The reforms of Peter 1 are very brief with meaning. Political reforms of Peter I
The Northern War with Sweden required metal and gunpowder for cannons, cloth and lye for uniforms, timber and canvas for the fleet. This encouraged Peter to take a closer look at industry and trade, although his concerns about the economic development of Russia and the elimination of its technical backwardness were determined not only by military needs.
In the Russian economy of the first quarter of the 18th century. a leap occurred, equal in its significance and in its consequences to the Stalinist industrialization of the 30s. A feature of this economic recovery was the strengthening of the role of the state in all spheres of the economy. If in the 17th century. While in Russia there were only 30 manufactories, by the end of Peter’s reign there were about 100 of them. Entire industries appeared - mining, metallurgy, textiles. If in the 17th century. Russia bought metal from Sweden, then by the end of Peter’s reign it exported it. And in the middle of the 18th century. our country has taken first place in the world in metal production, surpassing even England.
By decree of Peter I, the development of mineral resources began. In a short time, an entire metallurgical complex was created in the Urals, the Nevyansky, Alapatevsky, Nizhny Tagil, and Uktus plants were built.
In Peter's times, metallurgical plants were built in Lipetsk and Petrozavodsk, and weapons plants were built in Tula and Sestroretsk. A silver smelter was built in distant Nerchinsk.
All factories were built at the expense of the state budget, since Russian merchants and entrepreneurs did not have the necessary capital. In Peter's Russia there was no freedom of enterprise. All industrial development was regulated and controlled by the state, government bodies: Berg College and Manufactory College. They issued permits for the construction of industrial enterprises, they set prices for their products. They exercised judicial and administrative power over entrepreneurs and working people, i.e. The main and leading role in the formation and development of Russian industry was played not by entrepreneurs, but by bureaucratic officials.
In the era of Peter the Great, many manufactories appeared that produced cloth, sailing cloth, gauze, rope, hats - everything necessary for the army and navy. The development of the textile industry required wool, flax, and hemp. Peter's decree of 1715 ordered the cultivation of hemp and flax in all provinces, and in the old flax-growing areas to double the area under cultivation. Peter I took care of the development of sheep breeding and the improvement of sheep breeds, since the army needed sheepskin coats. The development of sheep farming accelerated especially noticeably in Ukraine, where large sheep farms were created with purebred sheep exported from Spain and Saxony. According to Peter's decrees, stud farms began to be created, since the cavalry needed horses. Peter took care of the protection of forests, especially ship forests, necessary for the fleet.
Labor in factories and manufactories was predominantly serf work, since there were not enough civilian workers. Peter's decree of 1721 allowed the owners of entire villages to buy serfs. The decree legalized serf labor in industry and stopped the process of formation of the Russian bourgeoisie that had begun.
The further development of internal trade was facilitated by the construction of canals: Vyshnevolotsky, Mariana system and others. With the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea, foreign trade also expanded. But the development of free trade was hampered by the state monopoly on tobacco, bread, salt, timber, flax, leather, etc. The state monopoly was profitable for the treasury, but ruinous for the people. Thus, the introduction of a monopoly on salt doubled the price of it, and 8 times for tobacco.
Like entrepreneurs, Russian merchants also suffered from government regulation and control. The government of Peter I forced them to create companies and move to St. Petersburg, which was under construction. Merchants were told which goods could be traded in which port, at what prices the goods could be sold to the state, etc.
So, the economic transformations of Peter I, despite the fact that they were carried out on a serfdom basis, gave a strong impetus to the development of productive forces. As a result, their Russia became a strong European state and largely overcame its technical and economic backwardness.
Administrative reforms
The old system of governing Russia through the Boyar Duma and orders did not correspond to the new tasks. It did not provide the army with food and weapons, and did not collect taxes from the population in full. Orders often duplicated each other, creating confusion in management and slowness in decision-making. The old system of managing counties from the center did not provide an effective fight against the flight of peasants and could not prevent the Bulavinsky and Astrakhan uprisings.
The first step in reorganizing the country's governance system was the restructuring of local authorities. In 1708 the whole country was divided into 8 provinces: Moscow, Ingria, Smolensk, Kiev. Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The provinces were headed by governors appointed by the tsar. All executive and judicial power was concentrated in their hands. The governor was also the commander-in-chief of the troops located on the territory entrusted to him. The provinces were divided into 50 provinces, and the provinces into districts. The districts and provinces were headed by voivodes. The local government reform responded to the needs of strengthening the autocracy and contributed to the further growth and strengthening of the bureaucracy.
Following the local government, the central government was also reformed. In 1711 By decree of Peter, the Senate was created - the highest government institution, replacing the Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma was a numerous, cumbersome body. At the end of the 17th century. its composition reached 120 people, although in fact 1/3 or even 1/6 of the Duma members participated in the work. The most aristocratic boyars were included in the Duma.
