Bullet fool meaning. The bullet is a fool, the bayonet is great
"An eye for an eye"
The grandson of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily II, ascended the Moscow throne in 1425, at the age of ten. But his uncle, Prince of Galicia and Zvenigorod Yuri Dmitrievich, did not want to recognize his nephew as the senior prince. The struggle between them went on for many years. In 1434, Yuri nevertheless occupied Moscow, but soon died. His sons - Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka - failed to retain the great reign. In 1436, Vasily II captured Vasily Kosoy and ordered him to be blinded. Dmitry Shemyaka calmed down for a while, but harbored revenge in his soul.
He had to wait a long time. Only 9 years later, in 1445, Shemyaka finally had an opportunity to take revenge on Vasily II. At this time, a small army of Kazan Tatars - about three and a half thousand sabers - attacked the Vladimir-Suzdal lands. Vasily II recklessly attacked the enemy, having only one and a half thousand soldiers at hand. In the battle near Suzdal Grand Duke showed miracles of courage, receiving many wounds. Despite this, the Moscow army was defeated, and Vasily II himself was captured. However, the Tatars themselves did not expect such success and simply did not know what to do with their victory. After dragging Vasily II with them for several months, they finally released him for a fabulous ransom at that time - 200 thousand rubles.
However, these few months played a fatal role in the fate of Vasily II. Taking advantage of his absence, Dmitry Shemyaka suddenly burst into Moscow, captured the family of the Grand Duke, and the next year captured him himself. The day of judgment came for Vasily II. By order of Shemyaka, both eyes were gouged out and imprisoned in Uglich. Since then, Vasily II has been given the nickname Dark, that is, blind.
The board of Shemyaka in Moscow left hard memory. From now on, the expression “Shemyakin court” became synonymous with unjust court in Rus'. In the end, Shemyaka had to flee from Moscow to Novgorod. But the hand of the Moscow prince overtook him there too. In 1453, the cook Shemyaki, bribed by the people of Vasily II, fed his master poisoned chicken. Thus ended the most debilitating civil strife in the Moscow state, which lasted almost 30 years.
The Awake Sovereign
Although the Moscow Prince Vasily II Vasilyevich was nicknamed the Dark One, he saw some things better than his sighted contemporaries. This was especially evident in the case of the union of the Eastern and Western churches, when the Moscow boyars and bishops Orthodox faith didn't oversleep.
The main events initially unfolded far from the Russian land - in Byzantium and Italy. At the beginning of the 15th century Byzantine Empire was on the verge of death. Strictly speaking, it was no longer an empire, but a miserable piece of land around Constantinople. However, the Ottoman Turks were ready to absorb this last stronghold of the once great power. To ward off the Turkish threat from Byzantium, Emperor John VIII Palaiologos turned to Pope Eugene IV with a proposal to organize a pan-European crusade against the Turks. The Pope promised to support the Emperor, but on the condition that Orthodox Church submit to the Roman throne. Politics prevailed over religious feelings, and John VIII gave in to the pope's demands. However, such a matter required the consent of all Orthodox dioceses. And so, in 1438, a church council met in Florence, to which church hierarchs of Orthodox countries, including Rus', were invited.
The Metropolitan of All Rus' at that time was the Greek Isidore, since the Russian Church was still formally subordinate to the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Isidore led a large Moscow delegation that arrived in Florence along the winter route on two hundred sleighs. Being a subject of the Byzantine emperor, Isidore did not even think of defending the interests of the Russian Church at the Council of Florence. Fulfilling the wishes of John VIII, he announced on her behalf annexation to Rome and assured the pope that upon returning to Moscow he would easily settle all formalities. “Russian bishops are ignorant,” said Isidore, “but the Grand Duke is young and at my will.”
And in fact, when Isidore announced in Moscow the final unification of the Eastern and Western churches, he did not encounter much resistance from the Moscow boyars and clergy. The theological aspects of the question brought boredom and drowsiness to everyone. The chronicler innocently reports that the boyars and bishops “all kept silent and dozed off and fell asleep.” Only Vasily II did not sleep. Understanding perfectly well what Isidore was driving at, the Grand Duke publicly called the Metropolitan a heretic and false teacher and ordered him to be imprisoned in the Chudov Monastery. Then the boyars and the clergy came to their senses. “We were dozing,” they repented before Vasily, “and you, the sovereign, alone stayed awake, discovered the truth, saved the faith.”
Thus, Rus' avoided the danger of becoming an ecclesiastical appendage of Rome and retained its spiritual identity. At the same time, Isidore’s betrayal served as a reason to end Rus'’s ecclesiastical dependence on the Patriarchate of Constantinople. Bishop Jonah of Ryazan, Russian by nationality, was elected the new Russian metropolitan. From then on, the Russian Church became an independent, autocephalous diocese.
"Skorotatarshchina"
During the reign of Vasily II the Dark, Moscow again saw the Tatars under its walls. This Tatar raid of 1451 received the name “fast Tatarism” in ancient Russian literature, because it ended as suddenly as it began.
This time Vasily II was well prepared for the attack, setting up a barrier on the Oka. However, the Moscow governor, who was placed at the head of the defense, was afraid of the Tatar hordes and cleared the river bank. Without encountering resistance, the Tatars under the command of Tsarevich Mazovsha rushed to Moscow and early in the morning on Friday, June 3, appeared under its walls. There was a drought, so when the Tatars set fire to the wooden Moscow suburbs, the fire immediately engulfed the stone Kremlin from all sides. Smoke covered the entire city, making it difficult to see the enemy's preparations. The enemy approached the city gates and weak areas of the city fortifications, where stone walls had not yet been erected. But Muscovites successfully repelled attacks everywhere. When the settlements surrounding the Kremlin burned down and it became finally possible to take a deep breath, the defenders of Moscow began to make forays here and there. By dusk, the Tatars retreated from Moscow, and the townspeople began hastily preparing for tomorrow's battle, putting in order their cannons, rifles, bows, shields and other weapons.
Great was their amazement and joy when the next morning it was discovered that the Tatars had suddenly fled. In the empty Tatar camp, looted items and heavy objects made of iron and copper were lying around. Apparently, Mazowsza was convinced that it was useless to besiege a strong city with a large garrison and left, abandoning everything that could slow down the rapid retreat.
The list of Moscow disasters of the 14th-15th centuries ends with the imminent Tatar war. Fires continued to devastate Moscow, and the Tatars threatened it again in 1480. However, from the second half of the 15th century new growth The Moscow state, associated with the name of the unifier of Rus' - Ivan III Vasilyevich.
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March 10, 1415 at the Lithuanian Princess Sophia and Russian Prince Vasily a son was born. They named him like his father. In 10 years the father will die. Then the boy will get a name serial number- deuce. In another 20 years he will be given the nickname Dark.
