The hottest month in Israel. When is the best time to go on vacation to Israel? Weather in the winter months
Option 1
A1. What about 1904-1905?
1) activities of the Provisional Government
2) Stolypin agrarian reform
3) the first Russian revolution
4) Russian-Japanese War
A2. What evidenced the development of capitalist relations in agriculture
Russia at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries?
1) the use of civilian labor in the village
2) payment of redemption payments by peasants
3) use of a working system
4) the presence of communal land ownership
A3. What did the establishment of the State Duma mean in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century?
1) cessation of the Bolshevik struggle for the socialist revolution
2) transition to a republican form of government
3) establishment of a limited monarchy
4) the beginning of the period of dual power
1) the fall of PortArthur
2) arrest of the Provisional Government
3) creation of workers' councils
4) murder of P.A. Stolypin
A5. What was the main event of the Stolypin agrarian reform?
1) prohibition of the activities of the agrarian party
2) introduction of universal primary education
3) return of “cuts” to the peasants
4) provision of private land plots to peasants
A6. Which statement is correct?
1) I. Pavlov laureate Nobel Prize
2) A. Akhmatova member of the World of Art association
3) S. Konenkov Russian religious philosopher
4) F. Chaliapin, founder of astronautics
A7. What event is associated with military operations in Eastern Front during
Civil war?
4) Red assault on Perekop
A8. The policy of war communism, in contrast to NEP, assumed:
1) transfer of “commanding heights in the economy” to private hands
2) introduction of tax in kind
3) introduction of surplus appropriation
4) allowing free trade
What desire of the state leadership was the reason for holding
A9.
industrialization in the 1920s?
1) overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country
2) integrate the country into the world economy
3) strengthen the foundations of a market economy
4) improve the standard of living of the population
A10. What name was given to the artistic movement that proclaimed the principle:
“Culture should be socialist in content, national in form”?
1) Soviet postmodernism
2) cultural revolution
3) socialist cosmopolitanism
4) socialist realism
A11. What characterized the political regime in the USSR in the 1930s?
1) the merger of many functions of the CPSU (b) and the Soviets
2) independence of public organizations
3) a clear separation of the three branches of government in the state
4) multi-party system
A12. In what period did the cited article appear?
How could these bungling exercises in part arise in our midst?
"socialization", these ridiculous attempts to jump over ourselves, attempts,
having as their goal to bypass classes and the class struggle, but in reality pouring water on
the mill of our class enemies? ... They could only arise as a result of the fact that
Some of our comrades were dizzy with success.
1) perestroika
2) collectivization
3) new economic policy
4) Civil War
A13. What course in the field of foreign policy did the USSR pursue in 1939-1941?
1) for military-political rapprochement with Germany
2) to confrontation with Germany and Japan
3) to create a collective security system
4) to establish diplomatic relations with Western countries
A14. The beginning of which battle is discussed in the memoirs of Marshal I.S. Koneva?
On July 1, Hitler summoned the main creators and executors of Operation Citadel and
announced the final decision to launch the offensive on July 5. And again, just like in the beginning
war, the fascist command counted on the surprise of the attack, which should
was, in Hitler's opinion, to contribute big number new tanks and assault
guns These plans became known to the Soviet command. July 2nd was
the start of the operation was determined, which Headquarters immediately informed
commanders of the Central and Voronezh fronts, as well as me.
1) Moscow
2) Kursk
3) Stalingrad
4) Berlin
A15. What was the important event of 1943?
2) the beginning of the Crimean (Yalta) conference
3) the exit of the Red Army to state border USSR
A16. What characterized the economic development of the USSR in the first post-war years?
1) admission of market elements into the economy
2) predominant development of lung and Food Industry
3) the development of democracy in enterprises, collective farms and institutions
4) further centralization of public administration
development of virgin and fallow lands
A17. What activities in the socio-economic sphere were carried out during the reign
N.S. Khrushchev?
A)
B) reduction in housing construction
increase in purchase prices for agricultural products
B)
D) reduction of capital investments for the development of enterprises of group “A”
D) replacement of economic councils with ministries E) introduction of pensions for collective farmers
Please indicate the correct answer.
1)AVE 2) VGE 3)AGE 4)VDE
A18. What name was given to the political concept developed in the second half of the 60s?
x years entourage of L. Brezhnev?
1) neo-Stalinism
2) the concept of developed socialism
3) policy of peaceful coexistence
4) new political thinking
1) solution to all social problems
2) periodic parliamentary, presidential and local elections
3) establishing censorship in the media
4) priority development of the military industry
A20. Indicate the author of the letter to All-Union Congress Union of Soviet Writers.
Literature that is not the air of contemporary society, that does not dare to convey
society its pain and anxiety... does not even deserve the name of literature.
For three years now it has been waged against me, who fought the entire war as a battery commander...
irresponsible slander: that I served my time as a criminal or surrendered, “changed
Motherland”, “served with the Germans”. This is how 11 years of my camps and exile, where I
got caught for criticizing Stalin.
1) M.A. Bulgakov
2) B.L. Parsnip
3) V.P. Astafiev
4) A. I. Solzhenitsyn
Period of Russian history
1. War communism
2. "Thaw"
3. “The Age of Stagnation”
Time
A. 19641985
B. 19531964
B. 19211928
G. 19181921
gg.
gg.
1
2
3
The left column corresponds to one element of the right one.