The composition of the Senate was limited to 9 members, they were appointed by the king. In this case, it was not the noble, aristocratic origin that was taken into account, but exclusively the business qualities of the applicants and their personal devotion to Peter. A member of the Senate was an official and could lose his title at any time. The Senate was in charge of justice, treasury, trade, and taxes. He supervised the work of the boards and governors. Decision-making by the Senate was carried out collegiately, by majority vote. Under the Senate, an office was immediately created with numerous departmental offices, which indicated the strengthening of bureaucratic methods of management.
Simultaneously with the organization of the Senate, the institution of fiscals was introduced in the country (fiscal - informer, earpiece, spy). Their duty was to secretly oversee the activities of government agencies.
Fiscals controlled government expenditures and revenues, and the work of the judiciary. They were required to report all cases of violation of laws by government officials. Crime prevention was not their responsibility. In all segments of the population, fiscals enjoyed a far from flattering reputation.
In 1717-1722. Collegiums replaced the old orders. Unlike orders, they established a collective, joint principle of considering and resolving all issues.
Each board consisted of a presence and an office. The presence included the president of the board, the vice-president, 4 advisers and 4 assessors. The office did not resolve any issues. Scribes worked there, they copied documents. Each board was in charge of a specific branch of management throughout the country. The collegial system was based on a high degree of centralization of management.
At first, 9 boards were created. The military board, headed by A.D. Menshikov, was in charge of all issues related to the army: its formation, training, supplies, uniforms, weapons, etc.
The Admiralty Board headed by F.M. Apraksin resolved all issues related to the fleet in the same way. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs replaced the Ambassadorial Order. Financial issues were resolved by 3 boards: the chamber board, the state board, and the audit board. The Commerce Collegium was in charge of trade, the light industry was in charge of the manufacturing college, and the mining and metallurgical college was in charge of the berg college. Later, 3 more collegiums were created: the patrimonial, the Synod (Spiritual Collegium) and the justice collegium. Peter I introduced a passport system and police protection.
As a result of Peter's administrative reforms in Russia, the establishment of an absolute monarchy was completed. The king was given the opportunity to rule the country unlimitedly and uncontrollably with the help of officials completely dependent on him. The most important signs of absolutism include the bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus and its centralization.
Church reform
Peter I abolished the patriarchate (it was established in 1589 by B. Godunov) and completely subordinated the church to the state. The patriarch in Russia had exceptionally great authority and was largely independent of the tsar. Peter I after the death of Patriarch Andrian in 1700. did not allow the election of his successor. The monarch-emperor was declared the head of the church, and the management of church affairs was entrusted to officials who sat in the Spiritual Collegium (Synod). The Synod's complete dependence on the state was expressed not only in the salaries received, but also in the oath taken by its members. The clergy were also assigned police functions: they were allowed to neglect the secret of confession and report to the authorities about acts planned against them. All believers were required to confess twice a year. Those who did not do this voluntarily were forced: they sent police officers and initiated criminal proceedings.
Peter's church reform meant the enslavement of the Russian Orthodox Church by the autocracy. This was a brutal submission of spiritual power to secular power. As a result of the church reform, the spiritual guidelines of the nation were largely lost. In the 19th century. a type of “seeking” intellectual has appeared, who has lost the faith of his fathers and is trying to quench his spiritual thirst from foreign sources (Freemasonry, Kantianism, etc.)
Classes and estates under Peter I
Peter not only kept the serfdom intact, but also significantly strengthened it. The main classes of society were consolidated by merging individual small class groups. The peasantry was divided into 2 groups - serfs and state ones. Serfs were classified as serfs. The government obliged state peasants to pay 40 kopecks in addition to the per capita tax to the treasury. quitrent. This meant the inclusion of state peasants in the sphere of feudal exploitation.
Peter I replaced the household tax with a poll tax, which made it possible to significantly increase taxes. The response of the peasants to such a policy of soaring was mass exodus and uprisings, in particular the Bulavinsky and Astrakhan.
Posad people were divided into merchants and artisans. Merchants were distributed into guilds, artisans were united into guilds. Under Peter I, the Chief and City Magistrates were established - state institutions through which merchants and artisans were subordinated to the state. The nobility underwent the most changes. All groups of service people were united into this class: boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles, Duma clerks, stewards, solicitors, Moscow nobles, elected nobles, nobles and boyar children. By decree of 1714 on sole inheritance, estates were equalized with estates. The nobles were obliged to enroll in military service from a young age and serve for life. Peter obliged the nobles to study, illiterate nobles were forbidden to marry, the educational institutions created by Peter resembled barracks, and the students resembled recruits.
The contingent of students was often recruited forcibly. Often young nobles were sent to study abroad, often to the screams of their parents. But as a reward for good service, the nobles received lands with peasants, new titles (barons and counts), orders and medals, and power.
