RNA (ribonucleic acid). Difference between dna and RNA
We all know that a person’s appearance, some habits and even diseases are inherited. All this information about a living being is encoded in genes. So what do these notorious genes look like, how do they function and where are they located?
So, the carrier of all genes of any person or animal is DNA. This compound was discovered in 1869 by Johann Friedrich Miescher. Chemically, DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. What does this mean? How does this acid carry the genetic code of all life on our planet?
Let's start by looking at where DNA is located. A human cell contains many organelles that perform various functions. DNA is located in the nucleus. The nucleus is a small organelle, which is surrounded by a special membrane, and in which all the genetic material - DNA - is stored.
What is the structure of a DNA molecule?
First of all, let's look at what DNA is. DNA is a very long molecule consisting of structural elements - nucleotides. There are 4 types of nucleotides - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The chain of nucleotides schematically looks like this: GGAATTCTAAG... This sequence of nucleotides is the DNA chain.The structure of DNA was first deciphered in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick.
In one DNA molecule there are two chains of nucleotides that are helically twisted around each other. How do these nucleotide chains stay together and twist into a spiral? This phenomenon is due to the property of complementarity. Complementarity means that only certain nucleotides (complementary) can be opposite each other in two chains. Thus, opposite adenine there is always thymine, and opposite guanine there is always only cytosine. Thus, guanine is complementary to cytosine, and adenine is complementary to thymine. Such pairs of nucleotides opposite each other in different chains are also called complementary.
It can be shown schematically as follows:
G - C
T - A
T - A
C - G
These complementary pairs A - T and G - C form a chemical bond between the nucleotides of the pair, and the bond between G and C is stronger than between A and T. The bond is formed strictly between complementary bases, that is, the formation of a bond between non-complementary G and A is impossible.
"Packaging" of DNA, how does a DNA strand become a chromosome?
Why do these DNA nucleotide chains also twist around each other? Why is this necessary? The fact is that the number of nucleotides is huge and a lot of space is needed to accommodate such long chains. For this reason, two strands of DNA twist around each other in a helical manner. This phenomenon is called spiralization. As a result of spiralization, DNA chains are shortened by 5-6 times.Some DNA molecules are actively used by the body, while others are rarely used. In addition to spiralization, such rarely used DNA molecules undergo even more compact “packaging.” This compact packaging is called supercoiling and shortens the DNA strand by 25-30 times!
How do DNA helices pack?
Supercoiling uses histone proteins, which have the appearance and structure of a rod or spool of thread. Spiralized strands of DNA are wound onto these “coils” - histone proteins. Thus, the long thread becomes very compactly packaged and takes up very little space.If it is necessary to use one or another DNA molecule, the process of “unwinding” occurs, that is, the DNA strand is “unwound” from the “spool” - the histone protein (if it was wound onto it) and unwinds from the helix into two parallel chains. And when the DNA molecule is in such an untwisted state, then the necessary genetic information can be read from it. Moreover, genetic information is read only from untwisted DNA strands!
A set of supercoiled chromosomes is called heterochromatin, and the chromosomes available for reading information are euchromatin.
What are genes, what is their connection with DNA?
Now let's look at what genes are. It is known that there are genes that determine blood type, eye color, hair, skin and many other properties of our body. A gene is a strictly defined section of DNA, consisting of a certain number of nucleotides arranged in a strictly defined combination. Location in a strictly defined DNA section means that a specific gene is assigned its place, and it is impossible to change this place. It is appropriate to make the following comparison: a person lives on a certain street, in a certain house and apartment, and a person cannot voluntarily move to another house, apartment or to another street. A certain number of nucleotides in a gene means that each gene has a specific number of nucleotides and they cannot become more or less. For example, the gene encoding insulin production consists of 60 nucleotide pairs; the gene encoding the production of the hormone oxytocin - of 370 nucleotide pairs. The strict nucleotide sequence is unique for each gene and strictly defined. For example, the sequence AATTAATA is a fragment of a gene that codes for insulin production. In order to obtain insulin, exactly this sequence is used; to obtain, for example, adrenaline, a different combination of nucleotides is used. It is important to understand that only a certain combination of nucleotides encodes a certain “product” (adrenaline, insulin, etc.). Such a unique combination of a certain number of nucleotides, standing in “its place” - this is gene.
