are different sounds, but the speaker usually does not notice this difference: for them and [з˙] are one linguistic unit. In the words bar bor bur the sounds are [a] [o] [u]. All sounds within this zone are identified by speakers and are perceived as the same sound.
The concept of phoneme and sound. The system of vowel and consonant phonemes in the Russian language.
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language, i.e. methods of formation and change of sounds in speech, as well as their acoustic properties. The two main aspects of phonetics are phoneme and speech sound.
Phoneme as a unit of language: essence, functions.
PHONEME (from the Greek phoneoma voice, sound, speech) a set of certain characteristics of the sound of speech that make it possible to distinguish words in the general flow of sounds and distinguish a given phoneme from other phonemes. F. is a distinctive unit of the sound structure of a language. The acoustic image of a f. arises as a generalization of various variants of sounds heard in speech, or, in other words, as the identification and generalization of the differential features of a f.. Recognition of f. is facilitated by the fact that each f. in a language is contrasted with others in at least one attribute: voiced voiceless , hard soft, etc. Differential features of f. are highlighted in the process of verbal communication and are reinforced through understanding words and distinguishing their lexical meanings.
A strict law operates in language: sounds are identified, the differences between which are associated with different conditions of their pronunciation. The sounds [z] and [z˙], [zh] [z˙] and [s] [s˙] are different sounds, but speakers usually do not notice this difference: for them [z] and [z˙] are one language unit. It is called phoneme .Phonemes in language have an important purpose: to distinguish different words, different morphemes. The words house, com, rum differ in the initial sounds [d], [k], [r]. In the words bar, bor, bur the sounds are [a], [o], [u]. This function of the phoneme is called semantic distinctiveness. Another purpose of phonemes is to help identify the same words and morphemes. This function of the morpheme is called perceptual. In words climbed and forested different roots because they have different meanings. In words climbed and climbed the root is the same because it has the same meaning. Phoneme this is the shortest linearly distinguishable unit, represented by a whole series of alternating sounds, determined by phonetic positions, serving to distinguish and identify words and morphemes.
Sound as a unit of speech. Phoneme-sound relationship
The differences between sounds are so subtle that they are beyond human perception. In our linguistic consciousness, each sound is represented not by a point, but by a zone, an area of dispersion. All sounds within this zone are identified by speakers and are perceived as the same sound. Speech sound it is a specific sound uttered by a specific person on a specific occasion. Usually you cannot reproduce exactly the same sound: it will be a different speech sound. Speech sound point in articulatory and acoustic space. Reduction - change in the sound of a vowel phoneme in a mediocre position (contraction).Sounds appearing in the same position belong to different phonemes.Different sounds appearing in different positions can be combined into one phoneme. In russian language[i] happens only under stress, [ie] only without stress. Consequently, it is not the degree of acoustic or articulatory proximity of sounds that determines whether they belong to the same or different phonemes. A phoneme is defined by the entire set of alternating sounds determined by phonetic positions. Р and Р 1 phoneme, different sounds.
In English, phonemes are divided into vowels and consonants.Vowels (6 pcs.) are speech sounds in the formation of which an air stream passes freely through the vocal cords; they consist mainly of vocal tone in the complete absence of noise. Row: lane (i, e), avg. (s, a), back. (ooh, ooh) Rise: top. (i, y, y), avg. (e, o), lower. (A). The rise of the tongue to the palate is the method of formation, the row is the place of formation (the place where the tongue rises).
Vowels: stressed (characterized by full pronunciation) and unstressed (reduced).
Consonant sounds (37 pcs.) - when pronounced, the air stream encounters various obstacles; they consist of noise or voice and noise.
Depending on how voice and noise participate in the formation of consonant sounds, consonant sounds are divided into: 1. sonorant (formed with the help of voice and slight noise): [m], [n], [l], [r], [m" ], [n"), [l"], [p], [j]; 2. noisy, which in turn are divided into voiced (formed by noise using the voice): [b], [c], [d] [d] [g] [h] [b"] [c"] [d"] [d"] [h"]; and voiceless (formed only with the help of noise): [p], [f], [k], [t], [w], [s], [x], [ts], [ch"], [p" ], [f"], [k"], [x"]. [t"], [s"].