Peter abolished the previous ranks, which depended largely on the origin of the serving people. Published by him in 1722. The “Table of Ranks” divided the entire mass of civil servants into 14 ranks, i.e. ranks through which every military man or civil official had to move. Now the first place was placed not on aristocratic origin, but on a person’s personal abilities, education and practical skills. The “Table of Ranks” opened up access to the highest positions in the state for representatives of the small and middle nobility, and provided the opportunity to receive noble ranks for people from other classes: upon receiving the 8th rank in service, they became hereditary nobles. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, every fifth officer in Peter’s army was not a nobleman by birth.
The result of Peter's social policy was the strengthening of the influence of the state, which roughly subjugated natural social and class processes.
Assessment of Peter's personality and activities.
Both the personality and activities of Peter were met with contradictory and directly opposite assessments by both his contemporaries and descendants. Some of his contemporaries, who knew Peter closely and worked with him, praised him to the skies, calling him “earthly god.” Others, who did not know Peter personally, but felt the hardships he imposed on the people, considered him a “world-eater” or an impostor with whom the Germans replaced the real king during his trip abroad. The schismatics considered Peter the Antichrist.
In the 19th century. “Westerners” sang enthusiastic praise to Peter, and “Slavophiles” condemned him for distorting Russian original principles and damaging the national character of Holy Rus'. According to the “Slavophile” K.S. Aksakov, Russia under Peter I strangely and forcibly leaves its native road and adjoins the western one. And the historian M.S. Solovyov, a “Westernizer,” argued that Peter’s transformations were natural and naturally followed from the historical development of Russia. Who is right?
Indeed, Peter I devoted his entire life to serving the state and the Russian people. He served as a soldier and a general, a sailor and an admiral, a ship's carpenter and a legislator. He led the development of industry, entering into the organizational and technical details of production. While serving himself, Peter demanded from all his subordinates conscientious and diligent service to the Russian state.
In public administration, he sought to introduce and strengthen the principle of legality. Peter introduced a form of oath of “allegiance to the sovereign and the entire state” and constantly instilled in his officials the need to comply with laws and care for the interests of the state. He severely punished for bribes, embezzlement and official abuses, including the death penalty, of such high officials as the Siberian governor Prince Gagarin and Chief Fiscal Nesterov.
Peter experienced many failures and disappointments; the sacrifices he demanded from his people were great, but his achievements were also great. He opened sea routes for Russia for relations with other peoples and introduced it to the number of European countries. By creating a first-class army and navy, he made Russia a great power. He created a device that was far from perfect, but still more suitable government controlled, what was an outdated, complex and confusing system of orders. By creating the mining and metallurgical industry, he turned Russia into an economically independent country. He laid the foundations of secular Russian culture, which bore abundant fruit in the 19th century.
But Peter's transformations also had negative sides. The Europeanization he carried out was violent, hasty, little thought out and therefore largely superficial. It tore the nobility and bureaucrats away from the masses and destroyed the religious, moral and social unity of the people that existed in pre-Petrine Rus'. The cumbersome bureaucratic apparatus created by Peter contributed to the strengthening and conservation of feudal-serf relations. The price of Peter's reforms was prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the tsar did not take into account the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, nor with national traditions, nor with the memory of ancestors. At the cost of ruining the country, Russia was elevated to the rank of a European power.
The main reason for the administrative reforms of Peter I was his desire to build an absolutist model of monarchy, when all the key levers of government were in the hands of the tsar and his closest advisers.
Local government reforms - in brief
Provincial (regional) reform
Provincial reform of Peter I the GreatThe transformations were carried out in two stages:
first stage (1708-1714) was aimed primarily at improving the quality of service to the army - the corresponding military units and shipyards were assigned to the created 8 (by 1714 there were already 11) provinces;
second stage (1719-1721) introduced a three-tier structure: province-province-district, strengthening the vertical of power, police supervision and increasing the efficiency of taxation.
Urban reform
first stage (1699) began with the establishment of the Burmister Chamber (Town Hall), under whose subordination the zemstvo huts were transferred, and the main function became the collection of taxes (instead of the governor);
second stage (1720) marked by the creation of the Chief Magistrate. The division of cities into categories, and residents into categories and guilds, was introduced. The magistrate, in its administrative level, corresponded to the collegiums and was subordinate to the Senate.
Central government reforms - in brief
The preparatory stage for the reform of central management can be considered the organization Near office and gradual loss of influence Boyar Duma(last mention in 1704), whose function begins to be fulfilled Ministerial Council. All senior positions in the government bodies created by Peter I are occupied by people loyal to him and personally responsible for the decisions made.
Creation of the Governing Senate
March 2, 1711 Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the king during the war. The Senate was completely under the control of the Tsar; it was a collegial body (decisions made by members of the Senate had to be unanimous), whose members were appointed by Peter I personally. On February 22, 1711, for additional supervision of officials during the Tsar's absence, the post of fiscal was created.