Actor
Event
1. S.Yu. Witte
2. N.I. Vavilov
3. A.I. Kerensky V. Laid the foundations of the science of genetics
A. Carried out monetary reform
B. Headed the Provisional Government
G. Participated in the signing of the Soviet-German treaty on
non-aggression
AT 3. The weakening of international tension in the mid-60s - mid-70s. received
name "period _______________________".
A. Entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan
B. Formation of the Warsaw Pact Organization
B. Cuban Missile Crisis
D. Education CIS
AT 5. Place the words below in the gaps. The answer must be a combination
corresponding letters placed in the order in which the words are missing in the text.
For example, GVBDA.
A. Supreme Council of the Russian Federation
B. Yeltsin
B. Constitutional Court
G. Rutskoy
D. Federal Assembly
Signed a decree on gradual constitutional reform, in
September 21, 1993 (1)
which announced the dissolution of the Congress people's deputies and 2)
. Majority
members (3) declared the president's actions unconstitutional. Was taken
. This
decision to appoint a vice president as the new head of state (4)
the political crisis ended on December 12, 1993 with elections in (5)
Russia.
1
2
3
4
5
Final test for the course “History of Russia. XX beginning of XXI century 9th grade"
Option 2
A1. Period from 1905 to 1907 linked:
1) with the activities of the Provisional Government
2) with the Stolypin agrarian reform
3) with the first Russian revolution
4) with the Russo-Japanese War
A2. What characterizes the socio-economic development of Russia late XIX beginning of the 20th century?
1) the presence of a powerful public sector
2) absence of monopolies in industry
3) lack of small-scale commodity structure in the economy
4) dominance industrial production over agriculture
A3. Establishing an “immutable rule that no law can assume force without
approval State Duma", reflects an establishment in Russia:
1) a new advisory body under the king
2) parliamentary republic
3) federal structure
4) limited monarchy
A4. What relates to the events of the first Russian revolution?
1) Battle of Tsushima
2) capture of the Winter Palace
3) Kornilov rebellion
4) cancellation of redemption payments
A5. What did Stolypin's agrarian reform envisage?
1) free exit of peasants from the community
2) financial support for peasant communities
3) introduction of food allocation
4) confiscation of landowners' land by the state
A6. Which statement is correct?
1) I. Mechnikov organizer of the “Russian Seasons” in Paris
2) K. Balmont poet-symbolist
3) N. Gumilyov Nobel Prize laureate
4) F. Shekhtel, founder of astronautics
A7. What event is associated with military operations on the Southern Front during the Civil War?
war?
1) conclusion of a peace treaty with Germany
2) the fight against Yudenich’s troops
3) performance of the Czechoslovak corps
4) Red assault on Perekop
A8. As a result of NEP, in contrast to War Communism:
1) market mechanisms have formed in the economy
2) unemployment was eliminated
3) the command and control system was strengthened
4) political rights and freedoms were established in the country
A9. What is characteristic of Stalin's industrialization, in contrast to the industrialization of Russia
beginning of the century?
1) attracting foreign capital
2) people’s work enthusiasm
3) growth in bread exports
4) capital accumulation in light industry
A10. What is the name of the regime that the quote illustrates?
The Central Committee found time to lead issues not only of international politics,
issues of defense, economic construction, but also at the same time deal
such issues as textbooks, libraries, fiction,
theaters, cinema, such issues as the production of gramophones, the quality of soap, etc.
1) legal
2) democratic 4) socialist
3) totalitarian
A11. What did it mean in the USSR in 1920-1930? the concept of "cultural revolution"?
1) revival of the role of religion in the spiritual education of the population
2) refusal of censorship restrictions
3) maintaining the same content of school education
4) politicization and ideologization of public life
A12. The events of what period are mentioned in the passage from the work of a modern historian?
All responsibility for the “distortions” committed was shifted to local
workers accused of “bungling.” However, achieved by February 20 50
percentage level... was declared a success, indicating that “a radical turn
villages towards socialism can be considered already secured.”
1) collectivization
2) “Red Guard attack on capital”
3) war communism
4) Civil War
A13. What course did the USSR pursue in foreign policy in the first half of the 1930s?
1) to create a united anti-fascist front
2) to incite world revolution
3) for rapprochement with Germany and Japan
4) to strengthen the “Iron Curtain”
A14. The events of which battle are described in an excerpt from the memoirs of Marshal V.I. Chuikov?
Despite huge losses, the invaders pushed ahead. Columns of infantry on
cars and tanks burst into the city. Apparently, the Nazis believed that his fate
solved, and each of them sought to reach the city center as soon as possible and live there
curled up with trophies... Our fighters... crawled out from under German tanks, more often
the wounded, to the next line, where they were received, were united into units,
They were supplied mainly with ammunition and were thrown into battle again.
1) Kursk
2) Moscow
3) Stalingrad
4) to lift the blockade of Leningrad
A15. What was the important event of 1942?
1) defeat of the Nazis near Moscow
2) the beginning of the Potsdam Conference
3) publication of order No. 227 “Not a step back!”
4) completion of a radical change in the Great Patriotic War
A16. What was the main economic task in the USSR in the second half of the 40s?
1) restoration of the country's economy
2) development of market relations
3) increase in wages and pensions of workers and collective farmers
4) increase in exports of equipment and grain
A17. What features of the social and political life of the USSR appeared after the 20th Party Congress?
A) assumption of multi-party system
B) a wave of political arrests for criticizing I.V. Stalin
B) release of political prisoners from camps
D) an increase in the number of published journals
D) permission for the existence of all ideological trends in art
E) rehabilitation of some repressed under I.V. Stalin of the peoples
Please indicate the correct answer.
