The most famous philosophers. Main philosophers and a brief description of their views Famous philosophers of the world list
ABELAR - famous scholastic. philosopher and theologian, 1079-1142, born in Palais near Nantes. A. had brilliant eloquence and, as a teacher of dialectics and theology, attracted many listeners from all countries. In the banner In the medieval dispute about general concepts (universalia), A. took a middle position, leaning, however, more towards nominalism; general ideas are creations of the mind and become real only when they relate to what exists in reality. In theology, A. adhered to a clearly rationalistic direction His teaching about the Holy Trinity and the atonement was condemned at two councils. A.'s ardent love for Eloise, the niece of Canon Fulbert, had a tragic end, who, out of revenge, ordered him to be castrated and Eloise accepted monasticism. In 1828, the ashes of A. and Eloise were transferred to. Pere Lachaise cemetery in Paris, published by A. Cousin (1849-1859); transl. by Protopopov.
AURELIUS AUGUSTINE - Christian theologian, the most prominent representative of Western patristics. A.'s ontology and his doctrine of God as an absolute being follow Neoplatonism, but A. tried to rethink the old ideas, starting not from the object, but from the subject, from the self-evidence of human thinking (an anticipation of Descartes' main idea). The existence of God, according to A., can be directly deduced from human self-consciousness, but the existence of things cannot (a train of thought close to Anselm of Canterbury and opposite
approach of Thomas Aquinas). A.'s psychologism is revealed in his teaching about time as a correlate of the remembering, contemplating and waiting soul. A new feature of A.'s thinking was attention to two problems that ancient thought had overlooked: the dynamics of the human personality and the dynamics of human history.
Aquinas THOMAS - medieval philosopher and theologian, systematizer of orthodox scholasticism, founder of Thomism; Dominican monk (from 1244). The task that F.A. sets himself is the ordering of the multitude into unity, and not just the contemplation of unity, detached from all multiplicity; he seems to strive to derive the existence of God from the existence of things. In this, F.A.’s thinking differs from the abstract speculation of early scholasticism (Anselm of Canterbury), which was guided by Plato, Neoplatonism and Augustine. Ontology is based on FA = the antithesis of “potential” (possible) and “actual” (actual), going back to Aristotle. The anthropology of F.A., especially associated with the acute ideological conflicts of his era, is based on the idea of the human individual as a personal union of soul and body. The soul is immaterial and substantial, but receives final fulfillment only through the body. F.A. believes that reason in itself is higher than will, but makes the reservation that in the plane of life, love for God is more important than knowledge of God.
ALBERT THE GREAT - German philosopher and theologian, representative of Orthodox scholasticism, Dominican monk (from 1223). Together with the latter, he fought against opposition movements in scholasticism and heresies, as well as against Averroism. Among scientists of the 13th century. was distinguished by his unusually versatile knowledge in a variety of fields, in particular in the field of natural science (treatises on minerals, plants, animals, etc.).
ARISTOTLE is the greatest Greek philosopher and natural scientist, who had a tremendous influence on all subsequent development of philosophical thought. A., the all-encompassing mind of the ancient world, systematically developed everything
branches of knowledge of that time, put forward the importance of observation and experience and thus laid the foundation for the natural historical study of nature; of his numerous works, only a small part has reached us: his works on logic and rhetoric, on natural science, “Metaphysics”, “Ethics”, “Politics” and "Poetics". The tasks of science, according to A., are the knowledge of existence; the content of this knowledge is the general (concept), and therefore determining the relationship of the particular to the general is the main task of art. philosophy.
BAKUNIN - Russian revolutionary, one of the founders and theorists of anarchism and populism. History, according to B., is an evolutionary process, the procession of humanity from the “kingdom of animality” to the “kingdom of freedom.” The attributes of the lowest level are religion and state. Man differs from animals only in thinking, which gives rise to religion. The state, personifying tyranny and exploitation, is based on the fiction of God. The future society is a system of unlimited freedom, independence of man from all power, and the full development of all his abilities. Erroneously seeing in the state the main source of oppression of the masses and all social evils, B. spoke out against any statehood; He also sharply opposed any use of the state by the working class, against the Marxist doctrine of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Defending the slogan of a “free federation” of agricultural and factory-craft associations, B. and his followers rejected participation in the political struggle within existing states, the use of election agitation, parliaments, etc. Dreaming of a social revolution, B. did not understand its actual content, its economic and political conditions, or the true historical mission of the working class.
BACON - English philosopher, founder of English materialism. Science, according to B., should give man power over nature, increase his power and improve his life. B. considered the reason for the delusion of reason to be false ideas - “ghosts” or “idols”, of four types: “ghosts of the race”, rooted in the very nature of the human race and associated with man’s desire to consider nature by analogy with himself; “ghosts of the cave” that arise due to the individual characteristics of each person; “market ghosts” generated by an uncritical attitude to popular opinions and incorrect use of words; "ghosts of the theater", a false perception of reality based on blind faith in authorities and traditional dogmatic systems, similar to the deceptive verisimilitude of theatrical performances. B. considered matter as an objective variety of sensory qualities perceived by man; B.'s understanding of matter had not yet become mechanistic, like that of Galileo, Descartes and Hobbes.
BERGSON - French idealist philosopher, representative of intuitionism and philosophy of life. At the center of B.'s philosophy is the problem of creativity, which he views as a cosmic objective process; Man is a creative being, since the path of “life impulse” passes through him. The ability to create, according to B., following Schopenhauer, is associated with irrational intuition, which, as a divine gift, is given only to a select few. Thus, B. comes to an elitist concept of creativity and culture in general, being one of the forerunners of the theory of mass culture. Moreover, creativity of all types of values, including social ones, is equally, according to B., subject to the law of elitism. B. recognizes two types of society and, accordingly, two types of morality: “closed” and “open.” The first satisfies the requirements of social instinct and has the goal of preserving the race: the individual is sacrificed to the collective, truth is sacrificed to benefit. From the point of view of “open” morality, the individual and creativity of aesthetic, religious and moral values are above the interests of preserving the species. B.'s philosophical concept is internally inconsistent. As soon as the conceptual way of thinking is declared false, distorting reality, then turning to concepts (and B. uses them when presenting his system) turns out to be a contradiction. True, B. from time to time violates his veto on discursive thinking and contrasts bad, “inert” concepts with “fluid” ones that are capable of following reality.
BERDYAEV is a Russian religious mystic philosopher close to existentialism. The struggle and interaction of two principles: the existentialist affirmation of the unlimited spiritual and creative principle of the individual and the Christian motive of compassion determine the philosophical positions and philosophical sympathies of B. Born from the absolutization of each of these motives, the duality of B.’s position is expressed in a number of contradictions and, above all, in what he himself fixes the contradiction between “creativity” and “pity” (the morality of creativity, or the cult of “genius”, and the Christian morality of redemption). B., in the spirit of the mysticism of Boehme and Schelling, affirms the groundlessness of freedom, its primacy over being (and God) and, therefore, the insubordination of man to the divine will; speaks of the absence of God in the world. However, B. also accepts the concept of history in the providential spirit of Christian eschatology. B. is characterized by complete repulsion from the world (the kingdom of “everyday”, evil), but also by the desire to transform the world. B. combines the call for creativity as a means of changing the world with the conviction that any creative act is doomed; Essentially, B. identifies any objectification (objective embodiment) of human creativity with alienation.
BRUNO - Italian philosopher and poet, representative of pantheism. In the philosophy of B., the ideas of Neoplatonism (especially the ideas of a single beginning and the world soul as the driving principle of the Universe, which led B. to hylozoism) intersected with the strong influence of the views of ancient materialists, as well as the Pythagoreans. The formation of B.'s pantheistic natural philosophy, directed against scholastic Aristotelianism, was greatly facilitated by B.'s acquaintance with the philosophy of Nicholas of Cusa (from whom B. also learned the idea of “negative theology,” based on the impossibility of a positive definition of God). Based on these sources, B. considered the goal of philosophy to be knowledge not of a supernatural God, but of nature, which is “God in things.” Developing the heliocentric theory of N. Copernicus, which had a huge influence on him, B. expressed ideas about the infinity of nature and the infinite number of worlds of the Universe, asserted the physical homogeneity of the world (the doctrine of the 5 elements of which all bodies are composed - earth, water, fire, air and ether). The idea of a single infinite simple substance from which many things arise was associated by B. with the idea of internal kinship and the coincidence of opposites.
BASILY THE GREAT - Archbishop of Caesarea, St., 329-78, representative of the Cappadocian school of Orthodox theology. He founded several monasteries, for which he wrote a charter, took care of the organization of Christian charity, established shelters for the poor, and fought against Arianism. In an effort to consolidate the forces of Christianity, he opposed Arianism, preached asceticism, and supported monasticism. He defended the independence of the church from the emperor.
VERNADSKY - (1863-1945), naturalist, thinker and public figure. The creator of many scientific schools. At the beginning of the 20th century. - one of the leaders of the liberal movement, a member of the Liberation Union, a participant in the creation of the Constitutional Democratic Party (1905, member of its Central Committee). In 1917 - Comrade Minister of Public Education of the Provisional Government. After October 1917, he was the organizer and director of a number of academic scientific institutions. He developed a holistic doctrine about the biosphere, its evolution into the noosphere, in which human activity and the mind become
determining factors of development.