Creation of Boards
Collegium system
From 1718 to 1726 the creation and development of executive management bodies took place - Collegiums, the purpose of which Peter I saw was to replace the outdated system of orders, which were overly clumsy and duplicating their own functions. The collegiums absorbed orders and relieved the Senate of the burden of deciding small and insignificant issues. The creation of the collegium system completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions and uniform standards of activity significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.
Publication of the General Regulations
March 10, 1720 General Regulations was published and signed by Peter I. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters and an appendix with an interpretation of the foreign words included in it. The regulations approved the collegial (unanimous) method of decision-making by the boards, determined the procedure for discussing cases, the organization of office work, and the relationship of the boards with the Senate and local authorities.
Creation of the Holy Synod
February 5, 1721 was established "Holy Governing Synod"(Theological College). The reason for its creation was the desire of Peter I to integrate the Church into the mechanism of the state, limit influence and strengthen control over its activities. All members of the Synod signed the Spiritual Regulations and personally swore allegiance to the Tsar. To protect the interests of the tsar and additional control, the position of chief prosecutor was created under the Synod.
The result of the reforms of the state apparatus under Peter I was a broad structure of administrative bodies, some of which duplicated the functions of each other, but in general were more mobile in terms of solving emerging problems. You can see a schematic representation of government and management bodies in the table on the side.
Military reforms - briefly
The main point The military reforms undertaken by Peter I consisted of five directions:
- Introduction from 1705 of regular recruitment into the land and naval forces- conscription for tax-paying classes with lifelong service;
- Rearmament of the army and development of the military industry- construction of factories for the production of weapons, textile factories, metalworking, etc.;
- Increasing the efficiency of military command and control- publication of regulatory documents (charters, articles, instructions), division of command of troops by type, creation of separate ministries for the army and navy (Military and Admiralty boards);
- Creation of a fleet and related infrastructure- construction of shipyards, ships, training of military naval specialists;
- Development of a military school- opening of specialized educational institutions for training officers and new military formations: engineering, mathematics, navigation and other schools.
The results of military reform were impressive. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand, and irregular troops up to 110 thousand. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships, 787 galleys and other vessels; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.
Economic reforms of Peter I the Great - briefly
The reason for the economic reforms of Peter I was the need to strengthen the provision of the army with supplies and weapons for waging the Northern War, as well as the significant lag of the Russian Kingdom in the industrial sector from the leading European powers.
Currency reform
Without changing the appearance of silver wire kopecks, starting from 1694, dates began to be put on them, and then the weight was reduced to 0.28 g. Since 1700, the minting of small change copper coins began - money, half coins, half half coins, i.e. denominations smaller than a penny.
The main units of the new monetary system were the copper kopeck and the silver ruble. The monetary system was converted to decimal(1 ruble = 100 kopecks = 200 money), and the process of minting coins was modernized - a screw press began to be used. To meet the needs of the economy, Peter I created five mints.
Tax reform
First census population 1710 was based on the household principle of accounting for taxes and revealed that peasants united their households, surrounding them with a single fence, in order to evade paying taxes.
By decree of November 26, 1718 Peter I began the second census, according to the rules of which not the number of households was recorded, but specific male persons. (capita census)
Introduction of the poll tax
After the end of the census in 1722(5,967,313 males were counted), calculations were made of the fees sufficient to support the army. Eventually capitation tax has been installed in 1724 - from each soul (i.e., every man, boy, old man belonging to the tax-paying classes) was supposed to pay 95 kopecks.
Reforms in industry and trade
Monopolies and protectionism
Peter I approved in 1724 protective customs tariff, prohibiting or limiting the import of foreign goods and semi-finished products with high duties. This was primarily due to the low quality of domestic products, which could not stand up to competition. Private and state monopolies were organized within the country - pharmaceutical, wine, salt, flax, tobacco, bread, etc. At the same time, state monopolies served to replenish the treasury from the sale of popular products, and private monopolies served to accelerate the development of specific branches of production and trade.
Social reforms - briefly
In the fields of education, healthcare and science
Most educational institutions were created due to the need to train new types of troops or their own officers for the army and navy. Simultaneously with the organization of various specialized schools (engineering, mining, artillery, medical, etc.), children of nobles were sent abroad, and scientists and engineers were invited from Europe, who were obliged to train the most capable people in production. Mandatory receipt primary education met resistance - in 1714, simultaneously with the creation of digital schools, Peter I was forced to issue a decree prohibiting young nobles who had not received an education from marrying.
Medicine needed state support, and the state needed field surgeons - so the founding of the Moscow Hospital in 1706 solved two problems at once. To provide public and private pharmacies (which were given a monopoly on pharmacy activities) with the necessary medicinal herbs, a vegetable garden was founded on Aptekarsky Island in 1714.
In 1724, Peter I signed a decree establishing the Academy of Sciences and Arts, which laid the foundation for all future Russian science. Foreign specialists were invited to work in the new institution, and until 1746, most of the academicians were foreigners.