1) ABC
2) HEV
3)BGE
4) VDE
A18. What name was given to the period marked by a decrease in the rate of development of the Soviet Union?
economy and increasing lag behind Western countries in the scientific and technical sphere?
1) " iron curtain"3) "thaw"
2) “era of stagnation”
4) “developed socialism”
A19. What characterizes the post-Soviet period of Russian development as a whole?
1) annual growth indicators of the country's economic development
2) constant systematic growth actual size salaries
3) transformation of science into driving force economic development
4) formation process civil society
A20. Please indicate the author of the request.
I am connected with Russia by birth, life, and work. I don’t think of my destiny separately and
outside of it. Whatever my mistakes and delusions, I could not imagine that
I will find myself in the center of such a political campaign, which began to be inflated around me
in the West. Realizing this, I informed the Swedish Academy about my
voluntary renunciation of the Nobel Prize.
1) M. Sholokhov
2) B. Pasternak
3) I. Brodsky
4) A. Fadeev
IN 1. Match the elements of the left and right columns. One element
The left column corresponds to one element of the right one.
Russian
Period
stories
1. "Thaw"
2. Perestroika
3. NEP
Time
A. 19211928
B. 19281941
B. 19531964
G. 19851991
Answer:
1
2
3
AT 2. Match the elements of the left and right columns. One element
The left column corresponds to one element of the right one.
Actor
1.S.Yu. Witte
2. I.V. Kurchatov
3. A.A. Brusilov
Event
A. Created nuclear weapons
B. Introduced a wine monopoly
B. Commanded the troops of Yugo Western Front in World War I
G. Created the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere
Answer:
1
2
3
VZ. What is the name of the global economic and ideological confrontation?
between the United States and its allies, on the one hand, and Soviet Union and his allies with
the other, which lasted from the mid-1940s. before the early 1990s? __________________________
AT 4. Determine the sequence of events.
A. Conclusion Russian troops from Afghanistan
B. Education of the CMEA
B. Entry of Soviet troops into Hungary
D. Signing in Helsinki Final Act Security meetings and
cooperation in Europe
Answer:
1
2
3
4
5
Criteria for assessing answers to the final test for the course “History of Russia. XX beginning of XXI century 9
Class"
Option Job No.
Answer
Criteria for assessing answers in points
1
2
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
A14
A15
A16
A17
A18
A19
A20
IN 1
AT 2
AT 3
AT 4
AT 5
A1
A2
A3
4
1
3
3
4
1
3
3
1
4
1
2
1
2
4
4
1
2
2
4
1G, 2B, 3A 2 points (1 point for each correct
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
answer)
1A, 2B, 3B 2 points (1 point for each correct
Discharges
BVAG
BAVGD
3
1
4
answer)
1 point for a correctly completed task
2 points for the correct answer
1 point if 1 mistake is made
0 points if there are more than 1 errors
1
1
1
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
A14
A15
A16
A17
A18
A19
A20
IN 1
AT 2
AT 3
AT 4
AT 5
4
1
2
4
1
2
3
4
1
1
3
3
1
2
2
4
2
1B, 2D, 3A 2 points (1 point for each correct
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
answer)
1B, 2A, 3B 2 points (1 point for each correct
Cold
war
BVGA
BADVG
answer)
1 point for a correctly completed task
1 point for a correctly completed task
2 points for the correct answer
1 point if 1 mistake is made
0 points if there are more than 1 errors
Rating “5” 2825 points
Rating “4” 2417 points
Score “3” 16 14 points
Score “2” 13 points or less
The first archaeological evidence found proving the settlement of the Pyrenees Peninsula was dated by experts to the Lower Paleolithic period. During the first millennium BC, the formation of the Celtoiberian tribes took place, representing the result of a mixture of Iberians and Indo-European tribes. In the third century BC southern part The peninsula was invaded by the Carthaginians, and then the Romanization of the territories took place. The very name of the country “Spain” is rooted in the Phoenician language; the Romans used it to designate the entire Iberian Peninsula. In 74 BC, the Spaniards received Roman citizenship.
The first century AD is characterized by the spread of Christianity in Spain, but the Romans actively interfered with this process. In 409, the territory of the state was invaded German armies, having formed the Visigothic kingdom by 419, Toledo was appointed its capital.
The 8th century became the period of Muslim rule. When Christians returned the conquered lands in 1266, there was a significant territory of the peninsula. The Reconquista was completed by the unification of Spain under the banner catholic church.
Madrid was designated the capital of Spain under the reign of Philip II in 1561. At this time, the development of the New World was taking place, Spain undeniably dominated the sea.
17th century marked thirty years war Spain with the Netherlands, England and France, which plunged the country into an economic crisis.
The 20th century became a time of heavy oppression for the state under military dictatorship. In 1931, elections took place, and a republican form of government was established in the country. From 1936 to 1939, civil war struck the population, over 600 thousand people died, 400 thousand were subjected to political terror, the Franco dictatorship began, which lasted until 1975, power in the country was concentrated in the hands of the Catholic Church and the military. When the dictator died, the state became a parliamentary monarchy with Juan Carlos as its head. In December 1978, the Democratic Constitution was adopted. In 1981, a military coup took place, and a year later the parliamentary elections were marked by the victory of the socialists.
Modern infusion of Spain into the series European countries after joining the EEC in 1986, it significantly increased the country's global prestige, which led to an increase in Spain's economic openness and its popularity among tourists. The Olympic Games were held in Barcelona in 1992, and Madrid was recognized throughout the world as a European City of Culture. EXPO 1992 was held in Seville, famous international exhibition. The country widely and colorfully celebrated 500 years since the discovery of America by Columbus. The 21st century has become a time for Spain to join a number of rapidly developing democratic states; the country has become one of the most interesting and popular in Europe.