Consonants are divided into hard and soft, and can be paired with each other according to DEAFNESS-SONNESS and HARDNESS-SOFTNESS. Some consonants are not included in these pairs; they are called unpaired: voiced [l], [l"], [m], [m"], [n], [n"], [r], [r"],, dull sounds [x], [ts], [ch"], hard sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] and soft sounds [ch"], [sch"], .
Because of their sound, the sounds [zh], [sh], [ch] are called hissing, and [z], [s] - whistling. The sounds [ts] and [h] are called affricai. since they are a continuous combination of sounds: [ts] and [tsh].
Positions of sounds: strong (clearly pronounced) and weak. Voice: strong under stress, weak without. Cong.: strong before the voice, weak at the end of the word, position before the voiced and voiceless.
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Phonetics.Basic concepts.System of sounds.Syllables.Syllabification
Phonetics - (Greek phone - sound) - the study of the sound system of a language, a section of linguistics that studies the sound means of language (sounds, stress, intonation). A special section of phonetics - orthoepy - describes a set of norms of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy occupies a special place among linguistic disciplines. She studies those units of language that have no meaning, but they determine the existence of significant units of language.
Thus, morphology, syntax, and lexicology study linguistic units that have lexical meaning. Phonetics studies linguistic units that do not have a lexical meaning, but serve to distinguish between units of grammar and vocabulary. At the same time, some linguistic phenomena are on the border of phonetics and grammar, since it is impossible to correctly determine the basis of a word without knowing the phonetic laws.
Depending on the objectives of the study, phonetics is distinguished:
Private and general;
Descriptive and historical;
Comparative;
Experimental;
Sociophonetics.
Particular phonetics studies the sound system of a particular language, general phonetics studies general patterns. Descriptive studies the phonetic system of a language at a certain period of its development. Historical studies the changes that have occurred in the sound system of a language throughout its history. Comparative studies the phonetic structure of several languages. Sociophonetics studies the pronunciation features of individual population groups. Experimental studies language through experiments.
Speech is a stream of sounds and it seems to be continuous. The flow can be divided into separate parts. Division may be different. If this division is based on grammatical design, then we are talking about division into sentences, words and morphemes. With phonetic division, the following units are identified: text, phrase, speech beat or syntagm, phonetic word, syllable and sound.
Text is only the initial value of the phonetic division of speech, because speech is not phonetic, but communicative in nature. The text also has phonetic characteristics: limited by pauses. Pause at the beginning and end of the text. Phrases stand out from the text by intonation. A phrase is a piece of text that has logical stress (|| – pause). A phrase is a phonetic unit, a sentence is a grammatical unit. There is one phonetic phrase in a complex sentence.
Phrases are divided into speech beats or syntagms. Syntagms are distinguished by intonation, but at the border of the syntagma an unfinished intonation is heard.
On the shore of desert waves || he stood || doom of the great hill
The division of a speech stream into syntagms is always determined by meaning, so options are possible.
We must learn to work and rest.
A phonetic word is characterized by stress. Phonetic stress is a complex of sounds or a segment of a sound chain. There may be no pauses between words. In this case, a phonetic word can correspond to the first lexical word or several words.
That same night || wide boat || departed from the hotel.
3 speech beats, 2 phonetic words each.
A syllable is a push of speech exhalation. Sound is the minimal element of speech flow.
Classification of vowels and consonants
Sound from an acoustic point of view is the vibration of air particles. The source is the vibration of sound chords. From the point of view of articulation, vowels and consonants of speech are distinguished.
Articulation is a set of actions of the organs of pronunciation at the moment of sound. The main difference is this. Consonants - when formed, air overcomes an obstacle, thus, vowels are characterized by the flow of voice, and consonants by the presence of voice and/or noise.
Vowels are tone sounds. A musical tone voice is involved in their formation. Noise is not taken into account. The difference in vowels is determined by the different structure of the speech organs.
In modern Russian there are 6 vowels [a] [o] [e] [u] [s] [i].
by place of education
The difference between vowels that cause the tongue to move horizontally is taken into account:
Front vowels - during articulation the tongue is strongly moved forward [i] [e]
Middle vowels - the tongue is slightly moved back [ы] [а]
Back vowels [у] [о]
by the degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate
High vowels [i] [ы] [y]
Middle vowels [e] [o]
Low vowels [a]
The upper vowels will be closed or narrow compared to the middle vowels, while the lower vowels will be open or wide. Middle vowels are closed compared to the lower ones, and open compared to the upper ones.
by participation or non-participation of lips
The presence or absence of lavialization - stretching or rounding of the lips.