In addition to genes, the DNA chain contains so-called “non-coding sequences”. Such non-coding nucleotide sequences regulate the functioning of genes, help in the spiralization of chromosomes, and mark the start and end point of a gene. However, to date, the role of most non-coding sequences remains unclear.
What is a chromosome? Sex chromosomes
The collection of genes of an individual is called the genome. Naturally, the entire genome cannot be contained in one DNA. The genome is divided into 46 pairs of DNA molecules. One pair of DNA molecules is called a chromosome. So, humans have 46 of these chromosomes. Each chromosome carries a strictly defined set of genes, for example, chromosome 18 contains genes encoding eye color, etc. Chromosomes differ from each other in length and shape. The most common shapes are X or Y, but there are others as well. Humans have two chromosomes of the same shape, which are called pairs. Due to such differences, all paired chromosomes are numbered - there are 23 pairs. This means that there is chromosome pair No. 1, pair No. 2, No. 3, etc. Each gene responsible for a specific trait is located on the same chromosome. Modern guidelines for specialists may indicate the location of the gene, for example, as follows: chromosome 22, long arm.What are the differences between chromosomes?
How else do chromosomes differ from each other? What does the term long shoulder mean? Let's take chromosomes of the form X. The intersection of DNA strands can occur strictly in the middle (X), or it can occur not centrally. When such an intersection of DNA strands does not occur centrally, then relative to the point of intersection, some ends are longer, others, respectively, shorter. Such long ends are usually called the long arm of the chromosome, and short ends are called the short arm. In chromosomes of the Y form, most of the arms are occupied by long arms, and the short ones are very small (they are not even indicated in the schematic image).The size of the chromosomes varies: the largest are chromosomes of pairs No. 1 and No. 3, the smallest chromosomes are pairs No. 17, No. 19.
In addition to their shape and size, chromosomes differ in the functions they perform. Of the 23 pairs, 22 pairs are somatic and 1 pair is sexual. What does it mean? Somatic chromosomes determine all the external characteristics of an individual, the characteristics of his behavioral reactions, hereditary psychotype, that is, all the traits and characteristics of each individual person. A pair of sex chromosomes determines a person’s gender: male or female. There are two types of human sex chromosomes: X (X) and Y (Y). If they are combined as XX (x - x) - this is a woman, and if XY (x - y) - we have a man.
Hereditary diseases and chromosome damage
However, “breakdowns” of the genome occur, and then genetic diseases are detected in people. For example, when there are three chromosomes in the 21st pair of chromosomes instead of two, a person is born with Down syndrome.There are many smaller “breakdowns” of genetic material that do not lead to disease, but on the contrary, impart good properties. All “breakdowns” of genetic material are called mutations. Mutations leading to diseases or deterioration of the body's properties are considered negative, and mutations leading to the formation of new beneficial properties are considered positive.
However, with most of the diseases that people suffer from today, it is not the disease that is inherited, but only a predisposition. For example, the father of a child absorbs sugar slowly. This does not mean that the child will be born with diabetes, but the child will have a predisposition. This means that if a child abuses sweets and flour products, he will develop diabetes.
Today, the so-called predicative medicine. As part of this medical practice, a person’s predispositions are identified (based on the identification of the corresponding genes), and then recommendations are given to him - what diet to follow, how to properly alternate between work and rest in order not to get sick.
How to read the information encoded in DNA?
How can you read the information contained in DNA? How does its own body use it? DNA itself is a kind of matrix, but not simple, but encoded. To read information from the DNA matrix, it is first transferred to a special carrier - RNA. RNA is chemically ribonucleic acid. It differs from DNA in that it can pass through the nuclear membrane into the cell, while DNA lacks this ability (it can only be found in the nucleus). The encoded information is used in the cell itself. So, RNA is a carrier of encoded information from the nucleus to the cell.How does RNA synthesis occur, how is protein synthesized using RNA?
The DNA strands from which information needs to be “read” unwind, a special “builder” enzyme approaches them and synthesizes a complementary RNA chain parallel to the DNA strand. The RNA molecule also consists of 4 types of nucleotides - adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). In this case, the following pairs are complementary: adenine - uracil, guanine - cytosine. As you can see, unlike DNA, RNA uses uracil instead of thymine. That is, the “builder” enzyme works as follows: if it sees A in the DNA strand, then it attaches Y to the RNA strand, if G, then it attaches C, etc. Thus, from each active gene, during transcription, a template is formed - a copy of RNA that can pass through the nuclear membrane.How does the synthesis of a protein encoded by a specific gene occur?