VOLTAIRE - famous French writer, historian and philosopher, 1694-1778. For his accusatory works he was twice imprisoned in the Bastille. V. was a convinced follower of the religion of reason and an ardent opponent of both atheism and positive Christianity; He persecuted the clergy hostile to him with caustic wit. V.'s significance is based on his tireless struggle against the prejudices, superstitions and cruel mores of his age, on his preaching of true humanity and respect for human dignity. personality and broad education, on his active defense of victims of cruel judicial injustice and religious intolerance (the cases of Jean Calas and Sirven). His numerous brilliant pamphlets, brilliant wit, and caustic laughter revealed the vices, weaknesses and passions of his contemporaries. Due to his sober, clear critical mind and amazing ability for popularization and propaganda, V. is rightly considered the first herald of the ideas of his era: freedom of thought and humanity.
GALILEO - Italian physicist, mechanic and astronomer, one of the founders of natural science, poet, philologist and critic. The basis of G.'s worldview is the recognition of the objective existence of the world, that is, its existence outside and independently of human consciousness. The world is infinite, he believed, matter is eternal. In all processes occurring in nature, nothing is destroyed or generated - only a change in the relative arrangement of bodies or their parts occurs. Matter consists of absolutely indivisible atoms, its movement is the only, universal mechanical movement. The celestial bodies are similar to the Earth and obey the same laws of mechanics. Everything in nature is subject to strict mechanical causality. G. saw the true goal of science in finding the causes of phenomena. According to G., knowledge of the internal necessity of phenomena is the highest level of knowledge. G. considered observation to be the starting point for knowledge of nature, and experience to be the basis of science. Rejecting the attempts of the scholastics to obtain the truth from a comparison of texts of recognized authorities and through abstract speculation, G. argued that the task of a scientist is “... to study the great book of nature, which is the real subject of philosophy.” However, limited by the conditions of his time, G. did not was consistent; he shared the theory of dual truth and assumed a divine first impulse.
HEGEL - German philosopher, representative of German classical philosophy, creator of the systematic theory of dialectics based on objective idealism. Hegel's system of objective idealism consists of three main parts. In the first part of his system - in the "Science of Logic" Hegel depicts the world spirit (which he here calls the "absolute idea") as it was before the emergence of nature, that is, he recognizes the spirit as primary. The idealistic doctrine of nature was set out by him in the second part of the system - in the “Philosophy of Nature”. Hegel, as an idealist, considers nature secondary,
derived from the absolute idea. Hegel's idealistic theory of social life constitutes the third part of his system - the “Philosophy of Spirit”. Here the absolute idea becomes, according to Hegel, “absolute spirit.” Thus, Hegel’s system of views had a pronounced idealistic character. An essential positive feature of Hegl's idealistic philosophy is that the absolute idea, the absolute spirit is considered by him in movement, in development. Hegel's teaching on development constitutes the core of Hegel's idealist dialectic and is entirely directed against metaphysics. Of particular importance in Hegel’s dialectical method were three principles of development, which he understood as the movement of concepts, namely: the transition of quantity into quality, contradiction as a source of development, and the negation of negation. In these three principles, although in an idealistic form, Hegel revealed the universal laws of development. For the first time in the history of philosophy, Hegel taught that the source of development is the contradictions inherent in phenomena. Hegel's thought about the internal contradictions of development was a precious acquisition of philosophy.
HELVETIUS - French. philosopher-sensualist; belonged to the Skoda Encyclopedists, 1715-71. Ch. op. "Livre de l"Esprit" (1758). The activity of the mind comes down to judgment, that is, to the comparison of sensations, and therefore to the feeling juger c`est sentir. People are born neither good nor evil, but only gifted with physical sensitivity, which is the source of all passions and human activity in general. The tasks of moralists and legislators are to connect personal interest with public interest in human activity. A virtuous person is one who knows how to reconcile his benefits with the public good; it follows: benefit (for the individual, for society, for the people). of all people) is the only criterion for evaluating ideas and actions.
HERACLITUS - ancient Greek philosopher, representative of the Ionian school. The origin of existence is world fire, which is also soul and mind (logos); it “flares up in measures and fades out in measures”; By condensation all things arise from fire, and by rarefaction they return to it. He expressed the idea of continuous change, becoming (“everything flows”, “you cannot step into the same river twice”). Opposites are in eternal struggle (“discord is the father of everything”), while at the same time there is a “hidden harmony” in space.
HERTZEN - Russian revolutionary, writer, philosopher and publicist. The form of movement towards a new world, according to G., is the combination of philosophy with life, science with the masses, embodying the material beginning of history. When such a merging of spirit and matter occurs, the time of “conscious action” will begin. The concept of “action” appears here in G. as a characteristic of the essence of truly human activity, rising both above unreflective existence and above the dispassionate pursuit of science characteristic of “guild scientists.” Mainly philosophical op. "Letters on the Study of Nature" develops the idea of the unity of opposites mainly in the methodological aspect. The central idea of this work is the urgent need to eliminate the antagonism that exists between natural science and
philosophy or, as G. writes, between “empirics” and “idealism.” Yours
worldview in the 40s. G. called it realism. He came to him through the idealism and romanticism of the 30s. Realism in his understanding covered different areas of existence: the affirmation of materialist philosophy, democratic and revolutionary social ideals, the new morality of the new man. He considered the formation of a humane, free personality who strives to transform society on a reasonable basis to be the main task of education.
HOBBS - the state arose as a result of a social contract consciously concluded by people. This is a force that serves the entire society: both rich and poor, it is formed to ensure the peace and security of citizens. The positive aspect of this theory was that for the first time researchers emphasized the earthly, human, and not the divine origin of the state.
HUSSERL - German idealist philosopher, founder of the philosophical school of phenomenology. G. acted as a sharp critic of skepticism and relativism in philosophy ("Logical Investigations", Russian translation, vol. 1, 1909). G. considers psychologism to be the bearer of these tendencies - the conviction that every cognitive act is determined in its content by the structure of empirical consciousness, and therefore it is impossible to talk about any truth that does not depend on the subjectivity of the knower. G. sees the purest expression of psychologism in the line that goes from J. Locke and D. Hume through J. Mill to W. Wundt. According to G., the sciences of nature and history themselves need a certain justification, which can only be given by philosophy, understood as a strict science, the science of the phenomena of consciousness - phenomenology. Following the path of rationalism of R. Descartes, G. strives to find the latest self-evident logical principles, etc. clear consciousness of empirical content. This purification is accomplished through reduction. As a result of the reduction, the last indecomposable unity of consciousness remains - intentionality, i.e. focus on an object. With the help of the concept of intentionality, G. sought to solve the main theoretical-cognitive question about the connection between subject and object: it is intended to serve as a bridge between them - to be at the same time a representative of the immanent world of universal human consciousness and the transcendental world of being, objectivity; phenomenology is, according to G., science about pure consciousness as the experience of intentional acts. Claiming a neutral position in resolving the main issue of philosophy, G. proposed excluding “propositions about being” from phenomenology. Thus, G. combines subjectivist motives with objective-idealistic ones.
DESCARTES - famous French philosopher and mathematician (1598-1650), founder of new philosophy and rationalism. D. considered it necessary to introduce mathematics into the development of philosophy. method. namely: to base your system on an obvious, universally accepted truth (like mathematical axioms), and then deduce everything that follows; Having subjected to revision and doubt everything to which our mind is inclined to attribute the meaning of knowledge, D. found only one reliable data - this is the fact of the undoubted existence of the doubting subject himself: cogito ergo sum - I think (in the sense of consciousness in general), trace. I exist. Based on this only reliable fact of his own self-awareness, D., through logical reasoning, comes to the recognition of the existence of God as an all-perfect being, the idea of which could not be obtained by man from experience, but is innate and corresponding to the real existence of God. Besides God, there are two more created substances: soul and matter. D. ascribes to the soul as its essence - thinking, and to matter - extension. D.'s view of the external world is purely mechanical: he explains all the phenomena known to him exclusively with the help of movement. All movements of the body are also purely mechanical; and animals are nothing more than machines. Followers of D. are called. =Cartesians?, and his philosophy is Cartesian from lat. named after Descartes.
DEMOCRITUS - Greek philosopher from Abdera, lived around 460-370 BC, the first representative of atomism; being consists of a countless number of indivisible and invisible bodies, atoms, differing in size, shape and order and moving with mechanical necessity; He reduced mental life to differences in the form, combinations and movement of atoms. from op. Only fragments on physics and ethics have survived.
JAMES - 19th century. American idealist philosopher and psychologist, one of the founders of pragmatism. Developing the ideas of Charles Pierce, D. put forward a new, “pragmatic” criterion of truth, according to which what corresponds to the practical success of an action is true. The truth, according to D., “... is simply advantageous in the way we think.”
DIDEROT - French thinker-encyclopedist, 1713-84, without systematic education in his youth, 1745 began publishing the famous "Encyclopedia". Without creating his own philosophical system, he was inspired by the thoughts of others, mostly English philosophers, and created brilliant, artistic improvisations. D. is a brilliant popularizer who knew how to awaken life everywhere and lead people with him. His ideas boiled down to rationalism and humanity. As the founder of the great encyclopedia, D. left a legacy in all branches of knowledge: philosophy, literature, natural science, social sciences, etc.
DILTHEY is a German cultural historian and idealist philosopher, a representative of the philosophy of life. D.’s central concept is life as a way of human existence, cultural and historical reality. Man, according to D., has no history, but he himself is history, which alone reveals what he is. D. is sharply separated from the human world of history by the world of nature. The task of philosophy (as the “science of the spirit”), according to D., is “to understand life based on itself.”
DEWEY - (1859-1952), American philosopher, one of the leading representatives of pragmatism. He denied the objectivity of truth, identifying it with usefulness. He developed the concept of instrumentalism, according to which concepts and theories are only tools for adaptation to the external environment. Creator of the so-called pedocentric theory and teaching methods. D. developed a new version of pragmatism - instrumentalism, and developed a pragmatist methodology in the field of logic and theory of knowledge. According to D., various types of human activity are tools created by man to solve individual and social problems. The aesthetic is reduced by D. to the sensual (“art is life”) and is interpreted as any expression of harmony and balance between the organism and the environment.