And after another 600 years - an incomprehensible tongue twister in textbooks and manuals: “ Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II continued the unification of Russian lands around Moscow.” For those especially interested in history, a small bonus - it turns out that during the internecine war he was blinded and his eyes burned out. Hence the nickname Dark. Not much.
Meanwhile, his reign of 37 years is a complete paradox. One of those mysteries that is difficult to understand, let alone solve. Everything that Vasily attempted fell out of his hands. And with catastrophic consequences. And the final result is an impressive victory. How?
Karl Goon. " Grand Duchess Sofia Vitovtovna at the wedding of Grand Duke Vasily the Dark" (1861). Source: Public Domain
Moscow for Muscovites
Vasily II was kicked out of the throne three times. Twice dear uncle Yuri, and once - a cousin, Dmitry Shemyaka. Each time the circumstances were shameful for Prince Vasily. His uncle beat him as much as he wanted. On April 25, 1433, they collided 20 versts from Moscow, on Klyazma. Vasily is defeated and flees to Kostroma. There he is captured. One zero. A year later, uncle and nephew meet again in battle, this time near Mt. Saint Nicholas, near Rostov the Great. Vasily is defeated again and runs again. This time to Novgorod, then to Nizhny Novgorod, from there he plans to escape even to the Horde. Two is zero. For the third time, Dmitry Shemyaka dealt with Vasily. Taking advantage of his cousin’s carelessness and roteness, in February 1446 he captured him on a pilgrimage, blinded him and exiled him first to Uglich, then to Vologda.
It is impossible to recover from such defeats. Nevertheless, Vasily succeeds. Yes, he is fleeing the battlefield. Yes, he is crippled and in exile under guard. But whenever the prince fails, an unexpected resource comes into play and must be reckoned with. The winners cannot take advantage of the fruits of their victories - people refuse to serve them. The famous slogan “Moscow for Muscovites” has never been formulated so precisely. But the Moscow boyars, governors and even merchants acted in full accordance with him: “We are not accustomed to serving foreign Galician princes, we have our own, natural, Moscow one.” The enemies leave under a barrage of ridicule, Vasily is back in Moscow. And so - three times in a row.
Boris Chorikov. Princes and boyars volunteer to return the Grand Duke's throne to Vasily the Dark, 1446. Source: Public Domain
Your own church
The dream of the Moscow princes of that time was to acquire church independence and not depend on the decisions of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Vasily failed it miserably. It all started with health - in 1432 in Moscow the new Metropolitan of All Rus' was named - Ryazan Bishop Jonah. However, while he was going to Constantinople to confirm his rank, another one had already arrived from there. Greek Isidore. The prince had to wipe himself off.
And here again an unexpected factor arose. The Greeks were preparing the unification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches, and Orthodoxy was destined for the most pitiful role in this project.
Isidore was an ardent supporter of the project. At the Council of Florence in 1439, dedicated to the unification, he signed the most flattering autograph under the act of subordination of the Orthodox Church to the Pope: “I sign with love and approval.”
Prince Vasily knew how to take advantage of the moment. The Metropolitan, who returned to Moscow, was deposed and declared a heretic for such betrayal, after which he cowardly fled. The Russian Bishop Jonah stood at the head of the Russian Orthodox Church without any permission from the outside. The Russian Orthodox Church has become independent, and Moscow will very soon proclaim itself the Third Rome.
Vasily the Dark. Source: Public Domain
Severity of hangover
The morning of July 7, 1445 was difficult for Prince Vasily. The day before, with an army of a thousand sabers, he set up camp near Suzdal to prepare for battle with Kazan princes Mamutyak and Yakub. Those were not yet visible, and therefore the prince “dined at home with all the brethren, and with the boyars, and drank, and reveled for a long time at night.” What happens after this the next morning is known to everyone. But that time it was a hundred times worse - the Tatars attacked the hangover-stricken army. The result is predictable - ours are brutally defeated. The prince is captured again and again. But now not to my uncle, but to Kazan Khan Ulu-Makhmet. This is not just a defeat. This is a disaster generously seasoned with shame. The Khan dictates the terms of the ransom to the prince. They are frankly enslaving. According to the Novgorod chronicles, Ulu-Makhmet demanded either 200 thousand rubles, or “the entire Moscow treasury,” which, in general, is the same thing. In addition to money, Vasily had to give several areas of his principality “for feeding” to the sons of the khan, princes Kasim and Yakub. Muscovite Rus', which Vasily’s ancestors had been collecting for generations, could simply end there. But here again an unexpected factor came into play - Vasily’s personal charm.
Beat the Tatars with a Tatar
Being captured by the Kazan people, Vasily managed to win over those who were destined to settle in Rus' - the princes Kasim and Yakub. He did everything for this - gave gifts, made promises, lied and even told the truth. It is not for nothing that one of the most important points of the accusation that Shemyaka put forward to the prince before being blinded and exiled was: “Why did you bring the Tatars to the Russian land, and give them cities and volosts to feed on? But you love the Tatars, and you love their speech and language beyond measure, and you give gold, and silver, and property to the Tatars.” It would seem that it couldn’t be worse than this.
However, the “towns and volosts” distributed for feeding belonged to Moscow only formally. Prince Vasily managed to put the Kazan people who came with him not only into the wilderness, but also onto disputed lands. Gorodets Meshchersky is a swampy and forested area. A sort of buffer zone between Moscow, Ryazan and the Horde, where fugitives flocked and which was not really managed by anyone. But now the prince’s friend and vassal, his own “pocket” Tatar Kasim, sat there. In Europe they would say: “To fight a dragon you need a dragon.” In Rus' then they remembered the plot with Ilya Muromets, who once, finding himself without a weapon, “grabbed someone else’s hero by the leg and began to beat the Tatars with a Tatar.” It turned out excellently - Kasim himself repeatedly beat the Tatars of the Great Horde and went on campaigns against Kazan against his own brothers. And his son Daniyar and even participated in the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
Usually, when summing up the results of his reign, they dig into the little things. Yes, he streamlined management. Yes, under him, free Novgorod was seriously pressed. Yes, he increased the dependence of Suzdal and Nizhny on Moscow. But these are all minor things. The main result is somewhat different. Son of Vasily, prince Ivan, the future Ivan III, nicknamed the Great, received at his disposal an effective corporation, completely devoid of internal competition. Very soon she will become the most large state Europe.
Biography of Prince Vasily 2 Vasilyevich the Dark
Vasily 2 Vasilyevich (Dark) - (born March 10, 1415 - death March 27, 1462) Son of Vasily 1 Dmitrievich. Grand Duke of Moscow. Under Vasily 2, a long internecine war was waged. A coalition of appanage princes under the leadership of his uncle, the Galician prince Yuri Dmitrievich and his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, opposed him. At the same time, there was a struggle with Kazan and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Grand Duke's throne passed several times to the Galician princes (1433–1434), who enjoyed the support of Novgorod and Tver.