After leaving the nucleus, RNA enters the cytoplasm. Already in the cytoplasm, RNA can be embedded as a matrix into special enzyme systems (ribosomes), which can synthesize, guided by RNA information, the corresponding sequence of protein amino acids. As you know, a protein molecule consists of amino acids. How does the ribosome know which amino acid to add to the growing protein chain? This is done based on the triplet code. The triplet code means that the sequence of three nucleotides of the RNA chain ( triplet, for example, GGU) code for a single amino acid (in this case glycine). Each amino acid is encoded by a specific triplet. And so, the ribosome “reads” the triplet, determines which amino acid should be added next as it reads the information in the RNA. When a chain of amino acids is formed, it takes on a certain spatial shape and becomes a protein capable of performing the enzymatic, construction, hormonal and other functions assigned to it.Protein for any living organism is the product of a gene. It is proteins that determine all the various properties, qualities and external manifestations of genes.
What are DNA and RNA? What are their functions and significance in our world? What are they made of and how do they work? This and more is discussed in the article.
What are DNA and RNA
Biological sciences that study the principles of storage, implementation and transmission of genetic information, the structure and functions of irregular biopolymers belong to molecular biology.
Biopolymers, high-molecular organic compounds that are formed from nucleotide residues, are nucleic acids. They store information about a living organism, determine its development, growth, and heredity. These acids are involved in protein biosynthesis.
There are two types of nucleic acids found in nature:
- DNA - deoxyribonucleic;
- RNA is ribonucleic.
The world was told what DNA is in 1868, when it was discovered in the cell nuclei of leukocytes and salmon sperm. They were later found in all animal and plant cells, as well as in bacteria, viruses and fungi. In 1953, J. Watson and F. Crick, as a result of X-ray structural analysis, built a model consisting of two polymer chains that are twisted in a spiral around one another. In 1962, these scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize for their discovery.
Deoxyribonucleic acid
What is DNA? This is a nucleic acid that contains the genotype of an individual and transmits information by inheritance, self-reproducing. Because these molecules are so large, there are a huge number of possible nucleotide sequences. Therefore, the number of different molecules is virtually infinite.
DNA structure
These are the largest biological molecules. Their size ranges from one quarter in bacteria to forty millimeters in human DNA, much larger than the maximum size of a protein. They consist of four monomers, the structural components of nucleic acids - nucleotides, which include a nitrogenous base, a phosphoric acid residue and deoxyribose.
Nitrogen bases have a double ring of carbon and nitrogen - purines, and one ring - pyrimidines.
Purines are adenine and guanine, and pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. They are designated by capital Latin letters: A, G, T, C; and in Russian literature - in Cyrillic: A, G, T, Ts. Using a chemical hydrogen bond, they connect with each other, resulting in the appearance of nucleic acids.
In the Universe, the spiral is the most common shape. So the structure of the DNA molecule also has it. The polynucleotide chain is twisted like a spiral staircase.
The chains in the molecule are directed oppositely from each other. It turns out that if in one chain the orientation is from the 3" end to the 5", then in the other chain the orientation will be the opposite - from the 5" end to the 3".
Principle of complementarity
The two strands are joined into a molecule by nitrogenous bases in such a way that adenine has a bond with thymine, and guanine only with cytosine. Consecutive nucleotides in one chain determine the other. This correspondence, which underlies the appearance of new molecules as a result of replication or duplication, has come to be called complementarity.
It turns out that the number of adenyl nucleotides is equal to the number of thymidyl nucleotides, and guanyl nucleotides are equal to the number of cytidyl nucleotides. This correspondence became known as Chargaff's rule.
Replication
The process of self-reproduction, which occurs under the control of enzymes, is the main property of DNA.
It all starts with the unwinding of the helix thanks to the enzyme DNA polymerase. After the rupture of hydrogen bonds, a daughter chain is synthesized in one and the other strand, the material for which is the free nucleotides present in the nucleus.
Each DNA strand is a template for a new strand. As a result, two absolutely identical parent molecules are obtained from one. In this case, one thread is synthesized as a continuous thread, and the other is first fragmentary, only then joining.
DNA genes
The molecule carries all the important information about nucleotides and determines the location of amino acids in proteins. The DNA of humans and all other organisms stores information about its properties, passing them on to descendants.