Cultural reforms
The culture of the Russian people can be quite clearly divided into the time before Peter I and after him - so strong was his desire to instill European values and change the established traditions of the Russian kingdom. The main reason and source of inspiration for the tsar’s cultural transformations was his Great Embassy - a trip to Europe in 1697-1698.
The key innovations were:
- Permission to sell and use tobacco
- New rules in clothing and appearance
- New chronology and calendar
- Opening of the Kunstkamera (Museum of Curiosities)
- Attempts to organize a public theater (comedy temple)
Estate reforms
The class transformations of Peter I corresponded to his desire to add responsibilities to all subordinates (without distinction of origin), even to the nobility. In general, the period of his reign is characterized by the tightening of serfdom, the weakening of the influence of the church and the provision of new rights and privileges to the nobles. Separately, it is worth highlighting the emergence of such a social elevator as the opportunity to receive nobility for achieving certain ranks of civil and military service, according to Tables of ranks Church reform
The main essence of the church reforms undertaken by Peter I was elimination of autonomy and integration of the institution of the church into the state apparatus, with all the accompanying characteristics - reporting, limited number of personnel, etc. The ban on the election of a patriarch in 1700 and the establishment of a replacement in 1721 of the Holy Synod marked another stage in the formation of absolutism as a form of government of the state - before the Patriarch was perceived as practically equal to the king and had great influence on ordinary people.
Results and results of reforms
- Modernization of the administrative apparatus and building a rigid vertical of power in accordance with the concept of an absolutist monarchy.
- Introduction of a new principle of administrative-territorial division (province-province-district) and changes in the principle of the basic tax (capitation instead of household tax).
- Creation of a regular army and navy, infrastructure for providing military units with provisions, weapons and quarters.
- Introduction of European traditions into the culture of Russian society.
- The introduction of general primary education, the opening of specialized schools for the training of various military and civilian specialists, the establishment of the Academy of Sciences.
- The enslavement of the peasantry, the weakening of the church, the definition of additional responsibilities for all classes and the provision of the opportunity to receive the nobility for merit in the service of the sovereign.
- Development of various types of industry - mining, processing, textile, etc.
Most of all, Peter I was interested in the idea of a fleet and the possibility of trade relations with Europe. To put his ideas into practice, he equipped the Grand Embassy and visited a number of European countries, where he saw how Russia lagged behind in its development.
This event in the life of the young king marked the beginning of his transformative activities. The first reforms of Peter I were aimed at changing the external signs of Russian life: he ordered beards to be shaved and ordered to dress in European clothes, introduced music, tobacco, balls and other innovations into the life of Moscow society, which shocked it.
By decree of December 20, 1699, Peter I approved the calendar from the Nativity of Christ and the celebration of the New Year on January 1.
Foreign policy of Peter I
The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.
On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.
To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.
In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.
Simultaneously with the conduct of military operations, the vigorous activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. The great tsar did a lot, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.
Reform of public administration of Peter I
Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of provinces, numerous Orders ceased to operate and were replaced by Collegiums, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were administered by the emperor himself.
Administrative reforms of Peter I
Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I
The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed with zemstvo commissars.
Urban reform (1699-1720)
To govern the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed the Town Hall in November 1699, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). Members of the Town Hall and magistrates were elected by election.
Estate reforms
The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.
Nobility.
- Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
- Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
- Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.
- Table of Ranks (1722): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.
Peasantry
Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.
Among the free peasants were:
- state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
- palace ones that belonged personally to the king;
- possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.
Urban class
Urban people were divided into “regular” and “irregular”. The regulars were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small traders and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or “mean people,” made up the majority of the urban population.
In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.
Judicial reform of Peter I
The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. In the provinces there were court appeal courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.
Church reform of Peter I
Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the position of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial highest administrative church body - the Holy Synod.
Financial reforms of Peter I
The first stage of Peter I's financial reform boiled down to collecting money for maintaining the army and waging wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, and indirect taxes were introduced (bath taxes, horse taxes, beard taxes, etc.).
In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the kopeck became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.
Tax reform of Peter I consisted of a transition from household taxation to per capita taxation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.
Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.
Social reforms of Peter I
Education reform of Peter I
In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education for children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.
Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.
Reforms of Peter I in culture
Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated learning to read and write and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, and in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.
The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.
Medical reforms of Peter I
The main transformations were the opening of hospitals (1707 - the first Moscow military hospital) and schools attached to them, in which doctors and pharmacists were trained.
In 1700, pharmacies were established at all military hospitals. In 1701, Peter I issued a decree on the opening of eight private pharmacies in Moscow. Since 1704, state-owned pharmacies began to open in many cities of Russia.
To grow, study, and create collections of medicinal plants, apothecary gardens were created, where seeds of foreign flora were imported.
Socio-economic reforms of Peter I
To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged domestic industrialists and traders. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated in Russia.