Vasily was blinded in 1446 by Dmitry Shemyaka (hence the "Dark"), but ultimately won in the early 50s. XV century victory.
Vasily the Dark was able to eliminate almost all the small fiefs within the Moscow principality, strengthening the grand-ducal power. As a result of the campaigns of 1441–1460. The dependence on Moscow of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality, Novgorod the Great, Pskov, and Vyatka increased significantly.
By order of Vasily 2, the Russian Bishop Jonah was elected metropolitan (1448), which marked the proclamation of the independence of the Russian Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople and contributed to the strengthening international situation Rus'.
Biography of Vasily 2 the Dark
Origin. Inheritance
1425, February 27 - the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Vasily 1 Dmitrievich died, leaving his inheritance, “thoughts” and the great principality to his only son Vasily, who at that time was not yet 10 years old. The beginning of Vasily's reign was marked by a plague epidemic and severe drought in 1430 - 1448. The position of the young Grand Duke on the throne was precarious. He had uncles, appanage princes Yuri, Andrey, Peter and Konstantin Dmitrievich. The eldest of them, Yuri Dmitrievich, himself laid claim to the great reign. Prince Yuri believed that the order of succession could not be established by Vasily 1, because it was determined by the spirituality of their father, Dmitry Donskoy. Yuri Dmitrievich believed that, in accordance with this will, after the death of Vasily, it was he, Prince Yuri, who should have inherited the grand-ducal throne, as the eldest of the family.
Power struggle
In the struggle for power, Yuri Dmitrievich relied, on the one hand, on the support of his brother-in-law, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Svidrigail Olgerdovich, and on the other, on the intercession of his friend, the influential Horde Murza Tegini, before the khan. However, the Moscow boyars, led by the talented diplomat Ivan Dmitrievich Vsevolozhsky, were well versed in the current balance of power. Ivan Dmitrievich was able to turn the majority of the Horde Murzas against Tegini, which means he made them supporters of his prince.
Court in Orda
When, at the khan’s trial, Yuri Dmitrievich began to substantiate his claims to the great reign by referring to ancient family law, the Moscow diplomat with one phrase was able to achieve the khan’s decision in his favor, saying: “Prince Yuri is looking for a great reign according to the will of his father, and Prince Vasily - by your grace."
The Khan, very pleased with this manifestation of submission on the part of the Muscovites, ordered the label to be issued to Vasily and even ordered Yuri Dmitrievich, as a sign of submission to the Khan’s will, to lead by the bridle the horse with the Grand Duke sitting on it.
The beginning of civil strife
This episode was the reason for the continuation of the war. 1433 - during the wedding of Vasily Vasilyevich, his mother, Sofya Vitovtovna, tore off a precious gold belt from another Vasily - the son of Yuri Dmitrievich. A little earlier, one of the old boyars told Sophia that this belt once belonged to Dmitry Donskoy, and then it was stolen and ended up in the family of Yuri Dmitrievich. The scandal, needless to say, was louder: the prince appeared at the wedding feast wearing a stolen item! Of course, Vasily Yuryevich and his brother Dmitry Shemyaka immediately left Moscow. Their father, Yuri Dmitrievich, took advantage of this opportunity and moved an army against his nephew.
In the battle on Klyazma, the Grand Duke's smaller army was defeated by Yuri Dmitrievich, and Vasily himself was captured and sent by Yuri to Kolomna. On Holy Week in 1434, Yuri Dmitrievich entered Moscow, but turned out to be an unwelcome guest there. On next year Yuri again defeated the army of the Grand Duke and once again entered Moscow, which he had previously been forced to leave due to the hostility of the boyars and nobles. The mother and wife of a Moscow prince who fled to Nizhny Novgorod were captured. Unexpectedly, Yuri died.
Sofya Vitovtovna at the wedding of Grand Duke Vasily 2
Historical portrait of Vasily the Dark
For the most part, historians consider Vasily 2 the Dark to be a completely ordinary person, not distinguished by any talents. The scale of this personality seems incommensurate with the “sea of troubles” that she had to overcome. The tragedy of Vasily’s fate is noted by all researchers. Although, in fairness, it should be noted that the Grand Duke endured a lot of suffering through his own fault. And yet, the victory over numerous rivals - talented and cunning - is difficult to explain only by the reasonableness and experience of advisers and well-functioning state system. We must pay tribute to the tenacity of Vasily the Dark, his ability to start the fight again after defeat and his ability, speaking modern language, “select personnel.” In that many-year war that Vasily had to wage with his enemies, warring parties They were not shy in their choice of means, acting with cunning and force. It is hardly appropriate to whitewash both Vasily and his opponents.
Civil strife continues
Vasily 2 returned to Moscow, made peace with the sons of the deceased: Vasily, Dmitry Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny. But the first of them broke his oath by attacking Moscow, but was captured and blinded (which is why he received the nickname Scythe). Shemyaka was detained in Moscow, where he came to invite Grand Duke Vasily 2 to his wedding. Later, the Trinity Abbot Zinovy was able to try them on.
In the meantime, an attempt was made to unite the Catholic and Orthodox churches. 1441, March - to Moscow from Florence church cathedral where the act of unification was adopted Christian churches Under the leadership of the Pope, Metropolitan Isidore returned. Secular authorities and the clergy made an attempt to persuade him to renounce the union, but, seeing how stubborn the Metropolitan was, they imprisoned him in the Chudov Monastery, from where he fled to Tver, and then to Rome.
Captured by the Tatars. Blindness
1445 - Vasily 2 was captured by the Tatar princes Mahmutek and Yakub. Shemyaka asked the Tatars not to let the Grand Duke go, but he was able to free himself by promising a huge ransom. In addition to money, he had to give several areas of his principality “for feeding” to the princes. But the “towns and volosts” distributed for feeding belonged to Moscow only formally. Prince Vasily managed to put the Kazan people who came with him not only into the wilderness, but also onto disputed lands.
1446 - Dmitry captured Moscow and captured both grand duchesses. Vasily himself was captured in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and blinded in Moscow, hence the nickname Dark.
Date of Dmitry Shemyaka and Vasily Dark
After being blinded
He received Vologda as an inheritance, but soon began to fight again in alliance with the Tver prince Boris Alexandrovich, whose daughter, Maria, his son Ivan was married to. 1446, December - Vasily the Dark was able to return the capital and the throne, but the war continued. 1450 - Dmitry Shemyaka arrived in Novgorod, where on July 18, 1453 he was blinded by the agents of Vasily 2. If earlier princes had captured, dethroned and maimed their relatives, now the Grand Duke decided to kill his cousin, unless, of course, the information about the poisoning is correct.
1456 - the Moscow army defeated the Novgorodians. The Novgorod Republic was forced to renounce independence in foreign policy affairs. When in January 1460 the Grand Duke and his sons Yuri and Andrey arrived in Novgorod to venerate local shrines, the issue of killing the guests was discussed at the veche, and only Archbishop Jonah managed to dissuade the townspeople from this idea.