In the eighties of the last century, Spain became the epicenter of a serious economic boom, the reason for which was the rapid pace of development of tourism and the active development of recreational opportunities in the country. Many coastal regions, such as the Costa Blanca, Costa Brava, Costa Daurada, have achieved worldwide fame due to their luxurious resorts, which are visited by thousands of tourists every year. Over time, the number of people who want to not only relax comfortably under the Spanish sun, but also get acquainted with cultural heritage country, drive through picturesque local landscapes and enjoy unforgettable cuisine.
Initially a small reconnaissance detachment.
One of Musa's generals, Abu Zura Tarif, taking four hundred warriors and a hundred horses, in the summer of 710 crossed Gibraltar on four ships provided by Julian, devastated the surroundings of Algeciras and returned back to Africa with rich booty.
The happy outcome of the first expedition inflamed the Muslims' desire to conquer Spain. IN next year Musa took advantage of the fact that Roderic was at war with the Basque city of Pamplona in northern Spain, and last days April 711 sent his other commander Tariq ibn Ziyad to Spain with a detachment of 7 thousand Berbers (there were only 300 Arabs in the detachment).
They crossed the strait on the same 4 ships, since the Muslims had no others. As the ships transported people and horses, Tariq collected them near one of the coastal rocky mountains, which still bears his name - Gibraltar (from the distorted Arabic Jabal al-Tariq - “Mountain of Tariq”). At the foot of this mountain lay the city of Karteya, which was taken by the Muslims.
Tariq reached Lake Lago de la Sanda and was ready to march on Seville when he learned that King Roderich was coming towards him with a large army (sources say that he allegedly gathered an army of 70 or even 100 thousand people). Tariq sent to Musa to ask for reinforcements, and Musa, using the ships built after Tariq’s departure, sent him another 5 thousand soldiers. He was also joined by 13 thousand of Julian’s soldiers.
Beginning of the Reconquista
A significant part of the Visigothic aristocracy chose to remain in the conquered territories, for example, the sons of King Vititsa received rich lands of the Visigothic crown from the Arabs for private ownership. However, the remnants of the Visigothic army and other part of the aristocrats and clergy, who did not want to remain in the conquered territories, retreated to Asturias, where they later founded the kingdom of Asturias, and to Septimania. In the summer of 718, the Visigoth noble Pelayo, supposedly a former bodyguard of King Roderic who had been held hostage in Cordoba, returned to Asturias and was elected the first king of Asturias. The election took place in the Field of Hura, between the village of Cangas de Onís and the Covadonga valley. After receiving news of the meeting at the Field of Hura, Munusa sent a report about this to the Emir of Andalusia.
But only in 722 did a punitive detachment under the command of Alcama arrive in Asturias. The bishop of Seville or Toledo Oppa (Vitica's brother) was also with the punitive forces, called upon to convince Pelayo to surrender. Alkama, moving through Tarna along the banks of the Nalin River, arrived at Lukus Asturum. From there the Arabs entered the Covadonga Valley in search of Christians. However, Alkama's detachment was met by Christians in the gorge and defeated, and Alkama himself died.
When news of the death of Alcama's detachment reached Munusa, he left Gijon with his detachment and moved towards Pelayo. The clash took place near the village of Olalla (near modern Oviedo), where Munusa’s detachment was completely destroyed and Munusa himself was killed. From this moment, historians count the beginning of the Reconquista.
Stopping the Arab advance into Europe
Since virtually all of Iberia was conquered by the Muslims, their further expansion could only continue through the Pyrenees. The newly appointed Wali of Al-Andalus, Al-Samkh ibn Malik, crossed the mountains for the first time in 717, invading Septimania. In 719, the Arabs occupied Narbonne, which was then heavily fortified and for a long time served as a military stronghold for the Muslims in all their military campaigns against the Franks.
But within a few years, the Arabs began a new offensive campaign in Aquitaine. In 726, the Duke of Aquitaine twice defeated the army of the new wali - Anbasy ibn Suhaim al-Kalbi - and the wali himself was killed in 725 by an arrow while crossing the Rhone. However, Ed the Great - Duke of Aquitaine - could not prevent the Arabs from capturing Nîmes and Carcassonne in 725.
Having stopped the advance of the Arabs, Ed the Great, however, remained in a difficult position, since his possessions bordered on the lands conquered by the Arabs. Usman ibn Nissa, whom the Franks called Munuza. According to folk tradition mentioned in the Chronicle of Alfonso III, Munuza, a Berber chieftain, was one of the four Muslim commanders who were the first to enter Spain during the Arab conquest. During one of the raids on Aquitaine, Munuza captured Lampagia, the daughter of Ed the Great. The girl's beauty struck Munuza so much that he married her. Thanks to this marriage, Munuza became close to his wife's father, Duke Ed.
Munuza, dissatisfied with the fact that Abd al-Rahman ibn Abdallah, and not himself, was appointed to replace the deposed al-Khaitan ibn Ubaida al-Kelabi in 730, needed a powerful ally. Ed wanted to protect his possessions from Arab raids. As a result, in /731, an alliance was concluded between the two rulers, one of the conditions of which was that Ed would provide assistance to Munuza in the prepared uprising against Wali Abd ar-Rahman.