ZENON - Greek philosopher of the Eleatic school, student of Pardenides, called by Aristotle the inventor of dialectics; lived around 490-430 BC; tried to refute everyday ideas about the multiplicity and movement of things with the help of dialectical arguments. He is credited with the sophism about Achilles and the tortoise (Achilles can never catch up with the tortoise; there will always be an infinitesimal distance between them).
ZIMMEL is a German idealist philosopher and sociologist. “Life” is understood by Z. as a process of creative formation, inexhaustible by rational means and comprehended only in inner experience, intuitively. The pathos of life as an irrational fate, characteristic of the “philosophy of life,” permeates Z.’s philosophy, expressed, in particular, in the last years of his life in the doctrine of the “tragedy of creativity.” The latter is due, according to Z., to the eternal contradiction between the creative pulsation of life and frozen objectified forms of culture.
JOHN DUNS SCOTT - philosopher, leading representative of Franciscan scholasticism. His teaching (Scotism) opposed Dominican scholasticism - Thomism: in contrast to Thomas Aquinas, he asserted the primacy of the will over the intellect and the primacy of the individual-specific over the abstract-universal. I. D. S. considered it impossible and unnecessary to build a complete philosophical and theological system, in particular a rationally developed ethics: human actions are determined depending on whether they correspond to God's will; that which contradicts it and does not come from love,
there is sin. In ontology, I.D.S. is characterized by a shift in emphasis from abstract universal being to individual being as the most perfect. I.D.S. introduces a special concept that characterizes not a class of objects, but a given individual, “this” thing
JOHN SCOT ERIUGENA - (c. 810 - c. 877), philosopher, Irish by birth; from the beginning 840s in France at the court of Charles the Bald. I.S.E. resolutely insists on the primacy of reason over the authority of religious tradition. His main work “On the Division of Nature” takes the tendencies of pantheism so far that it unites God and the world in a single concept of “being”, or “nature”, going through 4 stages of dialectical self-motion: 1) “creative and uncreated nature”, i.e. . God as the eternal first cause of all things; 2) “created and creative nature,” i.e., the Platonic world of ideas, localized in the intellect of God; 3) “created and non-creating nature,” i.e., the world of individual things; 4) “nature not created and not creating,” that is, God again, but as the final goal of all things, absorbing them back into itself at the end of the world process. The doctrine of I.S.E. is a consistent idealistic monism: everything comes from God and returns to God; I.S.E. denies the essential reality of evil - it exists only as “nothing”, as its self-denial.
CALVIN - leader of the Reformation, founder of Calvinism. Reflecting the interests of the bourgeoisie of the era of primitive accumulation of capital, Kazakhstan carried out a number of reforms aimed at establishing “worldly asceticism.” With the help of the consistory, which headed the church and actually subjugated the secular power, he abolished the magnificent Catholic cult; as an adviser to the government, he achieved the establishment of petty and captious supervision over citizens, compulsory attendance at church services, the prohibition of entertainment, dancing, bright clothes, etc. K. was distinguished by extreme religious intolerance both towards Catholicism and towards popular reform movements (especially Anabaptism), whose followers he accused of atheism; at the insistence of K., opponents of his teaching were subjected to expulsion, death penalty (burning of M. Servetus in 1553) and other punishments.
Great philosophers and their teachings (very briefly)Philosophy allowed the visible world to take shape in our minds. From the hard sciences to political debates, philosophers have sought to challenge our understanding of what the world looks like. And this science originated in Ancient Greece, famous for its impressive list of philosophers, many of whom you have known about since school. We have collected 25 of the most famous names in philosophy so that you can show off your knowledge during an argument.
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle
Marble bust of a famous philosopher
An ancient Greek philosopher, known to almost every person who is at least a little familiar with the course of school history. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but in many ways surpassed his teacher, which caused his displeasure. Known for his work in the fields of mathematics, physics, logic, poetry, linguistics and political science.
The great-grandfather of modern Matrix theory
A native of Germany, Kant is famous for his ideas about the relativity of perception. According to him, we see the world not as it is. We can only perceive it through the prism of our thoughts, feelings and judgments. In other words, he laid the foundation for the creation of the Wachowski brothers' concept of The Matrix.
Creator of Atlantis and Academy
As already mentioned, Plato was the teacher of Aristotle. He is famous for creating the Academy in Athens. It was the first institution of higher education in the Western world.
Confucius is one of the greatest and most famous in the world
Article by a Chinese philosopher in Beijing
This Chinese philosopher lived around 500 BC. His philosophy focused on relationships and the importance of family in the life of each individual and society. Later his views developed and became known as Confucianism.
Portrait of Hume by a Scottish artist
This Scottish philosopher was known for his commitment to empiricism and skepticism. He was confident that our perception of the world is not based on an objective vision, but on our belief in how the world should look. Kant, by the way, took a lot from Hume’s ideas.
The famous philosopher on the canvas of the royal master
He is rightfully considered the father of modern philosophy. He owns one of the most famous aphorisms - “I think, therefore I exist.”
The great Greek philosopher and phrasebook
Plato's teacher made very significant contributions to rhetoric, logic and philosophy. He is credited with the so-called Socratic method of discussion, in which the listener is asked a series of questions that lead the listener to the desired conclusions.
The father of the “Sovereign” in his lifetime portrait
Living during the Renaissance, Machiavelli is known for his invaluable contributions to political philosophy. His book “The Sovereign” tells how to remain “at the helm” of power under any set of circumstances. Machiavelli's work was received with hostility because at that time it was believed that power cannot be unvirtuous. “Might is always right” and “Love does not go well with fear” are his sayings.
The physician who opened the way to popular scientific thought
Locke was a British physician. According to his theory, all our perception is based on subjective vision. His thoughts were developed by Hume and Kant. Locke is also known for using simple language in his writings that anyone familiar with the ability to read would understand. When asked how objects outside of man could exist, he suggested sticking his hand into a fire.
Scene with the search for Man through the eyes of an artist
This philosopher from Ancient Greece is famous for sitting in a barrel. He also criticized Aristotle, claiming that he had distorted the teachings of Plato. No less famous is the episode in which Diogenes, finding Athens mired in vanity and vices, walked through the streets of the capital with a torch and exclamations of “I am looking for a Man!”
Aquinas surrounded by ideas and an ancient Greek philosopher
Thomas Aquinas is one of the most significant Christian theologian philosophers. He not only combined the Greek natural school of philosophy with Christian theology, but also created a number of treatises developing a rational approach to faith and religion (oddly enough). His works most widely describe the beliefs and faith of the Middle Ages.
Statue of a philosopher in one of the Chinese temples
This mysterious philosopher lived around the 6th century BC. in China. He is credited with creating such a movement as “Taoism” (or “Taoism”). The main idea of this teaching is Tao, that is, a special Path to Harmony. These thoughts became very important for Buddhism, Confucianism and other Asian philosophies.
Lithograph of Leibniz's portrait
Leibniz ranks with Descartes among idealist thinkers. Due to his technical background and analytical bent, Leibniz initially believed that the brain was a highly complex mechanism. However, he later abandoned these ideas precisely because of the perfection of the brain. According to his idea, the brain consisted of Monads - subtle spiritual substances.
The legendary "myth buster"
Spinoza was a Dutch Jew born in the early 15th century in Amsterdam. He is known for his studies of rationalism and pragmatism in the Abrahamic religions. For example, he tried to prove the impossibility of many Christian miracles of that time. For which, as expected, he was persecuted more than once by the authorities.
A French philosopher of the Enlightenment, Voltaire advocated humanism, concern for nature, and responsibility for the actions of humanity. He sharply criticized religion and the degradation of human dignity.
This English philosopher lived in turbulent times. Looking at fratricidal wars, he concluded that a citizen must obey the power of the state at any cost, as long as this power ensures internal and external peace, since there is nothing worse than wars.
Portrait of Augustine kept in the Vatican
Aurelius was born in what is now Algeria. He is especially famous for his work “Confession,” in which he describes his path to Christianity. In this work, he often discussed free will and predestination. He was canonized shortly after his death and is considered one of the most important early Christian authors.
Engraving depicting a philosopher
Persian philosopher, known for his criticism of the works of Aristotle. For example, he pointed out the error of statements about the eternity of the world and its infinity. He also directly supported Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam.
Gautama Buddha and his followers
Perhaps the most famous Indian philosopher. He came to the conclusion that all human suffering is a consequence of the conflict between the desire for permanence and the lack of permanence in the world.
Profile of a philosopher on canvas
We can say that Montesquieu is the great-grandfather of almost all Constitutions (including the American one). This French philosopher made an invaluable contribution to political science.
Portrait by an unknown artist
He is known not only for his works in the field of humanism, but also for his very controversial statements (although not without meaning). He argued that man is freer in anarchy than in society. In his opinion, science and progress do not develop humanity, but give more power to the government.
Court portrait of a philosopher
The Irishman with a subtle mental organization is known for the idea that the material world may not exist. Everything that surrounds us and we ourselves are thoughts in the mind of the highest deity.
A photograph of Rand taken for an American magazine
She was born in Russia, but immigrated to the USA, where she became widely known for her ideas of strong capitalism, in whose affairs the government has no right to interfere. Her concepts formed the basis of modern libertarianism and conservatism.
Bouvoir in the last years of his life
Simone did not consider herself a philosopher. However, it was this French woman writer who influenced the formation of existentialism and feminism. Supporters of the latter, by the way, consider her almost the messiah of the fight for women's equality.