Death
Vasily 2 Dark suffered from dry illness (tuberculosis). He was treated in the usual way at that time: lighting the lamp several times. various parts tinder bodies. This, of course, did not help, and gangrene developed in the areas of many burns. On March 27, Vasily II the Dark died, bequeathing to his eldest son and co-ruler Ivan the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and the most extensive inheritance. Prince Ivan, the future, nicknamed the Great, received at his disposal an effective corporation, which was completely devoid of internal competition. Very soon it will become the largest state in Europe.
Results of the board
Centralization of grand ducal power
Subordination of the Moscow Principality of small appanage principalities
Increasing Moscow's influence on Suzdal, Pskov, Novgorod
Preservation of religious independence
Vasily 2 the Dark (reigned 1415-1462) is a Moscow prince who made a significant contribution to strengthening his principality and establishing it as a “gatherer of Russian lands.” It was bright representative the last civil strife in the Russian state, which managed to emerge victorious in this bloody battle. In this article we will look at life path this person, we will find out why Vasily 2 received the nickname “Dark”, and also why victory was on the side of Vasily 2.
Vasily the Second “Dark” was born in 1415 in Moscow. Vasily's mother was the influential Lithuanian princess Sofya Vitovtovna, who was the regent of the young prince. However, not everyone in the Russian state wanted to recognize the new ruler. Vasily's uncle, the Galich prince Yuri, relying on the will of Dmitry Donskoy, declared his right to the Moscow throne. Yuri’s sons, Dmitry Kosoy and Vasily Shemyaka, also had the right to the grand ducal title. For a long time Yuri was afraid to directly declare his right to the throne, since regent Sophia relied on her powerful father, the Lithuanian ruler Vytautas. However, after his death in 1430, Yuri went to the Horde, wanting to challenge his 15-year-old nephew for the right to the throne. But with the support of the influential boyar Ivan Vsevolozhsky, Vasily received the khan's label for reign. Boyar Vsevolozhsky intended to give his daughter to Vasily and thereby gain a strong place near the throne, but Vasily’s mother had other plans. She prophesied Princess Marya Yaroslavna as Vasily’s wife, so she considered this marriage more profitable.
This event became the beginning of a long civil strife in the Russian state. On the way home, Yuri's sons plundered Yaroslavl, Vasily's possession. In 1433, the blitz of the Sergius-Troitsky Monastery clashed between the armies of Vasily and Yuryevich. Vasily was defeated and captured, and Yuri ascended the throne. Dmitry and Vasily Yuryevich tried to persuade him to commit suicide with his nephew, but their father, rightly deciding that this act would turn the majority of his subjects against him, decided to do the opposite - he presented Vasily with rich gifts and sent him to reign in Kolomna. However, this gesture good will did not bring visible results. On the contrary, people began to flock to Kolomna, dissatisfied with Yuri’s usurpation. Moscow was empty, and Kolomna instantly turned into new capital. Soon the new prince realizes that local population does not want to see him as a prince and returns the Moscow throne to Vasily.
However, his sons, Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, do not agree with this decision. Gathering an army, in 1434 they defeated Vasily’s army near Rostov and captured Moscow. Soon Yuri dies, and before his death he bequeaths Moscow to his son Vasily Kosoy.
Vasily's brothers, Dmitry Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny did not recognize the new ruler and entered into an alliance with Vasily the Dark. When the united troops of the princes approached, Vasily disappeared, taking the treasury with him. Having gathered a new army in Novgorod, Vasily Kosoy gave battle to Yuri near the Kotorosl River and was defeated. Vasily Kosoy requested a truce, but soon violated it himself, speaking at the position of Vasily II in Rostov. In 1436, a battle took place on the Cherek River, as a result of which Vasily Kosoy was defeated and captured. The prisoner was taken to Moscow, where he was blinded. His brother Dmitry, who was in captivity in Kolomna, was released by order of Vasily and endowed with the lands of his rebellious brother.
However, with the defeat of Vasily Kosoy, feudal strife in the Russian state did not stop. In 1439, the Kazan Khan Ulu-Mukhammed approached Moscow. Vasily II, Prince of Moscow, was unable to organize a successful defense of the capital and was forced to leave Moscow, while his ally, Dmitry Shemyaka, refused to come to the aid of his brother. This was the start of a new feudal war.
Vasily marched against them and suffered an absolute disaster at Suzdal and was captured. The Tatars set a huge ransom of 25,000 rubles for Vasily. Sophia, the prince's mother, was forced to introduce new taxes in the capital in order to collect the required ransom. Also, a number of cities in the Volga region were given to the Tatars for plunder, on the site of which the Kasimov kingdom arose, where the sons of Ulu-Muhammad ruled.
After gaining freedom, Vasily went to the Sergius Trinity Monastery to pray for his salvation. At the same moment, Dmitry Shemyaka treacherously captured Moscow, and then ordered Vasily to be brought to him. He blinded him just as the Moscow prince blinded his brother. This is the answer to the question why Vasily the Dark received such a nickname. However, Shemyaka could not reign calmly on the grand-ducal throne, since the capital’s nobility did not want to see him as their ruler. Many nobles fled to neighboring Lithuania, intending to wait until Vasily regained the throne.
Under these conditions, Shemyaka decided to appease his cousin, gave him Vologda as his possession and sent him rich gifts. However, Vasily decided not to trust his treacherous brother. Having secured the support of the Tver prince, as well as the Lithuanians, the prince opposed Shemyaka. Frightened by this army, the usurper fled to Kargopol in 1447. Vasily again took the grand-ducal throne and freed his wife from captivity and returned his mother, who had been sent into exile.
The newly created prince decided to put an end to the problem of succession to the throne once and for all. He enlisted the support of Metropolitan Jonah, who at the council of bishops condemned the “sedition of the Yuryevichs” and ordered to pursue Shemyaka wherever possible. Ultimately, Dmitry was overtaken in Novgorod and poisoned. After the death of Shemyaka, Vasily the Dark dealt with his allies, taking away their allotments and annexing them to Moscow. Novgorod was forced to pay 8,500 rubles as compensation.
With the accession of Vasily to the Moscow throne and the defeat of Shemyaka, the last feudal war in Russia and one of the last in Europe ended. Here it is important to determine why Vasily the Dark won. There are several reasons for this.
Firstly, Shemyaka’s cruelty and unscrupulousness did not correspond to Christian norms, which had great importance in that era. The Dark One was perceived as a martyr, and Shemyaka as an apostate and fratricide. In addition, the nobility and ordinary people perceived Vasily as a guarantor of stability and unity of the state.
Secondly, Vasily was able to eliminate the specific separatism of the boyars. He confiscated the land holdings of the boyars who supported the rebellious princes. The boyars extremely valued their lands, so such a policy forced them to remain loyal to the grand ducal throne.
