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1855 On March 2 (February 18, old style), Emperor Alexander II ascended the Russian throne
“During his lifetime, Emperor Nicholas completely overshadowed and suppressed his son with his personality. He always remained only an obedient executor of his parent’s will, but on February 18, 1855, Nikolai died suddenly. The next day Alexander ascended the throne. He took power at a difficult moment, when it was obvious to everyone that Russia was doomed to defeat in the Crimean War. Amazement, resentment, pain, anger and irritation reigned in society. The first years of his reign became a harsh school of political education for Alexander. It was then that he fully felt all the discontent accumulated in society and drank all the bitterness of cruel and fair criticism.
Not immediately, but only after much hesitation and mistakes, he came across the road that Russia was supposed to take. At first, no intention to carry out reforms is visible in Alexander at all. The day after taking power, February 19, 1855, he declared in State Council, which recognizes itself as a successor to the “wishes and views” of “our unforgettable parent,” and on February 23, at a reception of the diplomatic corps, it definitely promised to adhere to the political principles of its father and uncle. He did not even want to hear about the conclusion of peace, rightly considering the proposed conditions humiliating and unacceptable for Russia. But his firmness could not last long - the circumstances were too unfavorable to rule in the old way. Sevastopol fell in August - it was terrible blow. They say that Alexander cried when he received the fatal news. He himself went south, observed the construction of bastions around Nikolaev, examined the fortifications around Ochakov and Odessa, and visited the main army headquarters in Bakhchisarai. But all efforts were in vain. Russia could not continue the war. On international arena she found herself isolated, her internal strength was undermined, discontent swept through all layers of society.
Possessing a sound and sober mind, a certain flexibility, and not at all prone to fanaticism, Alexander, under the pressure of circumstances and without any program, began to make new decisions that did not fit into old system and even directly opposite to it. He took the path of liberation reforms not because of his convictions, but as a military man on the throne, who realized the “lessons” of the Crimean War, as an emperor and autocrat, for whom the prestige and greatness of the state stood above all else.
The contours of this new course emerged gradually. On December 3, 1855, the Supreme Censorship Committee was closed. The ban imposed by Nicholas 1 on the printed word was lifted - so great was the need of society to speak out. One after another, new independent publications began to emerge. Glasnost was the first manifestation of the thaw that came soon after Alexander's accession to the throne. The restrictions introduced in universities after 1848 were also abolished.
In March 1856, with the active participation of Prince Gorchakov, the Peace of Paris was concluded. It cost Russia the Black Sea Fleet, but it was still much less shameful than one might have expected. Soon after the signing of peace, the remaining military settlements were abolished, and the period of military service was reduced from 25 to 15 years.
August 14 royal family From the Nikolaevsky station she went by train to Moscow and on August 26, the coronation took place in the Assumption Cathedral. On the occasion of the holiday, Alexander abolished conscription for three years, forgave arrears, amnestied or eased the fate of a large number of criminals, including the Decembrists. The surviving participants in the uprising were given back their estates and titles.”
Quoted from: Ryzhov K.V. All the monarchs of the world. Russia. 600 short biographies. M.: Veche, 1999
History in faces
Prince V.P. Meshchersky, memories:
...Having, one might say, unconsciously assimilated the entire stronghold of autocracy in such a school as the reign of Nicholas I, he, Alexander II, did not for a moment doubt the right and power to do whatever he wanted, but at the same time this unconscious assimilation Nicholas's autocracy and this ignorance of Russian life resulted in the fact that he could not verify the biased and false accusations raised by liberals during the reign of his father, which did not distinguish accidents and trifles from those foundations, institutions and principles that constituted not only the strength of his power, but were the needs of his people, and he did not know how to defend these foundations of the Russian system as inviolable at that moment when the liberals wanted to make the entire reign of Nicholas and the entire internal structure of the state responsible for various random ailments of Russian life...
Quoted from: Meshchersky V.P. My memories. St. Petersburg, 1898. Part 2. p.506
The world at this time
In 1855, Henry Palmerston becomes Prime Minister of Great Britain.Portrait of Lord Palmerston. M. Claxton. 1855
“Palmerston, Henry John Temple (1784-1865), Viscount, English statesman and diplomat.