Statue of a legendary warlord
Being a talented military man, General Sun Tzu had invaluable experience in warfare. This allowed him to write one of the most popular books among business sharks and modern business philosophers - “The Art of War”.
Of course, this list is far from complete; it does not include many controversial or controversial personalities whose philosophy influenced modern society no less than scientific progress (take Nietzsche). However, philosophy and the development of thought always gives rise to discussion. Right?
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Ancient world
Buddha(Enlightened) (c. 567-488 BC) - founder of the world religion of Buddhism. According to legend, Siddhartha Gautama, the crown prince of the Shakya kingdom (hence his nickname Shakyamuni). Its central element is the “four noble truths.” In presenting his teachings, the Buddha proceeded from the presence of two different levels of understanding - lay people and monks. The first is addressed to the ethical and religious content of Buddhism, consisting of sets of commandments and life norms; The reward for a good life on earth is bliss in heaven. And for a narrow circle of initiates the conceptual core of Buddhism is intended - the philosophical theory of reality and the ideal of Nirvana. The philosophical content of the teachings of Buddhism is associated with two elements of the “Eightfold Path” - “right knowledge” and “right concentration”.
Lao Tzu(6-5 centuries BC) - semi-legendary founder of Taoism, one of the most significant movements in the philosophical thought of China; tradition calls him the author of the Tao Te Ching (Great Way). The focus of Taoist thought is the theme of “Tao - the path” that the ideal person follows, thereby accumulating the power-virtue “de”, which ordered the Celestial Empire (society), and he also spoke about the universal “Tao” as a global natural rhythm of events. “Tao” is “the deepest gate of birth, the root of heaven and earth.”
Confucius(Kun Tzu) (551-479 BC) - Chinese philosopher, creator of one of the first mature philosophical concepts and the founder of Confucianism - an ideological movement that existed for more than two millennia. The teachings of Confucius were a response to the crisis of traditional ideology. He considers the standard of a person following the path of Tao to be “jun-tzu” (“noble man”), the description of which is the focus of the philosopher’s attention. The main qualities of “Junzi” include “ren” - humanity. "i" - justice, "zhi" - ritual. "Ren" means building relationships between people in society in a spirit of solidarity, similar to the kinship of family members.
Antiquity
Thales.(640-550 centuries BC) Ancient Greek thinker, one of the founders of ancient philosophy. Founder of the Milesian School. He elevated all the diversity of phenomena and things to a single element - water.
Anaximander(610-547 centuries BC) Ancient Greek philosopher, representative of the Milesian school. Author of the first philosophical work in Greek, “On Nature.” Student of Thales. Created a geocentric model of space, the first geographical map. He expressed the idea of the origin of man from fish.
Anaximenes(6th century BC). Student of Anaximander. He considered air to be the origin of everything, from the rarefaction of which all things arise.
Xenophanes(570-478 centuries BC). Ancient Greek wandering poet and philosopher. Satirist, denier of the authorities of Hellenic culture. The main work is Silla (satire) in 5 books, directed “against all poets and philosophers.” He criticized anthropomorphism (endowing objects with human properties). He believed that only God has reliable knowledge; human knowledge does not go beyond subjective opinion and is only probabilistic in nature.
Parmenides(6th century BC) Ancient Greek philosopher and politician. He expressed his views in the poem “On Nature”. He studied questions of existence and knowledge. Separated subjective opinion and truth. He proved that there is only eternal and unchanging existence. The main thesis: “Existence is, but non-existence is not.”
Zeno(490-430 centuries BC) Aristotle considered him the founder of dialectics as the art of comprehending truth through dispute or interpretation of opposing opinions. Known for the famous paradoxes “Achilles” and “Arrow”, which substantiate the impossibility of movement and the multiplicity of things.
Democritus(5th centuries BC) Believed that atoms are indivisible material elements. They differ in shape and size; from their “vortex” individual bodies and objects are formed. They act on the senses and cause sensations.
Leucippus ( 5th century BC e.). One of the founders of ancient Greek atomism, teacher of Democritus. He allowed the existence of non-existence, that is, emptiness.
Heraclitus of Ephesus. (5th-4th century BC) He considered the world fire, which is also the soul and mind, to be the first principle of existence; said that it “flares up in measures and fades out in measures”; through condensation, all things arise from fire. He expressed the idea of continuous movement (“everything flows”, “you cannot step into the same river twice”). He believed that opposites are in eternal struggle, while at the same time there is hidden harmony in space.
Pythagoras of Samos.(around 570-500 centuries BC). Ancient Greek philosopher from the city of Regia, religious and political figure, founder of Pythagoreanism. In Crotone he founded a school of his followers (about 2 thousand people), which was both a philosophical and scientific school and a religious and magical union. From the written works of Pythagoras the following are known: “On Nature”, “On Education”, “On the State”, “On the World”, “On the Soul”. Pythagoras first called the Universe "cosmos". He identified number as the basic principle of all existence.
Socrates(about 470-399 centuries BC). Ancient thinker, the first Athenian philosopher. He gave preference to oral reasoning during dialogues in the squares and palaestras. One of the founders of dialectics as a method of knowing the truth through leading questions. He was accused of “worshipping new deities” and “corrupting youth” and sentenced to death. The goal of his philosophy is self-knowledge as the path to comprehension of true good. He became the embodiment of the ideal of a sage.
Aristotle(384-322 centuries BC). Studied with Plato in Athens. In 335 Founded the Lyceum. Founder of logic. Aristotle's First Philosophy (later called metaphysics) contains teachings about the basic principles of existence. The central principle of his ethics: reasonable behavior, moderation. He believed that the best forms of government are monarchy, aristocracy, “politics”, the worst is tyranny. The main works are “Metaphysics”, “Organon”, “Physics”, “On the Origin of Animals”, “On the Soul”, “Ethics”, “Politics”, “Poetics”.
Protagoras(480-410 centuries BC) The most prominent of the sophists. He put forward the thesis “man is the measure of all things - those that exist in their being and those that exist in their non-existence.” In Athens he declared himself atheist.
Gorgias(5th century BC) He owns the essay “On Nature, or on the Non-Existent”; put forward three theses: nothing exists; if something existed, it would be unknowable; if something were knowable, then what was known would be inexpressible.
Epicurus(341-270 centuries BC) Founded a philosophical school in Athens, followed the atomism of Democritus. Motto - live in solitude; the goal of life is the absence of suffering, health of the body and a state of serenity of spirit; knowledge of nature frees us from the fear of death, superstitions and religions in general. In his youth, he considered the pleasure of the body to be true pleasure. And in old age he recognized the highest pleasure - self-development, knowledge of the mind.
Diogenes(about 404-323 centuries BC) Philosopher - Cynic. He practiced extreme asceticism. He considered himself a citizen of the world. According to legend, he lived in a barrel.
Zeno of Kition(4th-3rd centuries BC). Ancient Greek philosopher. Founded the Stoic school in Athens.
Marcus Aurelius. (121-180) Roman emperor, Stoic philosopher. He left philosophical notes - 12 books written in Greek, with the general title “Reflections on Oneself.” At the center of his anti-materialistic teaching is man's partial possession of his body, spirit and soul. He argued that through the spirit all people participate in the divine.
Middle Ages
Thomas Aquinas(1225-1274). Philosopher and theologian, systematizer of scholasticism. Formulated 5 proofs of the existence of God, described as the first cause, the ultimate goal of existence, etc. He argued that nature ends in grace, reason in faith, and philosophical knowledge in supernatural revelation. Main works: “Summa Theologica”, “Summa against the pagans”.
Augustine the Blessed(354-430). Christian theologian and church leader, the main representative of Western patristics. The founder of Christian philosophical history. Developed the doctrine of grace and predestination. Works: “About the City of God”, “Confession”.
Pierre Abelard(1079-1142). French philosopher, theologian, poet. In a dispute about the nature of general concepts, he developed a doctrine later called conceptualism. The rationalist orientation of his ideas caused protest in church circles.
Roger Bacon(1214-1292). English philosopher and naturalist, Franciscan monk. Professor at Oxford. He attached great importance to mathematics and experience - both scientific experiment and mystical insight. He studied optics, astronomy, and alchemy.
John of Damascus(675-749). Byzantine theologian, philosopher and poet, completer and systematizer of Greek patristics; leading ideological opponent of iconoclasm. Philosophical and theological compendium “Source of Knowledge”. Author of chants that contributed to the design
Byzantine system of osmoglasy.
Simeon the Theologian(949-1022). Byzantine mystic philosopher, religious writer, poet. He developed the idea of self-deepening and enlightenment of the individual; brought poetic language closer to living speech norms.
Muslim philosophy
Khorezmi(787-850). Central Asian scientist. Author of fundamental treatises on arithmetic and algebra, which had a great influence on the development of mathematics in Western Europe. Works on astronomy, geography, etc.
Omar Khayyam(1048-1122). Persian and Tajik poet, mathematician and philosopher. His world-famous quatrains - rubai - are imbued with the pathos of individual freedom and freethinking. In mathematical works he gave an exposition of the solution to an equation of the 3rd degree inclusive.
Rudaki(860-941). Persian and Tajik poet, founder of poetry in Farsi. For over 40 years he was at the court of the rulers of Bukhara. Among the literary heritage, the qasida “Mother of Wine” (written in 933) and the autobiographical “Ode on Old Age” have been preserved. About 40 quatrains and many fragments of poems, works of lyrical and didactic content.
Ferdowsi(940-1020). Persian and Tajik poet. The poem “Shahnameh” absorbed the national epic of the Persians and Tajiks and influenced the literature of the East with its refinement of form, ideas of tyranny, justice and humanism.