Thirdly, Vasily was able to strengthen the authority of the Orthodox Church and gain its support. This was facilitated by the fact that in 1439 the Byzantine patriarch signed a union with the Catholic Church. The Russian Orthodox Church rejected this document because it did not want to become dependent on the Pope. As a result, the metropolitan in Rus' began to be elected through a council of bishops, and not by decree of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Subsequently, Moscow became associated with the “Third Rome,” a bastion of genuine Orthodoxy. And the prince began to be perceived as a conductor of this idea to the broad masses. The first independent metropolitan in Rus' was Jonah, who supported Vasily in the fight against the rebels.
This determined the victory of Vasily the Dark in the civil strife and allowed him to continue strengthening the Moscow principality, begun by his ancestors. During the reign of Vasily the Dark, almost all the surrounding lands were annexed to Moscow (in 1454 - Mozhaisk, in 1456 - Uglich and others). Influence in the subordinate Yaroslavl and Vyatka principalities was strengthened. In the annexed fiefs, Moscow proteges were appointed, the Grand Duke's seal was installed, and coins of Vasily the Dark were minted.
The process of annexing the Novgorod Republic to Moscow began. After the defeat of Shemyaka and his Novgorod supporters, the Yazhelbitsky Peace Treaty was signed between the veche and Vasily II, according to which the independence of the Novgorod Republic was greatly limited. Now Novgorod could not conduct an independent foreign policy and issue its own laws, and the seals of Novgorod officials were replaced by the seal of the Moscow prince.
At the same time, Vasily resolved the issue of succession to the throne. His son Ivan was declared co-ruler of Vasily and direct heir to the Moscow throne. Thus, Vasily approved the direct order of succession to the throne “from father to son.”
Concerning foreign policy, then two directions can be distinguished here. The first is relations with Lithuania. In 1449 it was concluded Eternal Peace with Lithuania, as a result of which both states renounced mutual territorial claims and pledged not to support internal political opponents. As for relations with the Horde, things were not so rosy. In the period from 1449 to 1459, the Horde repeatedly attacked Russian lands and plundered cities. The Russians succeeded with with varying success resist the attack of the Kazan and Crimean Khanates. However, already in 1447 Vasily stopped sending tribute to the Tatar-Mongols.
Until now, Vasily 2, whose domestic and foreign policy was aimed at strengthening the Moscow principality and centralizing the lands around his inheritance, remains a controversial personality. Some researchers believe that he did not possess any political or military qualities, and his successes are the fruits of a successful coincidence of circumstances. Other historians are inclined to argue that Vasily II made a great contribution to strengthening the role of Moscow and consolidating the lands around it.
Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark (March 10, 1415 - March 27, 1462) - Grand Duke of Moscow from 1425, fifth (youngest) son of the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow Vasily I Dmitrievich and Sofia Vitovtovna /
Power struggle
Civil war in Muscovite Rus' (1425-1453)
After the death in 1430 of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas, the grandfather of Vasily II, a coalition of appanage princes led by his uncle, Prince of Zvenigorod Yuri Dmitrievich and his sons Vasily Kosy and Dmitry Shemyaka, opposed him. During the war, complicated by the simultaneous struggle with Kazan and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the grand ducal throne passed several times to the Galician princes, who were supported by Novgorod and temporarily Tver.
Expelled from Moscow in 1433 by Yuri, who seized the Grand Duke's throne, Vasily II received the title of Prince of Kolomna. “This city became the true capital of the great reign, both crowded and noisy,” historian N.M. Karamzin describes Kolomna of that time. Kolomna served as the center of united forces that sympathized with the Grand Duke in his policy of “gathering Rus'.” Many residents left Moscow, refusing to serve Prince Yuri, and headed to Kolomna. The streets of Kolomna were filled with carts, the city for some time turned into the capital of North-Eastern Rus' with almost the entire administrative, economic and political staff. Having received support, Vasily was able to regain his throne, but during the war he was deprived of it several more times.
Karl Goon. “Grand Duchess Sofia Vitovtovna at the wedding of Grand Duke Vasily the Dark”, (1861), oil on canvas, Vytautas the Great Military Museum, Kaunas, Lithuania
On July 7, 1445, in a battle near Suzdal, Vasily II with the united Russian troops was defeated by the Kazan army, under the command of the Kazan princes Mahmud and Yakub (sons of Khan Ulu-Mukhammed), as a result Vasily II himself and his cousin Mikhail Vereisky were taken captured, but on October 1, 1445, they were released. There are no exact data on the conditions of this release, but it was a large amount, and a number of cities were also given over to feed.
Also, under the terms of this enslaving agreement, according to some sources, the Kasimov Khanate was created within Russia, in Meshchera, the first khan of which was the son of Ulu-Muhammad, Prince Kasim.
Boris Chorikov. Princes and boyars volunteer to return the Grand Duke's throne to Vasily the Dark, 1446
In 1446, Vasily II was captured in the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and on February 16 at night on behalf of Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaka, Ivan Mozhaisky and Boris Tverskoy, who, as historian N.M. Karamzin writes, told him to say “Why do you love the Tatars and give them Russians?” cities to feed? Why do you shower the infidels with Christian silver and gold? Why do you exhaust the people with taxes? Why did you blind our brother, Vasily Kosoy?” In 1447, Vasily visited the Ferapontov Monastery and received the blessing of Abbot Martinian for a campaign against Dmitry Shemyaka, who had captured Moscow. With great difficulty he regained the Moscow throne.
Foreign policy
Relations with Lithuania and Novgorod
After the invasion of the troops of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas into the Pskov land in 1426, Vytautas, without achieving success, began negotiations with the Pskovites, allies of Vasily II. In order to soften the terms of peace, Vasily sent his ambassador Alexander Vladimirovich Lykov to Vytautas. Relations between Pskov and Lithuania, however, continued to remain tense even after the truce.
Understanding the inevitability of a new clash with Vasily Kosy, Vasily II tried to normalize relations with the Novgorod Republic. In the winter of 1435-1436. he ceded part of the disputed lands to the Novgorodians, pledging to send his people to delimit the lands. After the victory over Vasily Kosy, the Grand Duke refused to fulfill his previous obligations. Nevertheless, the Novgorodians, wanting to maintain their independence in international relations, did not resist Moscow’s policies (thus, in the spring of 1437, Novgorod, without resistance, paid Moscow the “black forest” - one of the heaviest taxes).
In 1440, after the death of Grand Duke Sigismund at the hands of conspirators, Kazimir Jagailovich (since 1447 - the Polish king) ascended the Lithuanian throne. Soon a quarrel broke out in Lithuania between Prince Yuri Semenovich (Lugvenievich) and Casimir IV. Yuri, who was entrenched in Smolensk, was knocked out by Kazimir after the first unsuccessful attempt, and Yuri fled to Moscow. The “pro-Russian” party of Lithuania was among the opponents of Casimir IV.