At the same time, Ed began to have disagreements with Karl Martell, a Frankish mayor who wanted to subordinate to his power the possessions that had fallen away from the kingdom of the Franks. Carl accused Ed of treason, saying that he was "an ally of the infidels." Using this far-fetched pretext, in 731 he made two trips to Aquitaine. At the same time, he twice captured and ruined Burj, seduced by the rich booty. Martell's incursions into Aquitaine angered Ed. Having secured the rear from the Arabs, he was able to gather forces, oppose Charles Martel and recapture Bourges.
After the defeat of Munuz, Abd ar-Rahman decided to deal with his ally, Ed of Aquitaine. Having a huge army at his disposal and becoming the sovereign ruler of Al-Andalus, he hoped to continue the conquests begun by his predecessors. He divided the army into two factions. One army of Abd al-Rahman invaded from Septimania and reached the Rhone, capturing and sacking Albigeois, Rouergue, Gevaudan and Velay. Legends and chronicles also speak of the destruction of Autun by the Moors and the siege of Sens. But unlike his predecessors, who attacked the Frankish state from the east, Abd ar-Rahman dealt the main blow from the west.
Battle of Poitiers
Karl Steuben. Battle of Poitiers 732
Having fled from Bordeaux, Ed headed towards the Loire. Opportunities to collect new army he didn’t have it, so Ed had only one thing left: to turn for help to his recent enemy - Major Domo Karl Martel. Gathering the remnants of his army, Ed headed to Paris, where Charles Martel was at that time. Arriving in the city, Ed was able to convince Charles, who was busy at that time fighting other Germanic tribes, to jointly oppose the Arabs.
Apparently, the looming formidable danger temporarily stopped numerous strife and strife, both among the Franks themselves and between the Franks and other Germanic tribes. In order to repel the Arab threat, Charles stopped the intertribal war that he waged against other Germans. He succeeded in a short time gather a large army, which included, in addition to the Franks, some other Germanic tribes: Alemanni, Bavarians, Saxons, Frisians. With a large united army, Charles moved to cross the army of the Moors.
Abd el-Rahman was still under the walls or in the vicinity of Tours when he learned that the Franks were approaching him in large marches. Considering it unprofitable to wait for them in this position, he broke camp and retreated to Poitiers, hot on his heels by Charles Martel, who was chasing him. But great amount the booty and captives and large convoys that were with his army made his march difficult, and made retreat more dangerous than battle. According to some Arab historians, there was a moment when he thought of ordering his soldiers to abandon all this ruinous booty and retain only the war horses and weapons. Such an order was in the nature of Abd el-Rahman. Meanwhile, he did not dare to give it up and decided to wait for the enemy in the fields of Poitiers, between the Vienne River and the Clan River, placing all his hope on the bravery of the soldiers. Near the city, the Arabs plundered and destroyed the Abbey of Saint-Hilaire, but did not besiege the city itself, going around it and moving further towards Tours.
The armies met between Tours and Poitiers. Neither the exact location nor the date of the battle has yet been clearly established by historians. Historians have expressed many versions regarding the location of the battle, placing it in different places between Poitiers and Tours. Different dates for the battle are also given - from October 732 to October 733, however, according to the prevailing currently versions of the battle date back to October 732. This battle went down in history as the Battle of Poitiers (or the Battle of Tours).
Nevertheless, this victory of the Franks stopped the advance of the Arabs into Western Europe, and Charles Martel was unanimously recognized as a fighter for Christianity and ruler of all Gaul. However, the Arab threat was not completely eliminated and Charles had to conduct several more military campaigns to drive the Arabs out of Provence and Burgundy.
The Arab army rolled back south beyond the Pyrenees. In the following years, Martell continued to expel them from France. After the death of Eudon (about 735), who reluctantly accepted Martell's suzerainty in 719, Charles decided to annex the Duchy of Aquitaine to his lands and went there to collect the tribute due to him from the Aquitanians. But the Aquitaine nobility proclaimed Eudon's son Gunold Duke of Aquitaine, and Charles recognized his legal rights to Aquitaine the following year, when the Arabs invaded Provence as allies of Duke Maurontius. Hunold, who at first did not want to recognize Charles as the supreme ruler, soon had no other choice. He recognized the supremacy of Charles, and Martell confirmed his rights to the duchy, and both began to prepare for a meeting with the invaders. Martell was confident that the Arabs must be kept on the Iberian Peninsula and not allowed to gain a foothold in Gaul.
Not wanting to commit his army to a siege that could last for years, and believing that he would not suffer losses in a frontal attack with all his forces, as was the case at Arles, Martell was content with isolating the few invaders at Narbonne and Septimania. After the defeat of the Moors at Narbonne, the threat of invasion weakened, and in 750 the united caliphate plunged into civil war at the Battle of Zab.
1031 - collapse of the Cordoba Caliphate.
Around 1030 to 1099 - the life and exploits of Count Ruy Diaz de Bivar, nicknamed Cid Campeador, the legendary warrior of the Reconquista, the hero of the epic "Song of Cid", as well as numerous later works by Corneille, Herder and others.
1037-1065 - Fernando I, King of Castile and Leon, captures Coimbra and forces the Muslim rulers of Toledo, Seville and Badajoz to pay him tribute.
The struggle against the Moors, however, did not deter the Christian kingdoms from fighting each other or forming temporary alliances with Islamic overlords. Moorish emirs often had Christian wives or mothers. Later Castile had enough military power conquer the last Moorish emirate, Granada, but she long preferred to receive tribute from Granada instead. Trade through Granada was Main way African gold to medieval Europe.