Part of it is a gene - a group of nucleotides that encodes information about a protein. The totality of a cell's genes forms its genotype or genome.
Genes are located on a specific section of DNA. They consist of a certain number of nucleotides that are arranged in a sequential combination. This means that the gene cannot change its place in the molecule, and it has a very specific number of nucleotides. Their sequence is unique. For example, one order is used for producing adrenaline, and another for insulin.
In addition to genes, DNA contains non-coding sequences. They regulate gene function, help chromosomes, and mark the beginning and end of a gene. But today the role of most of them remains unknown.
Ribonucleic acid
This molecule is similar in many ways to deoxyribonucleic acid. However, it is not as large as DNA. And RNA also consists of four types of polymeric nucleotides. Three of them are similar to DNA, but instead of thymine it contains uracil (U or U). In addition, RNA consists of a carbohydrate - ribose. The main difference is that the helix of this molecule is single, unlike the double helix in DNA.
Functions of RNA
The functions of ribonucleic acid are based on three different types of RNA.
Information transfers genetic information from DNA to the cytoplasm of the nucleus. It is also called matrix. This is an open chain synthesized in the nucleus using the enzyme RNA polymerase. Despite the fact that its percentage in the molecule is extremely low (from three to five percent of the cell), it has the most important function - to act as a matrix for the synthesis of proteins, informing about their structure from DNA molecules. One protein is encoded by one specific DNA, so their numerical value is equal.
The ribosomal system mainly consists of cytoplasmic granules - ribosomes. R-RNAs are synthesized in the nucleus. They account for approximately eighty percent of the entire cell. This species has a complex structure, forming loops on complementary parts, which leads to molecular self-organization into a complex body. Among them, there are three types in prokaryotes, and four in eukaryotes.
The transport acts as an “adapter”, arranging the amino acids of the polypeptide chain in the appropriate order. On average, it consists of eighty nucleotides. The cell contains, as a rule, almost fifteen percent. It is designed to transport amino acids to where protein is synthesized. There are from twenty to sixty types of transfer RNA in a cell. They all have a similar organization in space. They acquire a structure called a cloverleaf.
Meaning of RNA and DNA
When DNA was discovered, its role was not so obvious. Even today, although much more information has been revealed, some questions remain unanswered. And some may not even be formulated yet.
The well-known biological significance of DNA and RNA is that DNA transmits hereditary information, and RNA is involved in protein synthesis and encodes protein structure.
However, there are versions that this molecule is connected with our spiritual life. What is human DNA in this sense? It contains all the information about him, his life activity and heredity. Metaphysicians believe that the experience of past lives, the restoration functions of DNA, and even the energy of the Higher Self - the Creator, God, is contained in it.
In their opinion, the chains contain codes relating to all aspects of life, including the spiritual part. But some information, for example about restoring one's body, is located in the structure of the crystal of multidimensional space located around DNA. It represents a dodecahedron and is the memory of all life force.
Due to the fact that a person does not burden himself with spiritual knowledge, the exchange of information in DNA with the crystalline shell occurs very slowly. For the average person it is only fifteen percent.
It is assumed that this was done specifically to shorten human life and fall to the level of duality. Thus, a person’s karmic debt increases, and the level of vibration necessary for some entities is maintained on the planet.
Scientists have long been interested in it. Only with the advent of molecular biology and genetics were many secrets discovered. In our article we will look at the features of these functional structures, as well as the difference between DNA and RNA.
What are nucleic acids
If this is your first time encountering these abbreviations, then it is worth getting acquainted with their decoding. DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid. Everyone knows that it covers information about the genes of cells. RNA is ribonucleic acid. Its main function is the formation of protein. This is an organic substance that is the basis of all living things. However, this is not the whole difference. RNA differs from DNA not only in names and areas of use.
The substances discussed in our article are called nucleic acids. Most of them are in the nuclear matrix, where they were first found. Over time, it became obvious that they are located in different parts of the cells. Plastids of different types, mitochondria, as well as the cytoplasm contain these substances. But they got their name from the Latin word “nucleus”, which means “core”.
Like all organic substances, nucleic acids are naturally occurring biopolymers. These are large macromolecules consisting of a certain number of cyclically repeating identical elements - monomers. For example, in complex carbohydrates these are monosaccharides.