Palmerston entered the House of Commons in 1807 as a Tory member from the "rotten town" of Newtown (on the Isle of Wight). Thanks to his connections, he was appointed Junior Lord of the Admiralty in 1808, and in 1809 he took the post of Assistant Secretary of War. He remained in this post for 20 years, never speaking on issues foreign policy. In 1830, Palmerston joined the Whig Party, declaring himself a supporter of electoral reform. Prime Minister Lord Gray gave him the post of Foreign Secretary. In 1830-41 and 1846-51, Palmerston was at the head of the foreign department, but even after that, as Minister of the Interior and then Prime Minister, he continued to lead English foreign policy - until his death.
Palmerston considered it useful for the interests of England to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, which represented a profitable market for English goods, a source of raw materials and a military-political barrier against both Russia and France in its attempts to gain a foothold in Egypt. At the same time, Palmerston considered the territory of the Ottoman Empire as a convenient springboard for further expansion of England in the East. The principle of “integrity” of the Ottoman Empire put forward by England did not prevent the British from seizing Aden in 1839 and striving to establish their dominance over other Ottoman possessions as well. Palmerston always considered Russia to be England's main enemy. Following the example of Pitt the Younger, whose student he called himself, Palmerston covered up his service to the interests of English expansion with pompous speeches about the “defense of civilization.” Just at the beginning of the 30s, Anglo-Russian contradictions began to worsen in connection with the successes that Russian diplomacy had achieved in the Middle East by that time. In an effort to deprive Russia of its predominant position in Turkey, Palmerston set as his main diplomatic task the “dissolution” of the Unkar-Iskeles Treaty into an “agreement of more general", that is, providing the Sultan with collective assistance instead of assistance from Russia alone. By this, he simultaneously tied the hands of France, which supported Muhammad Ali against the Sultan. Palmerston largely achieved his goals by concluding two London Conventions - 1840 and 1841. Methods, to which Palmerston resorted to in negotiations, especially his rude manners, arrogant, commanding tone, aimed at intimidating the enemy, created constant tension in relations between England and other powers. Palmerston was spoken of as a warmonger, as a “dangerous minister.”
After the fall of the Melbourne ministry (1841), Palmerston was in opposition for 5 years. When a new Whig government was created in July 1846, Palmerston again became Foreign Minister, and it was officially stated that the Prime Minister would strictly control his actions. In reality, this control, however, was not exercised, for it was Palmerston who was the faithful exponent of the predatory aspirations of the English bourgeoisie. This was especially clearly demonstrated in his sensational speech in the House of Commons about the actions of the English fleet against Greece in order to support the monetary claims of the financier-adventurer Don Pacifico (1850). In this five-hour speech, Palmerston set out with complete frankness the basic principles of British foreign policy. An English subject, he argued, is a kind of citizen of the ancient Roman Empire. Strong hand The British government must provide him with patronage and protection in every corner of the globe. The English bourgeoisie has since begun to revere Palmerston as a national figure, calling him “the great Pam.” Palmerston applied the same policy of protecting English colonial robbers in the “opium war” he started with China (1839-42).
Hiding behind sanctimonious phrases about his commitment to democratic principles, Palmerston played a deeply reactionary role in relation to democratic movements on the continent. For a number of years, the English police, on Palmerston's orders, monitored the correspondence of emigrants, revealed their plans to the governments and expelled them under all sorts of pretexts. Palmerston's overt reactionary behavior sometimes compromised his party. After he (in December 1851) behind the back of his government expressed French Ambassador satisfaction with the coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon and at the same time condemned in harsh terms English Ambassador In Paris, because he did not rush to congratulate the new dictator of France on the successful outcome of his adventure, Palmerston was dismissed from the cabinet. This incident ended his career as Foreign Minister.
In the cabinet of Lord Aberdeen (1852-55), Palmerston served as Home Secretary. In the years leading up to the war with Russia, Palmerston exerted provocative pressure on the government. The Minister of Foreign Affairs was Lord Clarendon, who was completely under the influence of P. Palmerston’s personal friend Stratford-Canning was appointed Ambassador to Turkey with broad powers, who used the method of direct falsification to aggravate the Russian-Turkish conflict (informing London about the contents of the Russian note to Turkey, Stratford replaced in the English translation of the words of this note about the right of Russia to “make representations” with the words “to give orders”). Turkey's declaration of war on Russia in October 1853 was the result of direct incitement by Palmerston's agents. For tactical reasons, in order to further consolidate his influence in the cabinet, Palmerston suddenly resigned in December 1853. This was followed by a stormy newspaper campaign staged by him in favor of the “honest patriot” who was “survived from the government.” Palmerston soon returned to the office in triumph, which predetermined the entry of England, and with it France, into the war. Being the soul of the anti-Russian coalition, into which he wanted to involve all of Europe, Palmerston drew up broad plans for the dismemberment of Russia. The 11-month heroic defense of Sevastopol thwarted these plans and caused discord between the allies. The French, who suffered colossal losses, were not averse to finding a way out of the war. But Palmerston, who became prime minister in February 1855, made every effort to prolong the war and implement his plan to weaken Russia. At the Paris Congress of 1856, Palmerston sought to impose the most difficult and humiliating conditions on Russia. The art of Russian diplomacy, which managed to defeat the united front of its opponents, largely neutralized Palmerston’s plans.”