Ethno-social groups of the population of the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista
- Moors, which included African Muslims proper: Arabs, who made up the small (1-3%) and highly privileged elite of the caliphate; as well as Berbers, performing the role of mercenaries in the army and minor officials of the Muslim state apparatus, speaking the Berber language and using Arabic in official settings (5%-10%)
- Muwallads, Christians of Roman origin who voluntarily or forcibly converted to Islam and almost completely merged with Muslims (5%)
- Mudehars, Muslim peasants and artisans who remained in lands captured by Christians.
- Renegades, former Christians who recently converted to Islam and fought on the side of the Muslims
- Moriscos, Muslim peasants and artisans who voluntarily or forcibly converted to Christianity in Christian-controlled lands
- Sephardim, groups of Romance-speaking Jews of the Iberian Peninsula
- Marranos, groups of Romance-speaking Jews who converted to Christianity in the Iberian Peninsula
- Mozarabs, groups of Romance-speaking Christians European descent living in Muslim-controlled lands.
- Christians, a group of Romance-speaking Catholic Christians of European origin who dominated the north of the country.
- Original Christians, a privileged group of Romance-speaking hereditary Catholic Christians since the last stage of the Reconquista.
- New Christians are baptized Jews, Moors and Gypsies.
Christianization of the Arabs
Moorish emirs and kings often had Christian wives or mothers. The baptized Moors were called “Moriscos”, and the baptized Jews were called “Marranos”. The function of forcing baptism and ensuring that newly converted Christians did not practice their former religions was assigned to the Holy Inquisition. The baptized Moriscos and Marranos (except, later, those burned on charges of returning to their former faith) in Spain disappeared without a trace. In Portugal, the descendants of baptized Jews, being Catholics by faith, nevertheless retain their ethnic identity. Currently, these are mainly people belonging to wealthy sections of the population living in the Porto area. They can be distinguished from the rest of the Portuguese population by their characteristic family names.
figurative meanings
At the end of the 20th century, the concept of Reconquista acquired new meanings in different regions of the world.
Mexico and USA
The concept of Reconquista is often used in far-right, conservative political circles in the United States to describe the demographic situation in the southwest of the country, where, as a result of uncontrolled illegal migration in recent decades, Mexicans and other immigrants from Latin America again became the majority of the population (see US States with a Majority of Minorities). For reference, the territory of the southwest before the war of 1848 (see Mexican-American War) was Mexican territory with, albeit a small (about 50,000), but still Spanish-speaking population. Mexico's defeat in the war led to an influx of white English-speaking settlers, who absolutely dominated the region until the late 1970s, but began to lose ground in last years.
Montreal and Quebec in Canada
The concept of Reconquista (fr. La Reconquête) can also often be found in English- and French-language publications in Canada and the USA, describing the development of the demolinguistic situation in the modern province of Quebec, especially regarding the main metropolis of the province, and once largest city country (now the second largest after Toronto) - Montreal. For reference, the territory of modern Quebec and Montreal until 1759 (see New France) was French territory with, albeit a small (about 60,000), but still French-speaking Catholic population. The defeat of France in the war with Great Britain led to an influx of English-speaking settlers into Montreal, which absolutely dominated the city in the late 1930s, but especially began to lose ground in recent years with the development of Quebec nationalism and the adoption of laws such as the Charter of the French Language, which restored French the face of Montreal. The English-speaking population accounts for only 12.5% of the city's population and 8.2% of the province's population.
Notes
- Reconquista, -s ( ist.). Lopatin V.V. Uppercase or lowercase? orthographic dictionary/ V. V. Lopatin, I. V. Nechaeva, L. K. Cheltsova. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 512 p., p. 370
- Lebek S. Origin of the Franks. V-IX centuries. - pp. 225-228.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - P. 145.
- Muller August. Decree. Op. - P. 608.
- Arab-Byzantine chronicle of 741, part 42. Eastern literature. Archived
- Initially conquered Spain, called Al-Andalus by the Arabs, was divided into 5 provinces, each of which was headed by a governor subordinate to the Wali of al-Andalus. After the annexation of Septimania, a sixth province was created, administrative center which Narbonne became.
- Future Catalonia.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - P. 147.
- Lampagia is also known under the names Numerantia, Menina. According to Arab chronicles, she was a Christian from independent Galicia, "the daughter of a count of that country." However, the "Mozarabic Chronicle", previously attributed to Isidore of Patcensky (or Bezhsky), indicates that she was the daughter of Ed of Aquitaine (either illegitimate or from a second marriage)
- Historians have disagreements regarding the chronology of events. According to some, marriage served as the basis for the union between Ed and Munuza. According to others, Ed himself gave his daughter as a wife to the “infidel” to strengthen the union. For more details see: Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - P. 148.
- Munuza himself hoped to receive the post of wali.
- Mozarab chronicle 754 part 79. Eastern literature. Archived from the original on January 31, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- According to one version, it was the capture of Bourges that pushed Ed into an alliance with Munuza.
- Fredegar's successors, art. 13.
- According to Cond and Chénier, Al-Bab is the Arabic name for Puycerd, the Roman Castle of Libya in Caretania (lat. Castrum Liviae in Ceretania).
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - pp. 153-156.
- Muller August. Decree. Op. - P. 609.
- Mozarab Chronicle 754 part 80. Eastern literature. Archived from the original on January 31, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - P. 159.
- Previously attributed to Isidore of Patsen, bishop of the city of Pax Iulia (modern Beja).
- Wolf. Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain. - P. 145.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - pp. 160-170.
- A similar dating is defended, for example, by Deviosse J. and Roy J-A., authors of the book “The Battle of Poitiers.”
- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- Les grandes chroniques de France (French). Retrieved January 25, 2009.
Israel's climate is hot and sunny summer and a long period (from April to October), when clear skies prevail and the sun shines a lot. Rain (in places where it occurs) usually occurs from November to March.
The climate of Israel is Mediterranean west coast(including cities such as Tel Aviv, Haifa and Netanya), with mild and rainy winters, and hot and sunny summers, during which the air is humid but softened by breezes. In Tel Aviv average temperature in January it is 14 °C, and in July and August it is about 26 °C. Hot spells are possible, especially between April and June, when winds from the Egyptian deserts can raise temperatures to around 40°C, even on the coast.
Below are the average minimum and maximum air temperatures in Tel Aviv.
On the Mediterranean coast, the water temperature is warm enough for swimming between June and November.
In the interior regions of Israel (including cities such as Jerusalem and Nazareth), the climate becomes wetter but also more continental, both due to greater distance from the sea and due to the altitude: Jerusalem is located at an altitude of 700 meters above sea level. sea, Bethlehem, on West Bank the Jordan River is almost 800 meters, but Nazareth is located at a lower altitude - its height varies from 300 to 500 meters. In these inland regions of Israel, winter is also relatively mild, but the penetration of cold air masses from Russia can even cause snow in January and February (and sometimes early March), usually in places with altitudes above 600 meters. In summer, the air in this area is dry and the heat is usually quite bearable, but sometimes hot air masses from the Egyptian desert can cause extreme heat and it's hot even here. In Jerusalem, the average temperature in January is 9 °C, and in August - 24.5 °C. Below are the average minimum and maximum temperatures in Jerusalem.
Further east, in the Jordan Valley, whose altitude drops even below sea level (not only in the regions around the Dead Sea, but also south of Lake Tiberias), winters are still mild, but summers become very hot. There is little rainfall here, and the landscape, with the exception of areas where river waters used to irrigate fields, can be described as semi-desert. Tiberias receives an average of 415 millimeters of precipitation per year, most of which, as usual, occurs in the winter months. Below are the average minimum and maximum air temperatures.
Further south, in the areas bordering the Sinai Peninsula and the Red Sea, lies the Negev Desert, which experiences mild winters and hot summers. Unlike the Mediterranean coast, summer is not the best time for a beach holiday on the Red Sea: in Eilat the average daytime temperature in July and August is 32 °C, with a minimum of 26 °C and a maximum of 38 °C, but sometimes it can exceed 45 °C. In April and October, in turn, Maximum temperature is about 30-32 °C, and the sun is guaranteed at this time.
There is very little rainfall in Eilat, and the amount per year does not exceed even 50 millimeters.
In Eilat, the Red Sea is somewhat cool for swimming in winter, but summer months the water is pleasantly warm.
Promised land! For whatever purposes they come here: to relax on one of the four seas, to visit places that are holy for many, and to receive thorough treatment in the best clinics in the world, or at unique resorts in the country! Find out on the Tour Calendar why you can vacation in Israel almost all year round, and why the best time for a vacation on the Red Sea is April, May, September and October, on the Mediterranean Sea - late spring and early autumn, and on the Dead Sea the most comfortable The time for treatment and rest is autumn and spring.
Tourist season in Israel
As such high tourist season It’s not so easy to single out holidays in Israel. Every month of the year is suitable for a trip to this wonderful country. Thanks to its wide and varied opportunities, Israel is popular in the tourism market all year round. Someone comes here to get acquainted with rich history countries, others for treatment in one of the famous clinics or to the Dead Sea, others to the Red Sea for a beach holiday or diving. So at any time everyone can find something to their liking here.
High season in Israel
There are several periods of the year when prices for tours to the country are higher than at other times. True, it’s worth distinguishing whether it’s a beach vacation or a tourist one: at one time, resort hotels may not be full, while hotels in some cities will be overcrowded. The high season is considered to be the period from the end of February to May, since spring is perhaps the most beautiful time to visit Israel. And although summer doesn't count high season Because of the heat, there can be a lot of vacationers in July and August, partly because of the vacation period, partly because the Israelis themselves prefer to relax at this time. Also, the high season is considered to be both autumn in general and the period from September 18 to October 27, i.e. a week before Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year) and the week after Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles), when there is an influx of tourists. Additionally, thousands of Christians flock to Israel from mid-December to mid-January. In general, as you can see, Israel is popular throughout almost the entire year!
Low season in Israel
It is believed that the demand for travel to Israel is lower in the summer, when temperatures rise to +40 and above. And also in winter, when it gets cooler. But many people go to Israel at this time, for example, in Eilat on the Red Sea in winter the air temperature is about 20 and the water temperature is about +21 degrees. However, rain is possible at this time. It is worth noting that the period from the second half of December to the beginning of January cannot be called low season, because pilgrims from all over the world come to Israel.
Beach season on the Red and Mediterranean Seas
There are four seas in Israel - the Red, Mediterranean, Dead and Galilee (Lake Kinneret). On the Red Sea swimming season in Israel lasts all year round, since the water temperature does not fall below +20 °C, and the air temperature stays from +15..to +30 °C throughout the year. The most popular resort of the Red Sea is Eilat. The Red Sea is a little cool in winter in December, January and February. In summer, especially in July and August, it is too hot and the sea may not be refreshing. It is believed that the best time for a beach holiday on the Red Sea is April, May, September and October. March and November can also be considered, the only thing is that in early spring the water in the sea can be invigorating. The Mediterranean Sea is, of course, cooler than the Red Sea. The water in it warms up only by May to +21-23°C, and remains warm until September-October, and sometimes November. The only thing that can upset your holiday on the Mediterranean Sea is jellyfish. They usually appear in June-July, but sometimes they appear in April and September, and they sting quite well.