Lavialized [y] [o]
Unlavalised (all others)
The division into 3 rows and the rise does not reflect the full richness of the SRY. In unstressed syllables ch. pronounced with varying degrees of reduction - change, shortening of vowel sounds in an unstressed position. Unstressed vowels are pronounced less clearly. Some vowels are not distinguished.
Consonants are classified according to 4 criteria:
Sanitary and noisy
Sanoric - consonants in the formation of which the voice and slight noise are involved [r] [n] [m] [l]
Noisy deaf people - only noise [p] [f] [k] [t] [s] [w] [ts] [x]
A characteristic feature of the Russian consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds that are correlated by sonority-voicelessness, hardness-softness. Correlativity lies in the fact that in some phonetic conditions they differ as two sounds, but in other conditions they do not differ.
Rose - dew, once - grew.
According to the place of noise formation (labial and lingual)
labiolabial [m] [n] [b]
labiodental [f] [v]
front-lingual:
dental [c] [z] [l] [n] [t] [d] [c]
anterior palatal [w] [g] [r] [h]
middle language [th]
back lingual [k] [g]
According to the method of noise generation
Closing (explosive) – [p] [t] [k] [g] [d]
Precatative (frictional) – [f] [v] [s] [h] [w] [g] [x]
Africates – [ts] [h] [sch]
Occlusive [n] [m] [l]
Trembling [r]
By the presence or absence of softening (hard and soft)
without paired soft w, c, w
Phonetic units. Sound.
1. Sound is the minimum unit of sounding speech. The word hand has 4 sounds.
3. A syllable is a segmental phonetic unit - a combination of several sounds, one of which is certainly a vowel.
Open syllable- the one that ends with a vowel sound: go-lo-va, ra-ma, yu-lA.
Closed - at the end there is a consonant sound: sleep, kar-kass, bol-tik.
Covered– begins with a consonant: SA-dy, mo-yu, ya-rmar-ka.
Uncovered– begins with a vowel: o-sen, ar-ka.
Transfer rules:
1. There are as many syllables as there are vowel sounds.
2. The border between words in the middle of a word usually passes after a vowel sound: law, ta-bu-re-tka.
3. If between vowel sounds in a word there is a combination of several consonants, then the entire combination of consonants, as a rule, goes to the next syllable
There are 2 exceptions to the last rule:
1) the sonorant consonant “yot”, being in the middle of the word between a vowel and a consonant, always goes back to the previous syllable: may-ka, sing-te, tay-na, catch-mal;
2) the remaining 8 sonorant sounds (r, r/, l, l/, m, m/, n, n/) behave somewhat differently in this position. If they are found before noisy consonants, they always go back to the previous syllable, while the noisy sound is added to the next syllable: maar-ka, gal-ka, ram-pa, i-yun-skiy. If sonorant sounds are located before some other sonorant sound, then the entire combination of consonants, as a general rule, goes to the subsequent syllable: vo-lna, ko-rma, Marya.
4. The establishment of boundaries between syllables can be affected by the selection of significant parts of the word in a word, as a result of which variants of syllable separation appear. for example, at the junction of a prefix and a root (if the prefix ends with a consonant sound, and the root begins with it), the boundary between syllables can be drawn both according to the phonetic rules of layer separation, and taking into account the separation of the prefix and the root: raz-break and raz-bit; to tell and suggest.
language.
Sound of speech - a specific sound pronounced by a specific person in a specific case.
A person cannot reproduce the same sound exactly twice. The sound of speech is a point in articulatory and acoustic space. Sound of tongue
- a set of speech sounds that are close to each other in articulatory-acoustic terms, defined by speakers as identity. The sound of a language is a sound type, a standard of sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers. Like any set, the sound of a language is no longer a concrete sound, but an abstraction. Phoneme
- a set of speech sounds that are close to each other in articulatory-acoustic terms, defined by speakers as identity. The sound of a language is a sound type, a standard of sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers. Like any set, the sound of a language is no longer a concrete sound, but an abstraction. - - this is the smallest, further linearly indivisible unit of the sound system of a language, capable of differentiating the shells of significant units of language. a linguistic unit represented by a series of positionally alternating sounds that serves to differentiate (T-shirt - cod - seagull - nut) and identification 3 ([l’es] - [l ’i s]sing - [l ’s]vod)
- a set of speech sounds that are close to each other in articulatory-acoustic terms, defined by speakers as identity. The sound of a language is a sound type, a standard of sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers. Like any set, the sound of a language is no longer a concrete sound, but an abstraction. words and morphemes.