Reforms of Peter I in the army
Peter I introduced annual recruitment of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, outlining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.
As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy were created.
Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, because the transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration. Among the opponents of Peter I's reforms was his son Alexei.
Results of the reforms of Peter I
- A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
- Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
- The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
- Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.
Features of the reforms of Peter I
- The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
- Lack of reform system.
- Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
- Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.
Reasons for the reforms of Peter I
By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.
Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I
In the course of the history of our country, by this time significant shifts in its development had already occurred. The city separated from the village, agriculture and crafts were separated, and manufacturing-type industrial enterprises arose. Domestic and foreign trade developed. Russia borrowed technology and science, culture and education from Western Europe, but at the same time developed independently. Thus, the ground was already prepared for Peter's reforms.
Administrative reforms- a set of transformations of government bodies undertaken by Peter I the Great during his reign over the Russian Tsardom and the Russian Empire. Most of the administrative apparatus was either abolished or reorganized in accordance with European traditions, the experience of which the king learned during the Great Embassy of 1697-1698.
A complete list of reforms related to the administrative sphere can be studied in the table below.
Administrative transformations of Peter I
Briefly about the essence and content of administrative reforms
The main essence of almost all administrative reforms of Peter I was the construction of an absolutist form of monarchy, which involves the concentration of judicial, administrative and financial levers of control in the hands of the sovereign and the people entrusted to him.
Reasons for reforms of the state apparatus
- Peter I sought to build a rigid vertical of power. The creation of an absolutist monarchy was supposed to prevent possible conspiracies, riots and stop mass escapes of soldiers and peasants.
- The outdated administrative system hampered economic development and was slow in solving emerging problems.
- The Northern War with Sweden and plans to modernize industry required financial and human resources - new administrative institutions were needed to organize supplies.
Goals and objectives
administrative reforms
- Construction of a vertical power structure at the central and local levels, each of whose members solves specific problems and bears personal responsibility.
- A clearer delineation of the functions of government bodies.
- Administrative and territorial transformations that help improve the supply of the army and navy with the necessary equipment, provisions, and quartering.
- Introduction of the principle of collegial decision-making, development of uniform rules for office work of the administrative apparatus.
Reforms of the central government bodies of Peter I the Great
Creation of the Near Chancellery and abolition of the Boyar Duma
With the coming of Peter I to power, the Boyar Duma began to lose its powers, turning into another bureaucratic department. The tsar tried to change the established order (members of the boyar duma were elected from local nobles) and place people under his personal control in leadership positions. WITH 1701 its functions as the highest government body began to be performed by the so-called "Consultation of Ministers"- a council of heads of the most important government departments, among whom there were many non-boyars. After 1704, there are no references to meetings of the Borya Duma, although its official abolition did not take place.
Near office, was created in 1699 to control the financial costs of all orders, as well as administrative decisions, all the most important papers had to be signed by the main royal advisers and ministers, for which a special book of registered decrees was established.
Creation of the Governing Senate
March 2, 1711 Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the king (the Northern War occupied most his attention). The Senate was completely controlled by the tsar and was a collegial body, the members of which were appointed by Peter I personally. February 22, 1711 for additional supervision of officials during the absence of the king, a position was created fiscal.
Creation of Boards
From 1718 to 1726 creation and further development Collegiums, the purpose of which Peter I saw as replacing the outdated system of orders, which were excessively slow in solving the problems of the state and, often, duplicated their own functions. As they were created, the boards absorbed orders. In the period from 1718 to 1720, the presidents of the colleges were senators and sat in the Senate, but subsequently, of all the colleges, representation in the Senate was reserved only for the most important ones: Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.
The creation of the collegium system completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions, uniform standards of activity (according to the General Regulations) - all this significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.
A comparison of the order and board systems is presented in the diagrams below.
Order system
Publication of the General Regulations
By decree of 9 May 1718 Peter I instructed the presidents of the Chamber, Revision, and Military Collegiums to begin developing General Regulations— office management system, called “collegiate”.
The regulations approved the collegial method of decision-making by the boards, determined the procedure for discussing cases, the organization of office work, and the relationship of the boards with the Senate and local authorities.
March 10, 1720 The General Regulations were issued and signed by the Tsar. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters containing the most general principles activities of the apparatus of all government institutions, and applications with the interpretation of foreign words included in it.
The procedure for considering cases in boards and the duties of officials according to the General Regulations of 1720
Creation of the Holy Synod
Towards the end of the Northern War with Sweden, Peter I began preparations for the introduction of a new type of administrative institutions - collegiums. Based on a similar principle, it was intended to establish the highest governing body of the Church, for which Bishop Feofan Prokopovich was instructed to develop Spiritual regulations. February 5, 1721 was published Manifesto on the establishment of the Theological College, later called "The Most Holy Governing Synod".
All members of the Synod signed the regulations and personally swore allegiance to the Tsar, and also pledged to protect the interests of the fatherland and Peter I. May 11, 1722- to control the activities of the Synod, the position of chief prosecutor was created, reporting to Peter I on the state of affairs.