When is the best time to go to the Dead Sea?
People usually go to the Dead Sea for medicinal purposes all year round, and if the sea is already cool, such as in winter around +19..+22°C, it healing properties can be enjoyed in spa hotels. To take water baths directly in the Dead Sea, it is best to take spring or autumn, because... how in summer it can be too hot, the sea warms up to +30..35°C and above, and in winter, as was said, it cools down too much. At the Dead Sea, not only the water is healing, but also the air, so no matter when you come here, the microclimate will have a beneficial effect on your body. The only exception would be excessive heat in summer.
The Velvet season
The most pleasant and comfortable weather The best time to visit Israel is in October. Traditional for the Mediterranean" velvet month“September is still too hot in Israel, even on the Mediterranean Sea, not to mention the Red Sea. In October, the temperature usually does not exceed +30 degrees, and the water temperature in the sea is around +24..+26C.
Best time for sightseeing
The best time to travel to get acquainted with the history and sights of Israel will most likely be the end autumn - beginning spring. After all, in winter it can rain here, and the rest of the time the thermometer rarely drops below +30 degrees. It is true that it is worth considering that what further north cooler, and the further south the hotter it is. The difference can be up to 10 degrees, and mountainous areas even more.
Ski season in Israel
Of course, there is no ski season as such in Israel, and probably few people go to Israel specifically to ski. But if you find yourself in Israel in winter, and sometimes in late autumn and early spring, and you are bored with a beach holiday, then you should definitely visit Mount Hermon, with an altitude of more than 2200, and go skiing! On this moment Hermon has several trails of varying difficulty, total length which are about 8 kilometers. Ski lifts and cable cars will take you to the mountains; you can rent skis and other equipment right there.
Climate in Israel
The climate in Israel is subtropical, but some areas are dry and temperate. tropical climate. This is due to the peculiarity geographical location Israel. Despite the relatively small territory of the country, the weather in different parts can vary significantly by up to 10 degrees. Yes, and the temperature is perceived in different areas in different ways, which is influenced by the proximity of the sea, air humidity, and altitude above sea level. In the north, for example, in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, it is usually cooler, because the desert is nearby. In the south, in Eilat, you can relax and swim in the sea all year round. The hottest time in Israel is summer, and the hottest month is August, when temperatures can exceed more than +40. The driest part of Israel is the Negev Desert. Most precipitation falls in winter, especially in January. In winter, temperatures in higher parts of the country can drop below 0, and Mount Hermon is covered with snow from December to March, so you can even go skiing in northern Israel in winter.
Israel in spring
Spring in Israel is quite a comfortable time to visit, as the air warms up to pleasant temperatures, but the summer heat is still far away. And although the Red Sea in March has cooled down after winter, even 20 degrees can be quite suitable for swimming, warm and sunny weather It certainly won't let you freeze. March in Israel is ideal for a tourism program - visiting cities, museums, temples, parks with unique flora, theaters and other public events. In April the weather completely becomes summer and the air warms up to 18..+27C, and water will do even for the most heat-loving tourists it reaches +23C degrees. The Dead Sea in April warms up to +24C and is already quite suitable for therapeutic water procedures. In May, the Mediterranean Sea also warms up and is quite comfortable for a beach holiday. If you are traveling to Israel in the spring, you can count on good weather There is practically no rain in spring. It is worth noting that Easter takes place in Israel in the spring, so there can be quite a lot of tourists at this time.
Temperature and weather in Israel in spring
Weather in March | Weather in April | Weather in May | |
---|---|---|---|
Jerusalem | +16 | +21 | +25 |
Tel Aviv | +20 | +25 | +27 |
Haifa | +19 | +24 | +26 |
Eilat | +24 +21 | +30 +23 | +34 +24 |
Israel in summer
Summer in Israel is the most hot period per year. In June, the weather in Israel has not yet reached its maximum and usually does not exceed +30 degrees. The Mediterranean Sea has already warmed up to +23 degrees, and the Red Sea to +24. The weather in Israel in July becomes even hotter, the sea warms up even more, and therefore at this time beach holidays in Israel is suitable only for the most persistent. In August, the weather hardly changes, except that the temperature rises even more to +40 degrees and above - after all, August is the hottest month of the year. If you do find yourself in Israel in the summer, then it is better to spend time somewhere near the sea.
Temperature and weather in Israel in summer
Weather in June | Weather in July | Weather in August | |
---|---|---|---|
Jerusalem | +27 | +29 | +29 |
Tel Aviv | +29 | +31 | +31 |
Haifa | +29 | +31 | +31 |
Eilat | +38 +23 | +40 +25 | +40 +26 |
Israel in autumn
Autumn in Israel is a time of comfortable warmth. After the sweltering summer heat, this is a great time to relax. In September and even October the weather is still truly summer, for example on the Red Sea in Eilat the air temperature is even higher than +30 degrees, and the water is about +26..+27. On the Mediterranean Sea in September and October, the weather is also conducive to relaxation - the air temperature is slightly below +30 degrees, and the sea temperature is +24..+27C. Possibly October, one of best months a year for a holiday in Israel. The weather in November in Israel is still warm, and neither Red nor Dead nor Mediterranean Sea have not cooled down yet. But it is worth remembering that the rainy season begins in November. And although in reality there are not so many of them and they are not so scary, they can still spoil your vacation.