The Novgorodians and Pskovites hastened to conclude agreements with Casimir IV. In response to this, Vasily II launched a campaign against the Novgorod Republic in the winter of 1440-1441. His Pskov allies ravaged the Novgorod land. Vasily II captured Demon and destroyed a number of Novgorod volosts. In response to this, the Novgorodians also organized a series of ruinous campaigns into the grand ducal possessions. Soon, Novgorod Archbishop Euthymius and the Grand Duke (together with the Pskovites) concluded a peace treaty, according to which Novgorod paid Moscow a huge ransom (8,000 rubles).
The foreign policy isolation of Dmitry Shemyaka and the Novgorod Republic, in which he strengthened himself after the loss of the Moscow reign, was facilitated by the peace treaty of Vasily II with the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV in 1449. In 1453, Dmitry Shemyaka was poisoned, and in 1456, the Novgorod Republic was forced to recognize its dependence on Moscow under the Yazhelbitsky Treaty.
At the same time, Vasily pledged not to support Mikhail Sigismundovich, who, after the death of his father and Svidrigail Olgerdovich, headed that part of the Lithuanian-Russian nobility that opposed the growing influence of the Polish feudal lords and catholic church on the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and recognized the power of Casimir in all Russian-Lithuanian lands.
Relations with the Horde
Relations between the Moscow Principality and the Horde were also tense. After a difficult war with Prince Seyid-Akhmet, Ulu-Muhammad settled with small forces near the town of Belev, a vassal of Lithuania. Due to the importance of the city in economic and strategic relations, Vasily II in 1437 sent troops against the khan led by Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaki and Dmitry Yuryevich the Red. Covering their path with robberies and robberies, the princes, having reached Belev, overthrew the Tatars, forcing them to seek refuge in the city. Despite the fact that the attempt to capture the city for the Moscow governors was unsuccessful, the next day the Tatars began negotiations. Relying on their own strength, the governors broke off negotiations and resumed the battle on December 5. The Russian regiments were defeated. The troops of Ulu-Muhammad retreated from Belev.
Impressed by the success at Belev, Ulu-Muhammad approached Moscow on July 3, 1439. Vasily II, not ready to repel enemy troops, left Moscow, entrusting responsibilities for the defense of the city to the governor Yuri Patrikeevich. Having failed to take possession of the city, Ulu-Mukhammed, having stood near Moscow for 10 days, turned back, plundering the surrounding area.
Tatar raids on Russian lands did not stop, becoming more frequent at the end of 1443 due to severe frosts. In the end, the recent enemy of Rus', Tsarevich Mustafa, due to difficult living conditions in the steppe, settled in Ryazan. Not wanting to tolerate the presence of the Tatars on his lands, Vasily II went on a campaign against uninvited guests, and the united Russian-Mordovian troops defeated the Tatar army on the Listani River. Prince Mustafa was killed. It was during this battle that Fyodor Vasilyevich Basyonok distinguished himself for the first time.
By the mid-1440s, Ulu-Muhammad's raids on Rus' became noticeably more frequent, and in 1444 the khan began to make plans to annex Nizhny Novgorod, which was facilitated by the close ties of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod princes with the Horde. A fierce struggle developed between the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II and the Kazan Khan for Nizhny Novgorod, which was then a rich Volga city and an important strategic center. In the winter of 1444, the Khan, having captured Nizhny Novgorod, advanced even further, capturing Murom. In response to these actions, Vasily II gathered troops and set out from Moscow during Epiphany. Vasily II, according to chronicle sources, had impressive forces, and therefore the khan did not dare to engage in battle and retreated to Nizhny Novgorod. Soon the city was recaptured, and the Tatars were defeated near Murom and Gorokhovets. Having successfully completed the campaign, the Grand Duke returned to Moscow.
In the spring of 1445, Khan Ulu-Mukhammed sent his sons Mamutyak and Yakub on a campaign against Rus'. Having learned about this, Vasily II did not attach any importance to this event, as he was reassured by the successes of the previous year. From Moscow, the Grand Duke set out for Yuryev, where the governors Fyodor Dolgoldov and Yuri Dranitsa then arrived, leaving Nizhny Novgorod. The campaign was poorly organized: princes Ivan and Mikhail Andreevich and Vasily Yaroslavich arrived to the Grand Duke with small forces, and Dmitry Shemyaka did not take part in the campaign at all. The army of the Grand Duke suffered a catastrophic defeat in the battle of Suzdal. Vasily II was captured, but was released on October 1. Dmitry Shemyaka briefly established himself on the throne. A large ransom was promised for Vasily II. In addition, the Tatar feudal lords were given “feedings” - the right to extort from the population of Rus'. On November 17, 1445, Vasily II returned to Moscow, but was met coldly, aloof and hostile.
Results of the board]
Vasily II eliminated almost all small fiefs within the Moscow principality and strengthened the grand-ducal power. As a result of a series of campaigns in 1441-1460, the dependence on Moscow of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality, the Novgorod land, Pskov and the Vyatka land increased. By order of Vasily II, Russian Bishop Jonah was elected metropolitan (1448). He was ordained metropolitan not by the Patriarch of Constantinople, but by a council of Russian bishops, which marked the beginning of the independence of the Russian Church from the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
A few days before his death, he ordered the execution of the children of the boyars of Prince Vasily, suspected of conspiracy.
Vasily II was sick with dry disease (tuberculosis). He ordered to treat himself in the usual way at that time: light the lamp several times. different parts tinder bodies. This naturally did not help, and gangrene developed in the places of numerous burns and he died in March 1462.
Ivan III Vasilievich(also known as Ivan the Great; January 22, 1440 - October 27, 1505) - Grand Duke of Moscow from 1462 to 1505, son of the Moscow Grand Duke Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark.
During the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich, a significant part of the Russian lands around Moscow was united and turned into the center of the all-Russian state. The final liberation of the country from the power of the Horde khans was achieved; The Code of Laws, a set of state laws, was adopted, and a number of reforms were carried out that laid the foundations for the local land tenure system.
Accession to the Grand Duke's throne
In subsequent years, Prince Ivan becomes his father's co-ruler. The inscription “Ospodari of All Rus'” appears on the coins of the Moscow State; he himself, like his father, Vasily, bears the title “Grand Duke”. For two years, the prince, as an appanage prince, ruled Pereslavl-Zalessky, one of the key cities of the Moscow state. Military campaigns, where he is the nominal commander, play an important role in the education of the heir to the throne. So, in 1455, Ivan, together with the experienced governor Fyodor Basenko, made a victorious campaign against the Tatars who had invaded Rus'. In August 1460, he led the army of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, closing the path to Moscow to the Tatars of Khan Akhmat who invaded Rus' and besieged Pereyaslavl-Ryazan.