Thus, the sovereign integrated the church into the mechanism of the state, making it one of the administrative institutions with certain responsibilities and functions. The abolition of the position of patriarch, who had an influence on ordinary people comparable to the influence of Peter I himself, concentrated all power in the hands of the tsar and became another step towards strengthening the absolutist form of government.
Creation of the Secret Chancellery (Preobrazhensky Order)
Preobrazhensky order was founded by Peter I in 1686, as an office establishment for managing the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky amusing regiments. Gradually, as the power of Peter I strengthened, the order received more and more new functions - in 1702, the tsar issued a decree according to which all those who reported state crimes (treason, assassination attempt on the monarch) were sent to the Preobrazhensky order. Thus, main function, which this institution carried out - the prosecution of participants in anti-serfdom protests (about 70% of all cases) and opponents of the political reforms of Peter I.
The Secret Chancellery is one of the central governing bodies
The Secret Chancellery was established in February 1718 In Petersburg. It was created for the investigation into the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, then it was transferred to other political cases of extreme importance; subsequently both institutions merged into one
Local government reforms
Provincial reform
The reform of local government began long before the creation of the boards - first stage of provincial reform already in 1708 year introduced the division of the state into provinces - this was done so that tax revenues from these areas would support the fleet, and recruits entering the service could be quickly transferred to the war.
Heads of administrative levels as a result of provincial reform
Second phase became possible after the difficult years of the war had passed, so Peter I December 7, 1718 approved the Senate's decision to create provinces and divide them into districts governed by zemstvo commissars. Thus, regional reform divided local government into three units: province, province, district.
Governors were appointed by Peter I personally and received full power over the governed provinces. The governors and provincial administrations were appointed by the Senate and reported directly to the collegiums. Four colleges (Kamer, Stat's office, Justits and Votchinnaya) had their own chamberists (tax control), commandants and treasurers on site. The head of the province was usually the voivode; zemstvo commissars were in charge of financial and police administration in the district.
Large cities of the provinces had a separate city administration - magistrates.
Provincial administrative bodies were built into the overall system
Urban reform
In 1720 Peter I creates Chief Magistrate, and in the next 1721 issues appropriate regulations for it. A division of cities into categories was introduced, and residents (townspeople) into categories.
Many people know that the changes carried out by Peter I radically changed the state. The transformations affected all spheres of life of Russian citizens, leaving a major mark on history.
The reforms were of great importance for the further development of the country and laid the foundation for numerous achievements in all spheres of life of the state and its citizens.
It is very difficult to cover all the innovations that revolutionized the structure of Russia at the beginning of the 18th century in one article, but we will try to briefly describe what transformations broke the old social structure.
Peter I, with his reforms, affected almost all spheres of life.
Transformations took place simultaneously in the most important areas of government activity:
- army;
- estates;
- public administration;
- church;
- economics and finance;
- science, culture and education.
The activities of most areas have changed fundamentally.
Most of all, the sovereign dreamed of creating a fleet and developing maritime trade relations with Europe. To achieve this goal, he went on a journey. Returning after visiting several European countries, the tsar saw how much Russia lagged behind in its development.
Moreover, backwardness from Europe was manifested in all spheres of activity. Peter understood that without reforms Russia would forever lose the opportunity to compare in level of development with European states. The need for transformation is long overdue, and in all areas of life at once.
Thus, the Boyar Duma did not fulfill its intended function of governing the country. The training and armament of the Streltsy army was not suitable. If necessary, it is unlikely that the soldiers would cope with their task. The level of industrial production, education and culture was significantly lower than in Europe.
Although there have already been some shifts towards development. Cities were separated from villages, crafts and agriculture were separated, and industrial enterprises appeared.
The path of Russia's development took place in two directions: something was borrowed from the West, something developed independently. On such a basis, Peter I began global transformations in Russia.
The goals of the reforms are summarized in the table:
Military reforms
The most famous transformation of Peter I was the creation of a navy. Under Peter I, about 800 galleys and 50 sailing ships were built.
The army reform introduced regular regiments of the new system. These changes began under Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich. But then the regiments were assembled only for the duration of hostilities, and after the end they were disbanded.
The reorganization consisted in the fact that soldiers were specially recruited for the regular army. They were removed from their families and could not engage in anything other than military affairs. The Cossacks ceased to be a free ally. He was under an obligation to regularly supply a certain number of troops.
Social change
Thanks to Peter's reforms, the lives of all segments of society changed. The nobles were forced to serve on an equal basis with everyone else. They started, like everyone else, from the lower ranks. The rest could rise to higher ranks on a par with the nobility. The “Table of Ranks” was published. It appointed 14 service ranks.
Compulsory training was introduced to prepare for service. It included literacy, arithmetic (numbers at that time), and geometry. Completion of training was also mandatory for the nobility.