- a minimal phonetic unit that serves to distinguish and identify significant units of language. - a set of speech sounds that are close to each other in articulatory-acoustic terms, defined by speakers as identity. The sound of a language is a sound type, a standard of sound that exists in the linguistic consciousness of speakers. Like any set, the sound of a language is no longer a concrete sound, but an abstraction. - Phonemes exist in our minds as single complexes of sounds. Speakers usually do not pay attention to the difference between sounds belonging to the same phoneme and identify them.
it is a series of positionally alternating sounds.
The vocal cords, tongue, back wall of the pharynx, palate (hard and soft) take part in the formation of sounds. tongue, teeth and lips. All this together makes up the speech apparatus. The material side of sound is the exhaled air, which, together with the work of the speech apparatus, creates sounds
speech. The movement of the speech organs during the formation of each specific sound is strictly individual.
The work of the speech organs necessary to produce a specific sound is called articulation. Vowels and consonants. All speech sounds are divided into vowels
And consonants. Vowels are formed in the presence of a voice (pure youths), consonants -
in the presence of noise (acoustic aspect). During education vowels on the path of exhaled air there is an obstacle in the form of close or even closed organs of speech (articulatory aspect).
And are formed with the help of the voice with the obligatory participation of the vocal cords. Main role in education vowels plays the oral cavity (physiological aspect).
Main function consonants - information transfer, main function (acoustic aspect). - combining sounds (functional aspect).
Methodological note.
The distinction between vowels and consonants by primary schoolchildren and older preschoolers should be based mainly on acoustic and articulatory features.
<а>, <э>, <и>,<ы>,<у>,<о>.
There are 6 vowel phonemes in modern Russian:
Vowel phonemes are classified according to three main characteristics: a) by the participation of the lips: - <у>,<о>,
labialized - <а>, <э>, <и>,<ы>;
non-labialized b) by the degree of vertical elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate: - <и>,<ы>,<у>,
top lift - <э>, <о>,
medium rise - <а>;
lower rise
c) according to the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward horizontally (tongue tension): - <э>, <и>,
front row - <ы>, <а>,
middle row - <у>,<0>.
back row Phonemes - these are indivisible sound units of language that serve to construct word forms and to distinguish their sound type. So, each of the word forms ox, led (past tense verb), lead goal, angry (short form of adjective wicked , genus. p.m. part noun), evil ox, led stake, they say, chalk), to sweep floor, sat down (gender plural of noun), village ox, led walked go ) differs from any other word form of this series by only one phoneme - respectively, the first consonants |в| - |in’| - |g| - |z| - |k| - |m| - |m’| - |p| - |s’| - |w|; the second and third phonemes of these word forms are the same: |o| and |l|. Word forms ox, shaft And ox, led howled howl ) also differ in only one phoneme - the vowel: |o| - |a| - |and| (the latter in this case is represented in writing by the letter s ). The difference in the composition of phonemes in word forms can be partial (as in the examples given) and complete, as, for example, in pairs of word forms chair - house, year - hour
and so on. A phoneme is a generalized sound unit of language, abstracted from all possible sounds appearing in its place in the stream of speech. For example, the vowel phoneme |a| is modified differently depending on which consonants it is adjacent to: for example, in the word form [s’at’] (spelling. sit down , led. incl. verb sit down ) in contrast to [sat] (spelling. garden
) phoneme |a| stands between two soft consonants and is therefore represented by a sound that is advanced forward and upward in its formation.
And differ in the degree of tongue elevation and the presence or absence of labialization (bulge) (Table 1).
Consonants divided into sonorant and noisy. The sonorant ones include |m|, |m’|, |n|, |n’|, |l|, |l’|, |р|, |р’|, |j|, the rest are noisy. Sonorants are pronounced with the participation of the voice with the addition of slight noise. Noisy ones are pronounced with the participation of noise and voice (voiced) or only noise (voiceless).