In March 1462, Ivan's father, Grand Duke Vasily, became seriously ill. Shortly before this, he drew up a will, according to which he divided the grand-ducal lands between his sons. As the eldest son, Ivan received not only the great reign, but also the bulk of the territory of the state - 16 main cities (not counting Moscow, which he was supposed to own together with his brothers). Only 12 cities were bequeathed to the remaining children of Vasily; Moreover, most of the former capitals of appanage principalities (in particular, Galich - former capital Dmitry Shemyaka) went to the new Grand Duke. When Vasily died on March 27, 1462, Ivan without any problems became the new Grand Duke and carried out the will of his father, allocating lands to his brothers according to the will.
Foreign policy
Throughout the reign of Ivan III, the main goal of the country's foreign policy was the unification of northeastern Rus' into a single state. It should be noted that this policy turned out to be extremely successful. At the beginning of Ivan's reign, the Moscow principality was surrounded by the lands of other Russian principalities; dying, he handed over to his son Vasily the country that united most of these principalities. Only Pskov, Ryazan, Volokolamsk and Novgorod-Seversky retained relative (not too broad) independence.
Starting from the reign of Ivan III, relations with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania became particularly acute. Moscow's desire to unite the Russian lands was clearly in conflict with Lithuanian interests, and constant border skirmishes and the transfer of border princes and boyars between states did not contribute to reconciliation. Meanwhile, successes in the expansion of the country also contributed to the growth of international relations with European countries.
During the reign of Ivan III, the final formalization of the independence of the Russian state took place. The already fairly nominal dependence on the Horde ceases. The government of Ivan III strongly supports the opponents of the Horde among the Tatars; in particular, an alliance was concluded with the Crimean Khanate. It turned out to be successful east direction foreign policy: combining diplomacy and military force, Ivan III introduces the Kazan Khanate into the wake of Moscow politics.
"Gathering Lands"
Having become the Grand Duke, Ivan III began his foreign policy activities by confirming previous agreements with neighboring princes and generally strengthening his position. Thus, agreements were concluded with the Tver and Belozersky principalities; Prince Vasily Ivanovich, married to the sister of Ivan III, was placed on the throne of the Ryazan principality.
Beginning in the 1470s, activities aimed at annexing the remaining Russian principalities intensified sharply. The first was the Yaroslavl principality, which finally lost the remnants of independence in 1471, after the death of Prince Alexander Fedorovich. The heir of the last Yaroslavl prince, Prince Daniil Penko, went into the service of Ivan III and later received the rank of boyar. In 1472, Prince Yuri Vasilyevich of Dmitrov, Ivan’s brother, died. The Principality of Dmitrov passed to the Grand Duke; however, the rest of the brothers of the deceased Prince Yuri opposed this. The brewing conflict was hushed up not without the help of Vasily’s widow, Maria Yaroslavna, who did everything to quell the quarrel between the children. As a result, Yuri’s smaller brothers also received part of Yuri’s lands.
In 1474 it was the turn of the Rostov principality. In fact, it was part of the Moscow Principality before: the Grand Duke was a co-owner of Rostov. Now the Rostov princes sold “their half” of the principality to the treasury, thus finally turning into a serving nobility. The Grand Duke transferred what he received to his mother's inheritance.
Annexation of Novgorod
Main articles: Moscow-Novgorod War (1471), Moscow-Novgorod War (1477-1478)
Painting by K. V. Lebedev “Martha the Posadnitsa. Destruction of the Novgorod veche"
The situation with Novgorod developed differently, which is explained by the difference in the nature of the statehood of the appanage principalities and the trade-aristocratic Novgorod state. The clear threat to independence from the Moscow Grand Duke led to the formation of an influential anti-Moscow party. It was headed by the energetic widow of the mayor Marfa Boretskaya and her sons. The obvious superiority of Moscow forced supporters of independence to search for allies, primarily in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, in the conditions of hostility between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, an appeal to the Catholic Casimir, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was received extremely ambiguously by the evening, and the Orthodox Prince Mikhail Olelkovich, son of Prince of Kyiv and cousin of Ivan III, who arrived on November 8, 1470. However, due to the death of the Novgorod Archbishop Jonah, who invited Mikhail, and the subsequent aggravation of the internal political struggle, the prince did not stay in the Novgorod land for long, and already on March 15, 1471 he left the city. The anti-Moscow party managed to win a major success in the internal political struggle: an embassy was sent to Lithuania, after the return of which a draft agreement was drawn up with Grand Duke Casimir. According to this agreement, Novgorod, while recognizing the power of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, nevertheless kept its state structure intact; Lithuania pledged to help in the fight against the Principality of Moscow. A clash with Ivan III became inevitable.
On June 6, 1471, a detachment of ten thousand Moscow troops under the command of Danila Kholmsky set out from the capital in the direction of the Novgorod land, a week later the army of Striga Obolensky set out on a campaign, and on June 20, 1471, Ivan III himself began a campaign from Moscow. The advance of Moscow troops through the lands of Novgorod was accompanied by robberies and violence designed to intimidate the enemy.
Novgorod also did not sit idle. A militia was formed from the townspeople, and the mayors Dmitry Boretsky and Vasily Kazimir took command. The size of this army reached forty thousand people, but its combat effectiveness, due to the haste of its formation from townspeople not trained in military affairs, remained low. In July 1471, the Novgorod army advanced in the direction of Pskov, with the goal of preventing the Pskov army, allied to the Moscow prince, from connecting with the main forces of Novgorod’s opponents. On the Sheloni River, the Novgorodians unexpectedly encountered Kholmsky’s detachment. On July 14, a battle began between the opponents.
During the Battle of Shelon, the Novgorod army was completely defeated. The losses of the Novgorodians amounted to 12 thousand people, about two thousand people were captured; Dmitry Boretsky and three other boyars were executed. The city found itself under siege; among the Novgorodians themselves, the pro-Moscow party gained the upper hand and began negotiations with Ivan III. On August 11, 1471, a peace treaty was concluded, according to which Novgorod was obliged to pay an indemnity of 16,000 rubles, retained its state structure, but could not “surrender” to the rule of the Lithuanian Grand Duke; A significant part of the vast Dvina land was ceded to the Grand Duke of Moscow. One of the key issues in relations between Novgorod and Moscow was the issue of judicial power. In the autumn of 1475, the Grand Duke arrived in Novgorod, where he personally dealt with a number of cases of unrest; Some anti-Moscow opposition figures were declared guilty. In fact, during this period, a judicial dual power developed in Novgorod: a number of complainants were sent directly to Moscow, where they presented their claims. It was this situation that led to the emergence of a reason for new war which ended with the fall of Novgorod.