Monomer structure
Nucleotides are the structural repeating elements of RNA and DNA, represented by three components. How is RNA different from DNA? Just two components of monomers. But this feature determines their difference not only in structure; in living organisms they have different functional purposes.
Carbohydrate pentose
First of all, DNA differs from RNA in the content of the type of carbohydrate. Simple sugars are substances with a specific amount of the element carbon in the general formula. The composition of nucleic acids is represented by pentoses. The number of carbon in them is five. That is why they are called pentoses.
What is the difference here if the carbon number and molecular formula are exactly the same? Everything is very simple: in a structural organization. Such substances with the same composition and molecular formula, but having differences in structure and characteristic properties, are called isomers in chemistry.
The monosaccharide ribose is part of RNA. This feature was decisive for the names of these biopolymers. The monosaccharide found in DNA is called deoxyribose.
Nitrogenous bases
Let's look at another difference between DNA and RNA molecules. It also affects the properties of these substances. The structure includes one of four nitrogenous base residues: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine. They are placed according to a certain rule.
In a DNA molecule, which consists of two helically twisted chains, there is always a thymidyl base opposite the adenyl base, and a cytidyl base corresponds to the guanyl base. This rule is called the principle of complementarity. Two hydrogen bonds are always formed between adenine and guanine, and three hydrogen bonds between guanine and cytosine.
The situation is completely different with ribonucleic acid. Instead of thymine, it contains another nitrogenous base. It's called uracil. It is worth saying that, compared to DNA, RNA is significantly smaller in size, since it consists of a single helical molecule.
Difference between DNA and RNA: table
The main features that distinguish DNA molecules from RNA are presented in our comparative table.
As you can see, the difference between DNA and RNA lies not only in structural features; their structure determines various functions necessary for all living organisms.
Types of RNA
Science knows three types of ribonucleic acid. Transfer RNA is formed on DNA and then moves into the cytoplasm. These molecules are the smallest in size. They attach amino acids and then transport them to the site of macromolecule assembly. The spatial structure of transfer RNA is similar in shape to a clover leaf. The next type of this nucleic acid performs the function of transmitting information about the structure of the future protein from the cell nucleus to specialized structures. They are ribosomes. These specialized organelles are located on the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. And the type of RNA that performs this function is called messenger RNA.
There is a third group - these are ribosomal RNAs located in areas of the corresponding organelles. They are able to shape the spatial arrangement of necessary molecules during the formation of protein molecules. But in general, all three types of these macromolecules interact with each other, performing a single function.
Similarities between DNA and RNA
We have already practically found out how RNA differs from DNA. But since these substances are combined into one group, common features are observed among them. The main one is that they are polynucleotides. So, from several tens of thousands to millions of monomers. RNA cannot boast of such a quantity; it is formed by up to ten thousand nucleotides. However, all nucleic acid monomers have a similar general structure, which allows them to participate in the processes of protein biosynthesis.
Functional difference between DNA and RNA
The difference between DNA and RNA is not limited to characteristic features and structural features. For example, DNA is capable of denaturation, renaturation and destruction. Its essence is to unwind molecules to a certain state and back, if possible. During these processes, destruction of hydrogen bonds is observed.
The main function of DNA is the preservation, encryption, transmission and manifestation of genetic information, which is carried out during the reproduction of organisms at all levels of organization. This organic substance is also capable of transcription. The essence of this phenomenon is the formation of RNA molecules based on DNA. Its basis is the principle of complementarity. The DNA molecule is also capable of self-duplication or replication. This process is very important for the normal course of cell division, especially mitosis, when a cell with a double chromosome set is formed into two identical ones. The function of RNA is also important for living organisms, because without protein synthesis their existence is simply impossible.
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, which are complex macromolecules consisting of nucleotides. The main difference between these substances is that they contain different types of nitrogenous bases and pentose carbohydrates, which determines their different functions in the cells of living beings.
Initially, people thought that protein molecules were the fundamental basis of life. However, scientific research has revealed that important aspect that distinguishes living from nonliving nature: nucleic acids.
What is DNA?
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a macromolecule that stores and transmits hereditary information from generation to generation. In cells, the main function of the DNA molecule is to preserve accurate information about the structure of proteins and RNA. In animals and plants, the DNA molecule is contained in the cell nucleus, in the chromosomes. From a purely chemical point of view, the DNA molecule consists of a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. In space it is represented as two spirally twisted threads. The nitrogenous bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine, and they are connected to each other only according to the principle of complementarity - guanine with cytosine, and adenine with thymine. The arrangement of nucleotides in different sequences allows them to encode different information about the types of RNA involved in the process of protein synthesis.