Both sonorant and noisy consonants differ in the place of formation (depending on which organs are involved in articulation) and in the method of formation (Table 2).
Method of education | Place of education | |||||
Labial | Forelingual | Middle language | Rear lingual | |||
Labiolabial | Labiodental | Dental | Anteropalatal | Midpalatal | Postopalatines | |
Occlusive | |p| |b| |p’| |p’| |
|t| |d| |t’| |d’| |
|k’| |g’| |
|k| |g| | ||
Occlusive fricatives (affricates) | |ts| | |h| | ||||
Slotted | |f| |in| |f’| |in’| |
|s| |z| |s’| |z’| |
|w| |f| |w''| |w’’| |j| |
|x'| |
|x| | |
Nasals | |m| |m’| |
|n| |n’| |
||||
Lateral | |l| |l’| |
|||||
Trembling | |r| |p’| |
Consonants are also divided into hard and soft, voiceless and voiced.
Paired in hardness - softness (i.e., differing only in this attribute) are the consonants: |п| - |p’|, |b| - |b’|, |t| - |t’|, |d| - |d’|, |f| - |f’|, |v| - |в’|, |с|- |с’|, |з| - |z’|, |m| - |m’|, |n| -|n’|, |l| - |l’|, |r| - |p’|, |k| - |k’|, |r| - |g’|, |x| - |x’|. Consonants unpaired according to this feature: |ж|, |ш|, |ц| (solid), |zh’’|, |w’’|, |h’|, |j| (soft).
Paired in deafness and voicedness are the consonants:, |п| - |b|, |p’| - |b’|, |t| - |d|, |t’| - |d’|, |f| - |v|, |f’| - |в’|, |с| - |z|, |s’| - |z’|, |w| - |zh|, |w’’| - |w’’|, |k| - |g|, |k’| - |g’|. Consonants unpaired according to this criterion: all sonorant (voiced), |ts|, |ch|, |х|, |х’| (deaf).
Consonants |ш|, |ж|, |ш’’|, |ж’’| and |h| are combined into a group of sibilant phonemes, and the consonants |с|, |з|, |с'|, |з'| and |ts| - to the whistling group.
Consonants |sh’’| (“w long soft”) and |zh’’| (“zh long soft”), unlike all other consonants, are long (the consonant |zh’| is conveyed in writing by the combination LJ or zzh: reins, go, squeal; in word forms rain- combination railway: rain, rain).
The position of maximum differentiation (strong position) for vowel phonemes is the position under stress, and for consonant phonemes - the position before vowels. In other positions (weak) some phonemes are not distinguished. Thus, in unstressed syllables, as a rule, the phonemes |o| and |a|, and in the position after soft consonants - also |e| (cm. ); at the end of word forms and before voiceless consonants, paired voiced ones coincide with voiceless ones, and before voiced consonants, paired voiceless ones coincide with voiced ones (see), and therefore, in both cases they do not differ; in a number of positions before consonants, consonants paired by hardness and softness are not distinguished (see). The composition of phonemes appearing within a particular morph is revealed in those word forms where they appear in a strong position, cf.: [в^да] and [vody], where the vowel phoneme of the root is in a strong position; [l’ec] and [l’ésu] (Dan. singular part of a noun forest), [l’ezu] (1 l. unit of verb climb), where the final consonant of the root is in strong position.
Note. If in all possible word forms containing any morph, one or another phoneme within this morph remains in a weak position, then such a sound unit (vowel or consonant) is hyperphoneme. For example, in the word dog, the first vowel phoneme, represented phonetically only by the sound [l], is a hyperphoneme, appearing in the position of non-distinction of vowel phonemes |o| and |a|; in the word second, the first consonant phoneme, phonetically |f|, is a hyperphoneme located in the position of non-distinction of the consonant phonemes |f|, |f’|, |v| and |in’|.
The most important positional (phonetically determined) realizations of phonemes.
- In unstressed syllables the vowels |е|, |о| and |a| modified (weakened) and in a number of positions do not differ (Table 3).