In the spring of 1477, a number of complainants from Novgorod gathered in Moscow. Among these people were two minor officials - the sub-troop Nazar and the clerk Zakhary. In presenting their case, they called the Grand Duke “sovereign” instead of the traditional address “master,” which assumed the equality of “Mr. Grand Duke” and “Mr. of Great Novgorod.” Moscow immediately seized on this pretext; Ambassadors were sent to Novgorod, demanding official recognition of the title of sovereign, the final transfer of the court into the hands of the Grand Duke, as well as the establishment of a Grand Duke's residence in the city. The veche, after listening to the ambassadors, refused to accept the ultimatum and began preparations for war.
On October 9, 1477, the grand ducal army set out on a campaign against Novgorod. It was joined by the troops of the allies - Tver and Pskov. The siege of the city that began revealed deep divisions among the defenders: supporters of Moscow insisted on peace negotiations with the Grand Duke. One of the supporters of concluding peace was the Novgorod Archbishop Theophilus, which gave the opponents of the war a certain advantage, expressed in sending an embassy to the Grand Duke with the archbishop at its head. But the attempt to come to an agreement on the same terms was not crowned with success: on behalf of the Grand Duke, strict demands were made to the ambassadors (“I will ring the bell in our fatherland in Novgorod, there will be no mayor, and we will keep our state”), which actually meant the end of Novgorod independence. Such a clearly expressed ultimatum led to the outbreak of new unrest in the city; Because of the city walls, high-ranking boyars began moving to the headquarters of Ivan III, including the military leader of the Novgorodians, Prince Vasily Grebenka-Shuisky. As a result, it was decided to give in to Moscow’s demands, and on January 15, 1478, Novgorod surrendered, the veche rules were abolished, and the veche bell and the city archive were sent to Moscow.
Death of the Grand Duke
In the summer of 1503, Ivan III became seriously ill. Shortly before this (April 7, 1503), his wife, Sophia Paleologus, died. Leaving his affairs, the Grand Duke went on a trip to the monasteries, starting with the Trinity-Sergius. However, his condition continued to deteriorate: he became blind in one eye; partial paralysis of one arm and one leg occurred. On October 27, 1505, Grand Duke Ivan III died. According to V.N. Tatishchev (however, it is unclear how reliable), the Grand Duke, having called his confessor and metropolitan to his bed before his death, nevertheless refused to take monastic vows. As the chronicle noted, “the sovereign of all Russia was in the state of the Grand Duchess... 43 years and 7 months, and all the years of his life were 65 and 9 months.” After the death of Ivan III, a traditional amnesty was carried out. The Grand Duke was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.
According to the spiritual charter, the grand-ducal throne passed to Vasily Ivanovich, the other sons of Ivan received appanage cities. However, although the appanage system was actually restored, it was significantly different from the previous period: the new Grand Duke received much more lands, rights and benefits than his brothers; The contrast with what Ivan himself received at one time is especially noticeable. V. O. Klyuchevsky noted the following advantages of the grand ducal share:
The Grand Duke now owned the capital alone, giving his brothers 100 rubles from his income (previously, the heirs owned the capital jointly)
The right of court in Moscow and the Moscow region now belonged only to the Grand Duke (previously, each of the princes had such a right in his part of the villages near Moscow)
Only the Grand Duke now had the right to mint coins
Now the possessions of the appanage prince who died childless passed directly to the Grand Duke (previously such lands were divided between the remaining brothers at the discretion of the mother).
Thus, the restored appanage system was noticeably different from the appanage system of previous times: in addition to increasing the grand ducal share during the division of the country (Vasily received more than 60 cities, and his four brothers got no more than 30), the Grand Duke also concentrated political advantages in his hands.
REFORM OF THE ELECTED RADA
The turbulent events of 1547 necessitated deep state reforms. Soon a group of people close to him formed around the young king, which one of its members, Prince A.M. Kurbsky, later called the Chosen Rada.
At the head of this circle of serving nobility and courtiers stood a nobleman from a wealthy but humble family, A.F. Adashev and archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin Sylvester. They were joined by the noble princes A. Kurbsky, N. Odoevsky, M. Vorotynsky and others. The Rada also included the first head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, Duma clerk I.M. Viscous. Metropolitan Macarius actively supported the activities of this circle.
While not formally a state institution, the Elected Rada was, in fact, the government of Russia and for 13 years governed the state on behalf of the Tsar, consistently implementing a series of major reforms. In their content, these transformations coincided with the demands of the petitions addressed to the Tsar, which were written in 1549 by the talented publicist nobleman Ivan Peresvetov. He advocated a decisive strengthening of the foundations of the Russian state.
The new Code of Law, which was adopted in 1550, was also in line with centralization. It was based on the Code of Law of 1497, but included more streamlined articles on the rules for the transfer of peasants, limited the rights of governors, toughened penalties for robbery, and introduced articles on punishment for bribery. Changes and additions were made to the Code of Laws related to the strengthening of central power: control over governors, collection of a single state duty, and the right to collect trade duties (tamgas) passed to the tsarist administration. The population had to bear the tax - a combination of natural and monetary duties.
In the middle of the 16th century, a uniform measure for collecting taxes was established for the entire state - “plow” (a land unit that depended on the position of the owner and the quality of the land, on average from 400 to 600 hectares).
In order to strengthen the armed forces, in 1550 the government of Ivan IV began to implement military reforms. Thus, localism (the procedure for filling positions in the army depending on nobility) was abolished for the duration of the campaigns.
In the Moscow district, in accordance with the decree of Ivan IV of October 1, 1550, the “chosen thousand” were “placed” - 1078 provincial nobles, “best servants”, who were supposed to form the core of the noble militia, the support of autocratic power. (This project apparently was never fully realized.)
Finally, a uniform order of passage was determined military service: “by homeland” (by origin) and “by device” (by set). Nobles and boyar children (small feudal lords in the service of princes and boyars) served “in the homeland.” The service was regulated by the “Code of Service” published in 1556; it was inherited and began at the age of 15. Until this age, a nobleman was considered a minor. This category of service people was formally provided with a salary of 150 to 450 acres of land in three fields and from 4 to 7 rubles. in year. In fact, the state did not have that kind of money or that much free land. For every 150 acres of land, the boyars and nobles had to field one warrior “on horseback and in arms”; in case of failure, a fine was imposed.
In 1550, a rifle army was formed from among the service people “according to the instrument”, which had both firearms (squeaks) and bladed weapons (reeds and sabers). At first, 3 thousand people were recruited into the archers, who were consolidated into 6 “orders” (regiments). They formed the king's personal guard. By the end of the 16th century, the permanent Streltsy army numbered up to 25 thousand people, who were the most powerful fighting force of the Russian army. The “instrument people” also included Cossacks, gunners, collar workers, state blacksmiths and some others. While serving in cities and on the borders, “instrument people” settled in separate settlements, receiving collective land “dachas” for their service, and also, extremely rarely, grain and cash salaries. Foreigners (Poles and Germans) were also hired into military service, whose number in the Russian army by the end of the 16th century was about 2.5 thousand people.