Biruni(973-1050). Central Asian scientist - encyclopedist. Born in Khorezm. Wrote in Arabic. Works on the history of India, mathematics, philosophy, astronomy, topography, medicine, geology, mineralogy. For the first time in the Middle East, he expressed the idea that the Earth moves around the Sun.
Renaissance
Dante Alighieri(1265-1321). Italian poet, creator of the Italian literary language. Philosophical and poetic treatises on human problems “The feast is not over”, “On folk speech”, “The Divine Comedy”.
Paracelsus(1493-1541). Physician, naturalist and philosopher of the Renaissance. One of the founders of iatrochemistry. Subjected to a critical revision of the ideas of ancient medicine. At the center of his teaching is the concept of nature as a living whole, imbued with a single world soul. Man is able to magically influence nature using secret means.
Copernicus(1473-1543). Polish astronomer, creator of the heleocentric system of the world. He made a revolution in natural science, abandoning the accepted doctrine of the central position of the Earth. He outlined his teachings in the essay “On the Conversion of the Heavenly Spheres,” which was prohibited by the Catholic Church.
Giordano Bruno(1548-1600). Italian philosopher - pantheist and poet. Accused of heresy and burned by the Inquisition in Rome. He defended the concept of the infinity of the Universe and countless worlds. Developed the ideas of Copernicus. Main works: “On infinity, the universe and worlds.”, “On reason, beginning and unity.”, “On heroic enthusiasm.”.
Galileo Galilei(1564-1642). Italian scientist, naturalist. He fought against scholasticism and considered experience to be the basis of knowledge. Laid the foundations of modern mechanics. Built a telescope with 32x magnification. He actively defended the heleocentric system of the world, for which he was subjected to the Inquisition and because of this he had to abandon the teachings of N. Copernicus.
Johann Kepler(1571-1630). German astronomer, one of the creators of modern astronomy. He discovered the laws of planetary motion, on the basis of which he created planetary tables. Laid the foundations of the theory of eclipses. He invented a telescope in which the objective and eyepiece are biconvex lenses.
Martin Luther(1483-1546). Reformation figure in Germany. He rejected the basic tenets of Catholicism. Founder of Lutheranism. Translated the Bible into German.
Nicollo Machiavelli(1469-1527). Italian political thinker. He considered the main cause of Italy’s misfortunes to be its political fragmentation, which only strong state power can overcome. He recognized any means as acceptable for the sake of strengthening the state. Among his works: “History of Florence”, “The Prince”, comedy “Mandrake”.
New time
Francis Bacon(1561-1626). English philosopher. In the treatise “New Organon” he proclaimed the goal of science to be increasing man’s power over nature, and proposed a reform of the scientific method: cleansing the mind of errors, turning to experience, the basis of which is experiment.
Rene Descartes(1596-1650). The basis of Descartes' philosophy is the dualism of soul and body, “thinking” and extended substance. He identified matter with space, and reduced movement to the movement of bodies. The general cause of motion is God, who created matter, motion and rest. Man is a connection between a lifeless bodily mechanism and a soul possessing thinking and will. Main works: “Geometry”, “Discourse on Method”, “Principles of Philosophy”.
Baruch Spinoza(1632-1677). Dutch philosopher. According to Spinoza, the world is a natural system that can be cognized by the geometric method. Nature is one and eternal substance, the cause of itself; thinking and extension are integral attributes of substance; individual ideas and things are its modes. Man is a part of nature, the soul is a mode of thinking, the body is a mode of extension. Works: “Theological-Political Treatise”, “Ethics”.
Gottfird Leibniz(1646-1716). German philosopher, mathematician, linguist, physicist. Founder and President of the Brandenburg Society. Developed projects for the development of education and management in Russia. The real world, according to Leibniz, consists of countless mentally active substances - monads, which are in harmony with each other. In the spirit of rationalism, he developed the doctrine of the innate ability of the mind to understand the highest categories of existence and the universal and necessary truths of logic and mathematics. One of the creators of differential and integral calculus.
Thomas Hobbes(1588-1679). English philosopher. Geometry and mechanics for Hobbes are ideal examples of the best thinking. Nature is a collection of extended bodies that differ in size, shape, position and movement. The state, which Hobbes likens to the biblical monster Levithan, is the result of a contract between people that put an end to the natural state of “war against all.” Main works: “Levithan”, “Fundamentals of Philosophy”.
John Locke(1632-1704). English philosopher, founder of liberalism. In his “Essay on Human Understanding” he developed an empirical theory of knowledge. He argued that all human knowledge stems from experience. He developed the idea of primary and secondary qualities and the theory of the formation of general ideas (abstraction). Locke's socio-political concept is based on natural law and the theory of social contract. In pedagogy, he proceeded from the decisive influence of the environment on education. Founder of associative psychology.
Age of Enlightenment
Carl Gustav Jung(1875-1961). Swiss philosopher and psychologist, founder of “analytical psychology.” He developed the doctrine of the collective unconscious, in the images of which he saw the source of universal symbolism, including myths and dreams. The goal of psychotherapy according to Jung is the implementation of individual individuation. Influenced cultural studies, comparative religion and mythology.
George Berkeley(1685-1753). English philosopher; In his “Treatise on the Principles of Human Knowledge,” he argued that the external world does not exist independently of perception and thinking: the existence of things consists in their perceptibility. Berkeley's teaching is one of the sources of empirio-criticism, pragmatism, and neopositivism.
Jeremy Bentham(1748-1832). English philosopher and lawyer, founder of utilitarianism, the analytical school of law, and ideological liberalism. In the essay “Deontology, or the Science of Morality,” he formulated a moral ideal (“the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people”) and moral criteria (“the achievement of benefit, advantage, pleasure, goodness and happiness”).
Charles Montesquieu(1689-1755). French educator, jurist, philosopher. He opposed absolutism. He sought to reveal the reasons for the emergence of this or that state system, analyzed various forms of state and forms of government. He considered the principle of separation of powers to be a means of ensuring legality. Main works: “Persian Letters”, “On the Spirit of Law”.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte(1762-1814). Representative of German classical philosophy. A professor at the University of Jena, he was forced to leave due to accusations of atheism. In “Speeches to the German Nation,” he called on the German people for moral revival and unification. Professor and first elected rector of the University of Berlin.
Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling(1775-1854). The German philosopher, based on the ideas of J. Fichte, developed the principles of the objective-idealistic dialectics of nature as a living organism, an unconscious spiritual creative principle. He believed that art is the highest form of understanding the world, the unity of the conscious and unconscious, theoretical and practical activity. The Absolute is the identity of nature and spirit, subject and object. Through the self-development of the absolute, its self-knowledge develops. The source of evil is the free falling away of man from the absolute.
Denis Diderot(1713-1784). French philosopher, educator, writer. Founder of the French Encyclopedia. In his philosophical works “Letter on the Blind for the Edification of the Sighted”, “Thoughts on the Explanation of Nature”, being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, he criticized feudalism and absolutism. He defended materialistic ideas. One of the ideologists of the French bourgeoisie of the 18th century. Literary works “Jacques the Fatalist”, the novel “The Nun”, the novel “Ramo’s Nephew”.
David Hume(1711-1776). English philosopher - idealist, psychologist, historian. He considered the objects of mathematics to be the only subject of reliable knowledge. All judgments about existence also come from experience, which, however, Hume understood idealistically. He denied the objective nature of causality. In ethics he developed the theory of utilitarianism. Hume's agnosticism had a significant influence on modern idealism, serving as one of the main ideological sources of neopositivism. The main work is “An Inquiry Concerning the Human Mind.”
Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712-1778). French philosopher, representative of sentimentalism. From the position of deism, he condemned the official church and religious intolerance. In the essay “Discourse on the Beginning and Foundations of Inequality...”, “On the Social Contract”, etc., Rousseau spoke out against social inequality and the despotism of social power. The state, in his opinion, can arise only as a result of an agreement between free people. Aesthetic and pedagogical views are expressed in the novel - treatise “Emil or on education”. Rousseau's ideas, which initially distorted the immaculate person, influenced public thought and literature in many countries.
Classical philosophy
Immanuel Kant(1724-1804). The founder of classical German philosophy. Professor at the University of Koeningsberg. Developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system from the original nebula. Developed in 1770 "critical philosophy" opposed dogmatism, speculative metaphysics and skepticism.
Georg Wilhelm Hegel(1770-1831). German philosopher who created the objective - idealistic theory of dialectics. Its central concept - development - is a characteristic of the activity of the absolute (world spirit), its supertemporal movement in the field of pure thought. Contradiction is an internal source of development. History is “the progress of the spirit in the consciousness of freedom.” Main works: “Phenomenology of Spirit”, “Science of Logic”, “Fundamentals of the Philosophy of Law”.
Ludwig Feuerbach(1804-1872). German philosopher. Originally a follower of Hegel, he later criticized his philosophy. At the center of his philosophy is man, interpreted as a biological being, an abstract individual. He interpreted religion as the alienation of the human spirit. He saw the basis of morality in man’s desire for happiness, achievable through the “religion of love.” The main works are “Towards a critique of Hegel’s philosophy”, “The Essence of Christianity”, “Fundamentals of the Philosophy of the Future”, “The Essence of Religion”.
Søren Kierkegaard(1813-1855). Danish theologian, philosopher, writer. He identified three stages on the path to God: aesthetic, ethical, religious. He defended the thesis about the reality of Christianity. Influenced Danish literature, existentialism and dialectical theology. The main works are “Either or”, “Fear and Trembling”, “Philosophical Pieces”, “Stages of Life’s Path”.
Karl Jaspers(1833-1969). German philosopher, psychiatrist. He saw the main task of philosophy in revealing the “ciphers of being” - various expressions of transcendence (the incomprehensible absolute limit of being and thinking). The correlation between existence and transcendence is perceived by a person in so-called borderline situations (suffering, struggle, death). The main works “Philosophy”, “The Origins and Goals of History”, “Great Philosophers”.