Here [ые] is a non-front vowel, middle between [ы] and [е]; [^] - mid-low vowel, non-front, non-labialized; [ie] - front vowel, middle between [i] and [e]; [ъ] and [ь] are reduced vowels of the middle-low rise, non-labialized: [ъ] is a non-front vowel, [ь] is a front vowel. Examples:
(1) [e]tika - [ye]túchesky, [e]export - [ye]export, [ó]sen - [^]senny, [ó]lovo - [^]lovyanny, [á]lt - [^ ]lie, [á]zbuka - [^]zbukovnik; (2) synth[e]tika - synth[ye]túchesky, ts[e]ny - ts[ye]ná, v[ó]dy - v[^]dá, d[a]r - d[^]rút , letter[á]r - letter[^]rya; (3) sh[e]st - sh[ye]stú, sh[o]lk - sh[ye]lká, zh[ó]ny - zh[ye]ná, zh[á]rko - zh[^]rá , sh[a]r - sh[^]ry; (4) [l’e]s ( forest) - [l’ie]sa, [v’ó]dra ( buckets) - [v’ie]dro, [p’a]t ( five) - [p’ie]tak; (5) t[e]mp - t[a]mpovoy (special), baby[e]y - insert[y], g[ó]rod - g[a]roda, cucumber[ó]m - hare [b]m, fright[á]t - frightened; (6) [b'e]reg ( shore) - [b’b]regovoy, [t’ó]many ( dark) - [t’b]too much, [p’a]t - [p’t]tachók ( patch), [nose ( carried) - you [n’y]si ( take it out), for[n’á]t ( take) - zá[n’t]you ( busy), tower[e] ( tower) - dacha [b] ( dacha), tsa[r’ó]m ( king) - state[r’a]m, kalanch[á] - dach[b] (dacha), tsa[r’a] ( king) - state [р’ъ] ( sovereign) ([ъ] is pronounced in place of |a| only at the end of words).
Thus, in all unstressed positions (except for the position of the first pre-stressed syllable after |ж|, |ш|) the vowels |о| and |a| do not differ. This phenomenon is called akanism.
- After hard consonants, the vowel |i| changes into the sound of the middle row [s]: igrá - play along [y]gre; idea - without[y]action.
- Consonants |с|, |с’|, |з|, |з’| before the hissing |sh|, |sh’’|, |zh|, |h| are replaced by hissing ones: [s]krepút - [w]shitch ( sew), r[z]break - r[sh’’]epút ( split), different [s’]út - different [sh’’]ik ( peddler), [with whom; [w’] than; [with] love; [f] pity.
Voiced paired consonants in positions at the end of the word form and before voiceless consonants are deafened: du[b]y - du[p], but[zh]ú - but[sh], lá[v]ok (gen. plural. ) - lá[f]ka, po[d]throw - po[t]write.
Note. In a word God consonant |g| stunned in [x]: bo[x].
Voiceless paired consonants in positions before voiced ones (except for [v], [v'] and sonorant ones) are voiced: ko[s']út - ko[z']ba, o[t]lozhút - o[d]brosit, [s ] bridge - [from] houses.
Hard dental consonants |с|, |з| and |n| in the position in front of the soft teeth (except for |l'|), the following are softened: boro[z]dá - boro[z'd']út, fra[n]t - fra[n't']ukha, [s]kat' - [ s'n']yat, romá[n]s - about romá[n's']e.
Hard consonant |n| before |w’’|, |h| softens: tabu[n] - tabu[n’sh’’]ik, staká[n] - staká[n’ch]ik.
Soft labials harden before all consonants, except soft labials and |j|: petó[m’]ets - petó[m]tsy, ru[b’]út’ - rulu.
In combinations stn, zdn consonants T ox, shaft d not pronounced: joy - joy[sn]y ( glad), stará - star [zn]y ( star), be late - pó[z’n’]y ( late).
The consonant |j| is also not pronounced. in the position after the vowel before |i| and at the beginning of the word: glue, k[l’éju] ( glue) - k[l’éi]t ( glue), str[уjá] ( jet) - str[uú], fight - b[^i] ( fights); (to her- date p.un. h. pronouns she) - [i]m (d. plural).