What is RNA?
The RNA molecule is known to us as ribonucleic acid. Like DNA, this macromolecule is integrally contained in the cells of all living organisms. Their structure is largely the same - RNA, like DNA, consists of units - nucleotides, which are presented in the form of a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base and ribose sugar. The arrangement of nucleotides in different sequences allows an individual genetic code to be encoded. There are three types of RNA: i-RNA - responsible for transmitting information, r-RNA - is a component of ribosomes, t-RNA - is responsible for the delivery of amino acids to ribosomes. Among other things, so-called messenger RNA is used by all cellular organisms for protein synthesis. Individual RNA molecules can have their own enzymatic activity. It manifests itself as the ability to “break” other RNA molecules or connect two RNA fragments. RNA is also an integral part of the genomes of most viruses, in which it performs the same function as the DNA macromolecule in higher organisms.
Comparison of DNA and RNA
So, we found out that both of these concepts refer to nucleic acids with different functions: RNA is engaged in the transfer of biological information recorded in DNA molecules, which in turn is responsible for storing information and transmitting it to inheritance. The RNA molecule is the same polymer as DNA, only shorter. In addition, DNA is a double strand, RNA is a single strand structure.
TheDifference.ru determined that the difference between DNA and RNA is as follows:
DNA contains deoxyribonucleotides, RNA contains ribonucleotides.
The nitrogenous bases in the DNA molecule are thymine, adenine, cytosine, guanine; RNA contains uracil instead of thymine.
DNA is the template for transcription and stores genetic information. RNA is involved in protein synthesis.
DNA has a double strand, twisted in a spiral; for RNA it is single.
DNA is in the nucleus, plastids, mitochondria; RNA - is formed in the cytoplasm, in ribosomes, in the nucleus; its own RNA is found in plastids and mitochondria.
What are DNA and RNA? What are their functions and significance in our world? What are they made of and how do they work? This and more is discussed in the article.
What are DNA and RNA
Biological sciences that study the principles of storage, implementation and transmission of genetic information, the structure and functions of irregular biopolymers belong to molecular biology.
Biopolymers, high-molecular organic compounds that are formed from nucleotide residues, are nucleic acids. They store information about a living organism, determine its development, growth, and heredity. These acids are involved in protein biosynthesis.
There are two types of nucleic acids found in nature:
- DNA - deoxyribonucleic;
- RNA is ribonucleic.
The world was told what DNA is in 1868, when it was discovered in the cell nuclei of leukocytes and salmon sperm. They were later found in all animal and plant cells, as well as in bacteria, viruses and fungi. In 1953, J. Watson and F. Crick, as a result of X-ray structural analysis, built a model consisting of two polymer chains that are twisted in a spiral around one another. In 1962, these scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize for their discovery.
Deoxyribonucleic acid
What is DNA? This is a nucleic acid that contains the genotype of an individual and transmits information by inheritance, self-reproducing. Because these molecules are so large, there are a huge number of possible nucleotide sequences. Therefore, the number of different molecules is virtually infinite.
DNA structure
These are the largest biological molecules. Their size ranges from one quarter in bacteria to forty millimeters in human DNA, much larger than the maximum size of a protein. They consist of four monomers, the structural components of nucleic acids - nucleotides, which include a nitrogenous base, a phosphoric acid residue and deoxyribose.
Nitrogen bases have a double ring of carbon and nitrogen - purines, and one ring - pyrimidines.
Purines are adenine and guanine, and pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. They are designated by capital Latin letters: A, G, T, C; and in Russian literature - in Cyrillic: A, G, T, Ts. Using a chemical hydrogen bond, they connect with each other, resulting in the appearance of nucleic acids.
In the Universe, the spiral is the most common shape. So the structure of the DNA molecule also has it. The polynucleotide chain is twisted like a spiral staircase.
The chains in the molecule are directed oppositely from each other. It turns out that if in one chain the orientation is from the 3" end to the 5", then in the other chain the orientation will be the opposite - from the 5" end to the 3".