Martin Heidegger(1889-1976). German philosopher. He developed the doctrine of existence, which is based on the opposition of true existence and the world of everyday life, everyday life. Comprehension of the meaning of being is connected, according to Heidegger, with the awareness of the frailty of human existence (“Being and Time”). The themes of the works of the “late” Heidegger are the origin of the “metaphysical” way of thinking, the search for the path to the “truth of being.”
Albert Camus(1913-1960). French writer and philosopher. In the play "Caligula" he expressed the search for ideological support in a world devoid of meaning. In the story “The Outsider,” the hero embodies the fatal powerlessness to master the flow of existence. The rebellion against the laws of the universe is reflected in his works: the parable novel “The Plague”, the philosophical essay “The Myth of Sisyphus”, “The Rebel Man”. Journalism: “Topical Notes”, “Swedish Speeches”. Nobel Prize winner. Camus's work became an exponent of the tragic consciousness of the 20th century.
Sigmund Freud(1856-1939). Austrian psychiatrist, psychologist. Founder of psychoanalysis. He developed a theory of psychosexual development of the individual; in the formation of character and its pathology, he assigned the main role to the experiences of early childhood. The principles of psychoanalysis were extended to various areas of human culture. Main works: “Interpretation of Dreams”, “Psychopathology of Everyday Life”, “Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis”, “Totem and Taboo”, “I and It”.
Carl Gustav Jung(1875-1961). Swiss psychologist and philosopher, founder of “analytical psychology.” He developed the doctrine of the collective unconscious, in whose images (the so-called archetypes) he saw the source of universal symbolism, including myths and dreams. The goal of psychotherapy according to Jung is the realization of individuality. Influenced cultural studies, comparative religion and mythology.
Erich Fromm(1900-1980). German-American philosopher and sociologist, the main representative of neo-Freudianism. Based on the ideas of psychoanalysis, existentialism, Marxism, he sought to resolve the main contradictions of human existence - between egoism and altruism, possession and being. He saw the way out of the crisis of modern civilization in the creation of a “healthy society” based on the principles and values of humanistic ethics (among which the highest is love). Restoring harmony between the individual and nature, the individual and society. Major works: “Flight from Freedom”, “Psychoanalysis and Religion”, “Revolution of Hope”.
Arthur Schopenhauer(1788-1860). German philosopher, representative of voluntarism. In his main work, “The World as Will and Idea,” the essence of the world appears in Schopenhauer as an unreasonable will, a blind, aimless attraction to life. “Liberation from the world”, asceticism is achieved through compassion, in a state close to the state of Buddhist nirvana. Schopenhauer's pessimistic philosophy became widespread in Europe from the 2nd half of the 19th century.
Friedrich Nietzsche(1844-1900). German philosopher, representative of the philosophy of life. Creative activity: in “The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music” he contrasted two principles of being - “Dionysian” (life-organistic) and “Apollonovsky” (contemplative-ordering). In his writings he made an anarchic critique of culture. The myth of the “superman” combined the cult of a strong personality with the romantic ideal of the “man of the future.”
Edmund Husserl(1859-1930). German philosopher, founder of phenomenology. He sought to transform philosophy into a “rigorous science” through the phenomenological method. Later he turned to the idea of the “life world” as the original socio-cultural experience, drawing closer to the philosophy of life. Influenced existentialism and anthropology.
Peter Charles Sanders(1839-1914). American philosopher, logician, mathematician and natural scientist. The founder of pragmatism. He put forward the principle according to which the content of a concept is entirely exhausted by ideas about its possible consequences. Founder of semiotics. Works on mathematical logic.
John Dewey(1859-1952). German philosopher, one of the leading representatives of pragmatism. He proposed a “reconstruction of philosophy” to give it practical significance. He developed the concept of instrumentalism, according to which concept and theory are tools for adaptation to the external environment. The creator of a pedagogical theory based on the principle of “learning through doing” (formation of practical skills).
Elizaveta Petrovna Blavatsky(1831-1891). Russian writer and theosophist. Wandered around Europe, Northern. America, M. Asia, India and China. Since 1860 She organized spiritualistic seances in Russia. Having left for the USA in 1873. She published articles on spiritualism in the American Press and accepted American citizenship. Under the influence of Indian philosophy, she founded in 1875. In New York Theosophical Society. In 1878 she left for India, where she also founded the Theosophical Society. The main works are “Isis Unveiled”, “The Secret Doctrine”.
Carlos Castaneda(1935). American philosopher and anthropologist. He spoke about his path to the “Secret Knowledge” in numerous works of fiction, including “The Teachings of Don Juan: the path to knowledge of the Yaqui Indians.”
Auguste Comte(1798-1857). French philosopher, one of the founders of positivism and sociology. Positivism was considered as a middle line between empiricism and mysticism. Science, according to Comte, does not cognize essence, but only phenomena. He put forward a theory of three stages of intellectual evolution of humanity (theological, metaphysical and positive or scientific), which determine the development of society. Developed a classification of sciences. Main works: “Course of Positive Philosophy”, “System of Positive Politics”.
Herbert Spencer(1820-1903). English philosopher, founder of the organic school in sociology; ideologist of liberalism. Developed the doctrine of general evolution; in ethics - a supporter of utilitarianism. He made a huge contribution to the study of ancient culture. The main work is “System of Synthetic Philosophy.”
Thomas Kuhn(1922). American philosopher and historian of science. He put forward the concept of scientific revolutions as a change of paradigms - initial conceptual schemes, ways of posing problems and research methods. He gave criticism to the neopositivist understanding of science.
Michel Paul Foucault(1926-1984). French philosopher, one of the founders of structuralism. Creator of the concept of “archeology of knowledge”.
Teilhard De Chardin(1881-1955). French philosopher, paleontologist, theologian. He developed the theory of “Christian evolutionism”, which is close to pantheism. Influenced the renewal of the doctrine of Catholicism.
Albert Schweitzer(1875-1965). German-French philosopher, theologian and missionary, physician, musicologist and organist. Organized a hospital in Lambran (Gabon). The initial principle of Schweitzer's worldview is “admiration for life” as the basis for the moral renewal of humanity. Nobel Peace Prize.
Hans Georg Gadamer(1900). German philosopher, one of the main representatives of the philosophy of hermeneutics in the mid-20th century. Works on the history of philosophy, aesthetics and philosophy of history. The main work is “Truth and Method.”
Paul Ricoeur(1913). French philosopher who combines the principle of phenomenology with existentialism and personalism. Works on ethics, aesthetics, history of philosophy.
Russian philosophers
Evald Vasilievich Ilyenkov(1924-1979). Russian philosopher and publicist. In repulsion from the official ideology, he tried to return to the “authentic” Marx. In the mid-1950s became the center of a circle of opposition-minded young philosophers.
Merab Konstantinovich Mamardashvili(1930-1990). Russian philosopher. Studied and worked in Moscow. The “Socratic” nature of philosophizing was most fully reflected in his numerous lectures, which he gave at universities in Moscow and other cities. Main works “Forms and content of thinking”, “Symbol and doubt”, “Classical and non-classical ideals of rationality”, “How I understand philosophy”, “Cartesian reflections”.
Alexander Moiseevich Pyatigorsky(1929). Russian philosopher, researcher of the Hindu mythological philosophical tradition. Books “Symbol and Consciousness”, “Selected Works”, “Mythological Reflections”. Intellectual biographical novel “The Philosophy of One Lane.”
Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev(1874-1945). Religious philosopher. He published the philosophical and religious magazine “The Path”. From Marxism he moved to the philosophy of personality and freedom in the spirit of religious existentialism and personalism. Freedom, spirit, personality are contrasted with the world of objects in which evil, suffering, and slavery reign. Main works: “The Meaning of Creativity”, “Dostoevsky’s Worldview”, “Philosophy of the Free Spirit”, “Russian Idea”, “Self-Knowledge”.
Vladimir Sergeevich Solovyov(1853-1900). Russian philosopher, poet, publicist. He taught the utopian ideal of a global theocracy. He had a great influence on Russian religious philosophy. The ideas of Christian Platonism are intertwined with the ideas of new European idealism, especially F.V. Schelling.
Vyacheslav Semenovich Stepin(1943). Russian philosopher, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Works on the theory of knowledge, philosophy and history of science, philosophical anthropology.
Ivan AlexandrovichIlyin(1882-1954). Russian philosopher, lawyer, publicist. In Hegel's philosophy he saw a systematic disclosure of the religious experience of pantheism, as a doctrine of the concreteness of God and Man. Author of several hundred articles and over 30 books, including “On Resistance to Evil by Force.”
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky(1863-1865). Russian philosopher, naturalist. The center of his scientific and philosophical interests is the development of a holistic doctrine of the biosphere and living matter, the relationship between nature and society.
Khomyakov Alexey Stepanovich(1804-1860). Russian philosopher, poet, publicist. One of the founders of Slavophilism. Khomyakov combined his orientation towards eastern patristics with elements of philosophical romanticism. He advocated the abolition of serfdom and the death penalty. The poetic tragedies “Ermak” and “Dmitry the Pretender”, lyrical poems imbued with civic pathos.
Ivan Vasilievich Kireevsky(1806-1856). Russian religious philosopher, literary critic and publicist. One of the founders of Slavophilism. He saw the departure from religious principles and the loss of spiritual value as the source of the crisis of “European enlightenment.” He considered the task of original Russian philosophy to be the reworking of “European education” in the spirit of the teachings of Eastern patristics.