In addition, there was an exam after completion. If a nobleman did not pass it, he was forbidden to receive an officer rank and get married.
But changes could not happen instantly. In fact, the nobles still had privileges.
They were immediately appointed to the guards regiments and did not always begin their service with the lower ranks.
Despite this, there was a lot of discontent on the part of the nobility. But this did not change the reforms of Peter I.
Changes also occurred in the lives of peasants. Instead of house-to-house taxation, capitation taxation appeared.
An important decree on unified inheritance was issued. According to this decree, nobles had the right to leave their real estate to only one person. It could be the eldest child, or it could be another person in the will.
Governance reforms
A new government body has emerged - the Governing Senate. Its members were appointed by the king himself. The work of this body was supervised by the Prosecutor General. At first, the Governing Senate had only an administrative function; a little later a legislative function appeared.
The Boyar Duma finally lost its significance and influence on the Tsar. The sovereign discussed all matters with his entourage, of whom there were few.
There have been changes in the management of various areas. Orders were replaced by collegiums.
The last 12 were:
- church;
- marine;
- military;
- foreign affairs;
- trading;
- by income;
- by expenses;
- financial;
- mining industry;
- manufacturing industry;
- Justice;
- urban.
Note! Initially, the members of these boards were equal and consulted among themselves. The leadership of the boards by the minister appeared later.
Another transformation concerns the division of Russia. The country was divided into provinces, which, in turn, included provinces and districts. In the latter, the governor was appointed head, and in the provinces the governor was in charge.
One of the reforms of Peter I became key in history. It led to an era of palace coups. The king changed the law on succession to the throne. According to the new law, the sovereign himself could appoint an heir.
Economic changes are summarized in the table:
Financial reforms manifested themselves in the fact that the tax system changed. More and more so-called indirect taxes appeared. Taxes were assigned to such things as stamp paper, baths, and beards. Coins were minted lighter.
A new position was invented - profit maker. These people suggested to the king what else could be taxed. These measures led to a significant increase in the treasury.
The church reform of Peter I made the church dependent on the tsar. After the death of the last patriarch Hadrian, the patriarchate ceased to exist. The Holy Synod appeared. This board represented the clergy. Its members were elected not by the church, but by the sovereign. Monasteries were also under state control.
Science, culture and education also did not remain aloof from Peter’s transformations; the sovereign tried his best to give Russia a Western look.
Social receptions in the Western style began to be held among the nobility and nobility. The upper class was ordered to cut off their beards. European clothing was introduced into fashion, home decoration was changed in imitation of London and Paris. Western literature was translated into Russian.
Significant changes were made in the field of education of noble offspring. Peter I opened several schools in which the humanitarian component of education faded into the background. Much attention was paid to the exact sciences. Changes also occurred in writing. The old letter was replaced with a modern one.
Important! Under Peter I, the first publicly accessible newspaper, Moskovskie Vedomosti, began to be published.
The table will help to briefly list the main directions of reforms and their achievements:
Military reforms | Standing troops instead of the Streltsy army and noble militia |
Control | The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate provinces appeared |
Church | instead of the patriarchate - the Holy Synod the church became completely dependent on the state |
Social | equalization of nobles and boyars creation of the “Table of Ranks”, in which 14 ranks were divided |
Education | creation of schools, university, Academy of Sciences |
Economic | inclusion of the entire population in taxation the penny becomes the monetary unit |
Culture | Western-style cultural development |
Other | Since 1721 Russia becomes an empire |
The most important transformation events with dates are reflected in the following chronological list:
- 1708–1710 – establishment of eight provinces;
- 1711 – establishment of the Senate;
- 1712 – emergence of companies in trade and industry;
- 1714 – decree on the transfer of real estate;
- 1718 – population census;
- 1718–1720 – emergence of colleges;
- 1718–1724 – reform of the per capita taxation of peasants;
- 1719 – division of the country into governorates and provinces;
- 1721 – the beginning of the dependence of the church on the state;
- 1722 – “Table of Ranks”;
- 1722 – workshop organization;
- 1724 – introduction of large taxes on imported goods.
Features of the reforms
The transformations carried out by Peter I were among the most unusual in the history of Russia.
The features of the reforms of Peter I were that they:
- they covered all areas of life;
- transformations took place very quickly;
- Coercive methods were used most;
- all of Peter's transformations were aimed at imitating Europe.
The main feature of the reforms of Peter I can be called his direct participation in all ongoing reforms.
What happened after the transformation was completed:
- centralized power;
- strong army and navy;
- stability in the economic sphere;
- abolition of the patriarchate;
- loss of independence by the church;
- a big step forward in the development of science and culture;
- creating the basis for Russian education.
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Let's sum it up
As a result of the reforms of Peter I in Russia there was a significant increase in all spheres of life. The transformations provided not only a huge leap in development, but also a good basis for further progress. The country began to develop at an accelerated pace.
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