Principle of complementarity
The two strands are joined into a molecule by nitrogenous bases in such a way that adenine has a bond with thymine, and guanine only with cytosine. Consecutive nucleotides in one chain determine the other. This correspondence, which underlies the appearance of new molecules as a result of replication or duplication, has come to be called complementarity.
It turns out that the number of adenyl nucleotides is equal to the number of thymidyl nucleotides, and guanyl nucleotides are equal to the number of cytidyl nucleotides. This correspondence became known as Chargaff's rule.
Replication
The process of self-reproduction, which occurs under the control of enzymes, is the main property of DNA.
It all starts with the unwinding of the helix thanks to the enzyme DNA polymerase. After the rupture of hydrogen bonds, a daughter chain is synthesized in one and the other strand, the material for which is the free nucleotides present in the nucleus.
Each DNA strand is a template for a new strand. As a result, two absolutely identical parent molecules are obtained from one. In this case, one thread is synthesized as a continuous thread, and the other is first fragmentary, only then joining.
DNA genes
The molecule carries all the important information about nucleotides and determines the location of amino acids in proteins. The DNA of humans and all other organisms stores information about its properties, passing them on to descendants.
Part of it is a gene - a group of nucleotides that encodes information about a protein. The totality of a cell's genes forms its genotype or genome.
Genes are located on a specific section of DNA. They consist of a certain number of nucleotides that are arranged in a sequential combination. This means that the gene cannot change its place in the molecule, and it has a very specific number of nucleotides. Their sequence is unique. For example, one order is used for producing adrenaline, and another for insulin.
In addition to genes, DNA contains non-coding sequences. They regulate gene function, help chromosomes, and mark the beginning and end of a gene. But today the role of most of them remains unknown.
Ribonucleic acid
This molecule is similar in many ways to deoxyribonucleic acid. However, it is not as large as DNA. And RNA also consists of four types of polymeric nucleotides. Three of them are similar to DNA, but instead of thymine it contains uracil (U or U). In addition, RNA consists of a carbohydrate - ribose. The main difference is that the helix of this molecule is single, unlike the double helix in DNA.
Functions of RNA
The functions of ribonucleic acid are based on three different types of RNA.
Information transfers genetic information from DNA to the cytoplasm of the nucleus. It is also called matrix. This is an open chain synthesized in the nucleus using the enzyme RNA polymerase. Despite the fact that its percentage in the molecule is extremely low (from three to five percent of the cell), it has the most important function - to act as a matrix for the synthesis of proteins, informing about their structure from DNA molecules. One protein is encoded by one specific DNA, so their numerical value is equal.
The ribosomal system mainly consists of cytoplasmic granules - ribosomes. R-RNAs are synthesized in the nucleus. They account for approximately eighty percent of the entire cell. This species has a complex structure, forming loops on complementary parts, which leads to molecular self-organization into a complex body. Among them, there are three types in prokaryotes, and four in eukaryotes.
The transport acts as an “adapter”, arranging the amino acids of the polypeptide chain in the appropriate order. On average, it consists of eighty nucleotides. The cell contains, as a rule, almost fifteen percent. It is designed to transport amino acids to where protein is synthesized. There are from twenty to sixty types of transfer RNA in a cell. They all have a similar organization in space. They acquire a structure called a cloverleaf.
Meaning of RNA and DNA
When DNA was discovered, its role was not so obvious. Even today, although much more information has been revealed, some questions remain unanswered. And some may not even be formulated yet.
The well-known biological significance of DNA and RNA is that DNA transmits hereditary information, and RNA is involved in protein synthesis and encodes protein structure.
However, there are versions that this molecule is connected with our spiritual life. What is human DNA in this sense? It contains all the information about him, his life activity and heredity. Metaphysicians believe that the experience of past lives, the restoration functions of DNA, and even the energy of the Higher Self - the Creator, God, is contained in it.
In their opinion, the chains contain codes relating to all aspects of life, including the spiritual part. But some information, for example about restoring one's body, is located in the structure of the crystal of multidimensional space located around DNA. It represents a dodecahedron and is the memory of all life force.
Due to the fact that a person does not burden himself with spiritual knowledge, the exchange of information in DNA with the crystalline shell occurs very slowly. For the average person it is only fifteen percent.
It is assumed that this was done specifically to shorten human life and fall to the level of duality. Thus, a person’s karmic debt increases, and the level of vibration necessary for some entities is maintained on the planet.