Pavel Alexandrovich Florensky(1882-1937). Russian religious philosopher, theologian. In the essay “The Pillar and Ground of Truth. Experience of the Orthodox Tradition" developed the doctrine of Sophia (the Wisdom of God) as the basis of the meaningfulness and integrity of the universe. In the works of the 20s. strived to build a “concrete metaphysics.”
Lev Platonovich Karsavin(1882-1952). Russian religious philosopher, historian. Based on the principle of unity of V.S. Solovyov, strove to create a holistic system of Christian worldview: “Philosophy of History”, “On Personality”.
Lev Shestov(1866-1938). Russian philosopher and writer. In his philosophy, full of paradoxes and aphorisms, Shestov rebelled against the dictates of reason (universally valid truths) and the oppression of generally binding moral norms over the sovereign individual. Main works: “The Apotheosis of Groundlessness”, “Speculation and Revelation”.
Theodor Ilyich Oizerman(1914). Russian philosopher, academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Main works on the history of Western European philosophy, as well as on the theory of the historical and philosophical process. Winner of the USSR State Prize.
Bonifatiy Mikhailovich Kedrov(1903-1985). Russian philosopher, chemist, historian of science, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Main works on materialist dialectics, philosophical issues of natural science, science, classification of sciences.
Alexey Fedorovich Losev(1893-1989). Russian philosopher and philologist. In line with the traditions of Plato and Neoplatonism, the dialectics of Schelling and Hegel, he developed the problems of symbol and myth, the dialectics of artistic creativity, especially the ancient perception of the world. Main works on ancient aesthetics. Winner of the USSR State Prize.
Boris Petrovich Vysheslavtsev(1877-1854). Religious philosopher, professor at Moscow University. Works on ethics, history of Russian philosophy. He saw moral values and freedoms in the Christian teaching about “grace” as the transformation of subconscious thoughts. Main work: “Ethics of Transfiguration Eros.”
Philosophers of the 20th century
TheodoreAdorno(1903-1969). German philosopher, sociologist, musicologist. Representative of the Frankfurt School. He criticized culture and society and the ideas of “negative dialectics”. Together with his colleagues, he conducted a study of the “authoritarian personality” as a socio-psychological prerequisite for fascism.
Karl Raymund Popper(1902-1994). Philosopher, logician and sociologist. He built his philosophical concept - critical rationalism - as the antithesis of neopositivism. He put forward the principle of falsifiability, which serves as a criterion for demarcation - the separation of scientific knowledge from non-scientific knowledge. Popper's "three worlds" theory asserts the existence of the physical and mental worlds, as well as the world of objective knowledge. Major works: “The Logic of Scientific Research,” “The Open Society and Its Enemies,” “Assumption and Refutation.”
Henri Bergson(1859-1941). French philosopher. The true and original reality, according to Bergson, is life as a metaphysical-cosmic process, a “vital impulse,” creative evolution. Its structure is duration, comprehended only through intuition, opposed to the intellect; various aspects of duration - matter, consciousness, memory, spirit. Main essay “Creative Evolution”.
Martin Buber(1878-1965). Jewish religious philosopher and writer close to dialectical theology and existentialism. The central idea of Buber's philosophy is being as a "dialogue". (Between man and God, between man and the world).
Arnold Gehlen(01904-1976). German philosopher, one of the founders of philosophical anthropology as a special philosophical discipline. Main essay: “Man. His nature and position in the world."
WilliamDilthey(1833-1911). German philosopher, leading representative of the philosophy of life, founder of philosophical hermeneutics. He developed the doctrine of understanding as a specific method of the sciences of the spirit, intuitive comprehension of the spiritual integrity of the individual and culture.
Rudolf Carnap(1891-1970). German-American philosopher, logician. Leading representative of logical positivism and philosophy of science. He developed the theory of logical synthesis of the language of science, supplemented by the later semantic theory.
Willard van Orman Quine(1901-1980). American philosopher, mathematician, logician. Representative of neo-pragmatism, or logical pragmatism. Works on the construction of an axiomatic system, including class logic, logical semantics and modal logic, philosophy of mathematics.
Emanuel Levinas(1906). French philosopher. He was influenced by E. Huserl and M. Heideger through the influence of the religious tradition of Judaism. He considered ethics to be the basis of philosophy; its central concept in Levinas is the “other” and the encounter with the “other.”
Jacques Maritain(1882-1973). French religious philosopher, leading representative of neo-Thomism. He saw a way to overcome the moral and social chaos caused, in his opinion, by the subjectivism of modern times in the sphere of faith, thought, and feeling.
Gabriel Honore Marcel(1889-1973). French philosopher, playwright, literary critic. Founder of Catholic existentialism. The authentic world of being is opposed to the inauthentic world of possession. The dramas of Marseille are based on religious and moral conflicts: “The Broken World”, “Thirst”, “Rome is No Longer in Rome”.
Emmanuel Mounier(1905-1950). French philosopher, founder and head of French personalism. The path of liberation of humanity saw moral renewal, spiritual revolution. Supporter of Christian socialism.
Bertrand Russell(1872-1970). English philosopher, logician, mathematician, public figure. The founder of English noerialism. He developed the deductive-axiomatic method of constructing logic for the purpose of logical justification of mathematics.
Paul Tillich(1886-1965). German-American philosopher, Protestant theologian. Representative of dialectical theology. He strove to create an ideal theology of culture, the reconciliation of reason and revelation.
Miguel De Unamuno(1864-1936). Spanish writer, philosopher, representative of existentialism. At the center of his philosophy is the image of Don Quixote, who acts as the “soul of Spain”, the embodiment of a tragic sense of reality. The main themes of works of art are love, death, loneliness, and the search for God.
John Austin(1911-1960). English philosopher, representative of linguistic philosophy. The main goal of the study was to clarify the expressions of everyday language.
Oswald Spengler(1880-1936). German philosopher, historian. He developed the doctrine of culture as a set of closed “organisms”, expressing the collective “soul” of a people and going through a certain internal life cycle. The main work is “The Decline of Europe.”
David Friedrich Strauss(1808-1874). German theologian and Young Hegelian philosopher. In his essay “The Life of Jesus,” he denied the authenticity of the Gospels and considered Jesus a historical figure. Later he leaned towards pantheism.
George Herbert Mead(1863-1931). American philosopher, representative of pragmatism; social psychologist, founder of the so-called symbolic interactionism. The formation of the human “I,” according to Mead, reflects the structure of the individual’s interaction in various groups and consists in assimilating the meaning of symbols and one’s own role.
John Stuart Mill(1806-1873). English philosopher. Ideologist of liberalism. Follower of Comte. In the “System of Logic” he developed methods of inductive research, treating them as general methods of science. Ethics combines the principles of egoism and altruism.
Bernard Bosanquet(1848-1923). English philosopher, representative of neo-Hegelianism, follower of F. Bradley. Author of "Philosophical Theory of the State".
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Philosophy allowed the visible world to take shape in our minds. From the hard sciences to political debates, philosophers have sought to challenge our understanding of what the world looks like. And this science originated in Ancient Greece, famous for its impressive list of philosophers, many of whom you have known about since school. We have collected 25 of the most famous names in philosophy so that you can show off your knowledge during an argument.
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle
Marble bust of a famous philosopher
An ancient Greek philosopher, known to almost every person who is at least a little familiar with the course of school history. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but in many ways surpassed his teacher, which caused his displeasure. Known for his work in the fields of mathematics, physics, logic, poetry, linguistics and political science.
The great-grandfather of modern Matrix theory
A native of Germany, Kant is famous for his ideas about the relativity of perception. According to him, we see the world not as it is. We can only perceive it through the prism of our thoughts, feelings and judgments. In other words, he laid the foundation for the creation of the Wachowski brothers' concept of The Matrix.
Creator of Atlantis and Academy
As already mentioned, Plato was the teacher of Aristotle. He is famous for creating the Academy in Athens. It was the first institution of higher education in the Western world.
Confucius is one of the greatest and most famous in the world
Article by a Chinese philosopher in Beijing
This Chinese philosopher lived around 500 BC. His philosophy focused on relationships and the importance of family in the life of each individual and society. Later his views developed and became known as Confucianism.
Portrait of Hume by a Scottish artist
This Scottish philosopher was known for his commitment to empiricism and skepticism. He was confident that our perception of the world is not based on an objective vision, but on our belief in how the world should look. Kant, by the way, took a lot from Hume’s ideas.
The famous philosopher on the canvas of the royal master
He is rightfully considered the father of modern philosophy. He owns one of the most famous aphorisms - “I think, therefore I exist.”
The great Greek philosopher and phrasebook
Plato's teacher made very significant contributions to rhetoric, logic and philosophy. He is credited with the so-called Socratic method of discussion, in which the listener is asked a series of questions that lead the listener to the desired conclusions.
The father of the “Sovereign” in his lifetime portrait
Living during the Renaissance, Machiavelli is known for his invaluable contributions to political philosophy. His book “The Sovereign” tells how to remain “at the helm” of power under any set of circumstances. Machiavelli's work was received with hostility because at that time it was believed that power cannot be unvirtuous. “Might is always right” and “Love does not go well with fear” are his sayings.
The physician who opened the way to popular scientific thought
Locke was a British physician. According to his theory, all our perception is based on subjective vision. His thoughts were developed by Hume and Kant. Locke is also known for using simple language in his writings that anyone familiar with the ability to read would understand. When asked how objects outside of man could exist, he suggested sticking his hand into a fire.
Scene with the search for Man through the eyes of an artist
This philosopher from Ancient Greece is famous for sitting in a barrel. He also criticized Aristotle, claiming that he had distorted the teachings of Plato. No less famous is the episode in which Diogenes, finding Athens mired in vanity and vices, walked through the streets of the capital with a torch and exclamations of “I am looking for a Man!”