Morph Difference
The traditional (historical) difference between nominal and verbal root morphs, as well as nominal and verbal stems in general, is that the nominal root morph and nominal stem end in a consonant, while the verbal root morph and verb stem can end in both vowel and consonant, cf.: wall-a, table, window-o, army (army) And know, look, know (know), look. Deviations from this pattern are represented by nouns and adjectives of a late-formed structural type with a vowel base (foreign borrowings and abbreviations): highway, coat, kangaroo, hummingbird, net, traffic police, automated control system, CSKA, Moscow State University(pronounced: tseeska, emgeu), etc. However, such nominal stems are unable to be combined with inflections (which retain traditional compatibility only with consonant stems) and therefore the corresponding names belong to the category of indeclinables (see § 183, § 185).
The minimal form of the root morph in the significant parts of speech comes down to the formulas CVC in nouns, CV and CVC in the verb (here and below C denotes a consonant phoneme, consonant, V - vowel, vocal element). In this case, the first consonant may not be represented: cf. nominal roots house-, side-, us- and verbal yes- (yes-li), zhi- (zhi-t), -u- (about-u-t), bear- (bear-ti), write- (write-ut), go- (id-ut). Root morphs without a vowel are also possible, but always with combinations of consonants: day, angry, press, lie, sleep.
The minimum type of prefix and postfix morphs and root morph of function words are C and CV, and in the latter case the consonant may not be represented: in/in, s/so, for, yes, but, not, same/f, would/b, -sia/-s, -those, a, and, o.
Minimum type of suffixal morph: in names - VC or C: plat-hedgehog, empty-yak, table-ik, letter-ar, spirit-from-a, honey-ov-y, ice-yang-oh, fox-y, carving-b-a, concoction-n-ya, covered; su [d’-j-a] (judge), judge; ruch-k-a, ruch-ek; smart-n-y, smart-yong; hot, hot, ok; in the verb - CV (with possible absence of a consonant): jump, oh, oh, breakfast, salt, as well as C and VC: jump-n-net, breakfast-at (having breakfast).
In all of these structures (except for the postfixal morph), instead of one consonant there can be a combination of consonants: these are, for example, root morphs know-, simple-, spark-, prefix at-, outside-, suffix -ost, -ism, -sk, -stv-, -zn.
In non-minimal form, the types of morphs considered are expanded by combining minimal structures; these are the root morphs: nominal city-, lakes-, ant-, verbal si- (shine), know- (know-how), know[j]- (know-how), sway- (sway-et-sya), guard- (ste-reg-ut); prefix over-, under-, times-/over-; postfixal -either (anyone); root morphs of function words or, over/must, unless; suffixal morphs: nominal in words color-nick, coward-live, white-ovate, verbs in winter, look-at, lazy.
Typical flexion morph: V, VC or VCV: house-y, in the house-e, city-a, night-i, carrying-u, carrying-and, carrying-a, vid-it, carrying-eating, city-am, most-of-them, houses-ami, carried -yeah, big-y (big).
Syllable
Syllable is a sound or several sounds produced by one impulse of exhaled air. In Russian, only vowel sounds are syllabic (syllable-forming). There are as many syllables in a word form as there are vowels. For example, in the word form build one syllable, in word form so-ci-a-li-sti-che-ski-e- eight, in word form dust-le-moisture-not-about-any-tsa-e-most- nine, etc. The Russian language is characterized by both open syllables (ending with a vowel: water), and closed (ending with a consonant: pocket, soldier); There are open syllables that consist only of a vowel ( willow).
A syllable is built according to the principle of ascending sonority: in open syllables, noisy consonants precede sonorant ones, and sonorant ones precede a vowel ( blah blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah); the structure of the prevocalic (preceding the vowel) part of closed syllables is similar ( ve-ksel, twirl, vy-shot). The postvocalic (located after the vowel) part of non-final closed syllables can contain only sonorant consonants ( vel-vet, o-boy-ma, property). Final closed syllables may, however, end with obstruents ( kar-kas) and various combinations of consonants ( po-isk, pa-sport, ship, cylinder). In the initial syllables of word forms, the prevocalic part can, as an exception (in violation of the principle of ascending sonority), be a combination of “sonorant + noisy”: blush, forehead, flatterers. At the beginning of a syllable, and therefore at the beginning of a word form, combinations “[j] + consonant” are impossible; such combinations are possible only in the postvocalic part of closed syllables ( slide, properties). But in the postvocalic part, and therefore at the end of the word form, combinations “consonant + [j]” are impossible [in the prevocalic part they are normal: be-[l’jo] (linen), solo-[v’ji] (nightingales)].