Aquinas surrounded by ideas and an ancient Greek philosopher
Thomas Aquinas is one of the most significant Christian theologian philosophers. He not only combined the Greek natural school of philosophy with Christian theology, but also created a number of treatises developing a rational approach to faith and religion (oddly enough). His works most widely describe the beliefs and faith of the Middle Ages.
Statue of a philosopher in one of the Chinese temples
This mysterious philosopher lived around the 6th century BC. in China. He is credited with creating such a movement as “Taoism” (or “Taoism”). The main idea of this teaching is Tao, that is, a special Path to Harmony. These thoughts became very important for Buddhism, Confucianism and other Asian philosophies.
Lithograph of Leibniz's portrait
Leibniz ranks with Descartes among idealist thinkers. Due to his technical background and analytical bent, Leibniz initially believed that the brain was a highly complex mechanism. However, he later abandoned these ideas precisely because of the perfection of the brain. According to his idea, the brain consisted of Monads - subtle spiritual substances.
The legendary "myth buster"
Spinoza was a Dutch Jew born in the early 15th century in Amsterdam. He is known for his studies of rationalism and pragmatism in the Abrahamic religions. For example, he tried to prove the impossibility of many Christian miracles of that time. For which, as expected, he was persecuted more than once by the authorities.
A French philosopher of the Enlightenment, Voltaire advocated humanism, concern for nature, and responsibility for the actions of humanity. He sharply criticized religion and the degradation of human dignity.
This English philosopher lived in turbulent times. Looking at fratricidal wars, he concluded that a citizen must obey the power of the state at any cost, as long as this power ensures internal and external peace, since there is nothing worse than wars.
Portrait of Augustine kept in the Vatican
Aurelius was born in what is now Algeria. He is especially famous for his work “Confession,” in which he describes his path to Christianity. In this work, he often discussed free will and predestination. He was canonized shortly after his death and is considered one of the most important early Christian authors.
Engraving depicting a philosopher
Persian philosopher, known for his criticism of the works of Aristotle. For example, he pointed out the error of statements about the eternity of the world and its infinity. He also directly supported Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam.
Gautama Buddha and his followers
Perhaps the most famous Indian philosopher. He came to the conclusion that all human suffering is a consequence of the conflict between the desire for permanence and the lack of permanence in the world.
Profile of a philosopher on canvas
We can say that Montesquieu is the great-grandfather of almost all Constitutions (including the American one). This French philosopher made an invaluable contribution to political science.
Portrait by an unknown artist
He is known not only for his works in the field of humanism, but also for his very controversial statements (although not without meaning). He argued that man is freer in anarchy than in society. In his opinion, science and progress do not develop humanity, but give more power to the government.
Court portrait of a philosopher
The Irishman with a subtle mental organization is known for the idea that the material world may not exist. Everything that surrounds us and we ourselves are thoughts in the mind of the highest deity.
A photograph of Rand taken for an American magazine
She was born in Russia, but immigrated to the USA, where she became widely known for her ideas of strong capitalism, in whose affairs the government has no right to interfere. Her concepts formed the basis of modern libertarianism and conservatism.
Bouvoir in the last years of his life
Simone did not consider herself a philosopher. However, it was this French woman writer who influenced the formation of existentialism and feminism. Supporters of the latter, by the way, consider her almost the messiah of the fight for women's equality.
Statue of a legendary warlord
Being a talented military man, General Sun Tzu had invaluable experience in warfare. This allowed him to write one of the most popular books among business sharks and modern business philosophers - “The Art of War”.
Of course, this list is far from complete; it does not include many controversial or controversial personalities whose philosophy influenced modern society no less than scientific progress (take Nietzsche). However, philosophy and the development of thought always gives rise to discussion. Right?
Philosophy allowed the visible world to take shape in our minds. From the hard sciences to political debates, philosophers have sought to challenge our understanding of what the world looks like. And this science originated in Ancient Greece, famous for its impressive list of philosophers, many of whom you have known about since school.
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle
An ancient Greek philosopher, known to almost every person who is at least a little familiar with the course of school history. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but in many ways surpassed his teacher, which caused his displeasure. Known for his work in the fields of mathematics, physics, logic, poetry, linguistics and political science.
Immanuel Kant
A native of Germany, Kant is famous for his ideas about the relativity of perception. According to him, we see the world not as it is. We can only perceive it through the prism of our thoughts, feelings and judgments. In other words, he laid the foundation for the creation of the Wachowski brothers' concept of The Matrix.
Plato
As already mentioned, Plato was the teacher of Aristotle. He is famous for creating the Academy in Athens. It was the first institution of higher education in the Western world.
Confucius is one of the greatest and most famous in the world
This Chinese philosopher lived around 500 BC. His philosophy focused on relationships and the importance of family in the life of each individual and society. Later his views developed and became known as Confucianism.
David Hume
This Scottish philosopher was known for his commitment to empiricism and skepticism. He was confident that our perception of the world is not based on an objective vision, but on our belief in how the world should look. Kant, by the way, took a lot from Hume’s ideas.
Rene Descartes
He is rightfully considered the father of modern philosophy. He owns one of the most famous aphorisms - “I think, therefore I exist.”
Socrates
Plato's teacher made very significant contributions to rhetoric, logic and philosophy. He is credited with the so-called Socratic method of discussion, in which the listener is asked a series of questions that lead the listener to the desired conclusions.
Niccolo Machiavelli
Living during the Renaissance, Machiavelli is known for his invaluable contributions to political philosophy. His book “The Sovereign” tells how to remain “at the helm” of power under any set of circumstances. Machiavelli's work was received with hostility because at that time it was believed that power cannot be unvirtuous. “Might is always right” and “Love does not go well with fear” are his sayings.
John Locke
Locke was a British physician. According to his theory, all our perception is based on subjective vision. His thoughts were developed by Hume and Kant. Locke is also known for using simple language in his writings that anyone familiar with the ability to read would understand. When asked how objects outside of man could exist, he suggested sticking his hand into a fire.
Diogenes
This philosopher from Ancient Greece is famous for sitting in a barrel. He also criticized Aristotle, claiming that he had distorted the teachings of Plato. No less famous is the episode in which Diogenes, finding Athens mired in vanity and vices, walked through the streets of the capital with a torch and exclamations of “I am looking for a Man!”
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas is one of the most significant Christian theologian philosophers. He not only combined the Greek natural school of philosophy with Christian theology, but also created a number of treatises developing a rational approach to faith and religion (oddly enough). His works most widely describe the beliefs and faith of the Middle Ages.
Lao Tzu
This mysterious philosopher lived around the 6th century BC. in China. He is credited with creating such a movement as “Taoism” (or “Taoism”). The main idea of this teaching is Tao, that is, a special Path to Harmony. These thoughts became very important for Buddhism, Confucianism and other Asian philosophies.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Leibniz ranks with Descartes among idealist thinkers. Due to his technical background and analytical bent, Leibniz initially believed that the brain was a highly complex mechanism. However, he later abandoned these ideas precisely because of the perfection of the brain. According to his idea, the brain consisted of Monads - subtle spiritual substances.
Baruch Spinoza
Spinoza was a Dutch Jew born in the early 15th century in Amsterdam. He is known for his studies of rationalism and pragmatism in the Abrahamic religions. For example, he tried to prove the impossibility of many Christian miracles of that time. For which, as expected, he was persecuted more than once by the authorities.
Voltaire
A French philosopher of the Enlightenment, Voltaire advocated humanism, concern for nature, and responsibility for the actions of humanity. He sharply criticized religion and the degradation of human dignity.
Thomas Hobbes
This English philosopher lived in turbulent times. Looking at fratricidal wars, he concluded that a citizen must obey the power of the state at any cost, as long as this power ensures internal and external peace, since there is nothing worse than wars.
Aurelius Augustine
Aurelius was born in what is now Algeria. He is especially famous for his work “Confession,” in which he describes his path to Christianity. In this work, he often discussed free will and predestination. He was canonized shortly after his death and is considered one of the most important early Christian authors.
Abu Hamid al-Ghazali
Persian philosopher, known for his criticism of the works of Aristotle. For example, he pointed out the error of statements about the eternity of the world and its infinity.
Siddhartha Gautama Buddha
Perhaps the most famous Indian philosopher. He came to the conclusion that all human suffering is a consequence of the conflict between the desire for permanence and the lack of permanence in the world.
Baron de Montesquieu
We can say that Montesquieu is the great-grandfather of almost all Constitutions (including the American one). This French philosopher made an invaluable contribution to political science.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
He is known not only for his works in the field of humanism, but also for his very controversial statements (although not without meaning). He argued that man is freer in anarchy than in society. In his opinion, science and progress do not develop humanity, but give more power to the government.
George Berkeley
The Irishman with a subtle mental organization is known for the idea that the material world may not exist. Everything that surrounds us and we ourselves are thoughts in the mind of the highest deity.
Ayn Rand
She was born in Russia, but immigrated to the USA, where she became widely known for her ideas of strong capitalism, in whose affairs the government has no right to interfere. Her concepts formed the basis of modern libertarianism and conservatism.
Simone de Bouvoir
Simone did not consider herself a philosopher. However, it was this French woman writer who influenced the formation of existentialism. Supporters of the latter, by the way, consider her almost the messiah of the fight for women's equality.
Sun Tzu
Being a talented military man, General Sun Tzu had invaluable experience in warfare. This allowed him to write one of the most popular books among business sharks and modern business philosophers, “The Art of War.”
Of course, this list is far from complete; it does not include many controversial or controversial personalities whose philosophy influenced modern society no less than scientific progress (take Nietzsche). However, philosophy and the development of thought always gives rise to discussion.