Quoted in: Diplomatic Dictionary. Ed. A. Ya. Vyshinsky and S. A. Lozovsky. M.: Ogiz, 1948
Forgotten History Russian revolution. From Alexander I to Vladimir Putin Kalyuzhny Dmitry Vitalievich
Alexander II (1855–1881)
Alexander II (1855–1881)
On February 18, 1855, 37-year-old Alexander II ascended the Russian throne. The situation in the country was crisis. The requisitions of food, horses and fodder carried out during the Crimean War, and especially the recruitment drives, which reduced the number of workers by 10%, had severe consequences on the economy of the village.
Alexander II
1855 .– Publication of the first issue of the dissident magazine “Polar Star” abroad.
1855 . – Reduced term military service from 20 to 12 years.
1857, January 3 . - Creation of a Secret Committee “to discuss measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.”
The landowners of the black earth provinces, who owned expensive land and kept the peasants in corvée, wanted to retain the maximum possible amount of land and retain workers. In the industrial non-chernozem obroch provinces, landowners wanted to receive funds to rebuild their farms in a bourgeois manner. And the emerging bourgeoisie demanded hired workers. In general, all social structures of the country had their own, often opposing interests, centered on human resource, more precisely, due to its lack, and the state had to synchronize these opposing interests this way or that.
In such conditions, in 1857, by decree of Alexander II, the Secret Committee on the Peasant Question began to work, which subsequently led to the abolition of serfdom.
1859, March 4 .– Start of work of editorial commissions to develop the Regulations on Peasants.
1859, March 16 . – Permission for Jewish merchants of the 1st guild to live outside the Pale of Settlement.
On February 19, 1861, the emperor signed a number of laws. Here were the Manifesto and the Regulations on the granting of freedom to peasants, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc. The abolition of serfdom did not become a one-time event: first, landowner peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories.
This story is quite well known. Therefore, we will limit ourselves to talking about what is not very widely known.
Many believe that before 1861 serfs made up the majority Russian population. Nothing like this. According to the last revision of 1858–1859 before the liberation of the peasants, 60 million people lived in Russia. Of these, 12 million were free: nobles, clergy and townspeople, individual peasants, Cossacks, etc. There were about a million nobles of both sexes. The rest were divided approximately equally into two categories rural residents: state peasants, although attached to the land, were not considered serfs, and landowner peasants, sitting on private land and personally enslaved. So, serfs in the strict sense of the word made up a little more than a third of the empire's population.
It should be said that the serf was not a slave, and the estate was not a plantation. Russian serfdom began to be mistakenly identified with slavery only two hundred years ago, and we owe this to Alexander Radishchev. Mentions of serfdom in his “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” (1790) were the first attempt to establish an analogy between serfdom and slavery by emphasizing certain features (for example, the lack of marriage rights) that were, in fact, characteristic of both. The critical literature of subsequent decades, written by authors raised in the Western spirit, made this analogy commonplace, and from them it was adopted by Russian and Western thought.
Meanwhile, almost half of the serfs were tenants and paid rent. They could go in all four directions and return whenever they wanted; they were free to choose what they liked, and the landowner did not interfere in their lives. Everything for them serfdom came down to the payment of a firmly established quitrent or, as a tax, a share of earnings to the nobles who owned the land to which they were assigned. This is how we pay taxes now!
They say that the landowner could punish them - yes, but for guilt and with the consent of the gathering. They say that the landowner had the right to hand over disobedient peasants to the authorities to be sent into Siberian exile. It was right. And here is the practice: between 1822 and 1833, over twelve years, 1,283 peasants were subjected to such punishment, one hundred per year. For more than twenty million landowner peasants, this is not such a stunning figure. And it’s quite possible that they were exiled for their cause!
It seems to us more important that many nobles, especially the richest, lived in luxury at the expense of the serfs, not caring about the interests of not only “their people,” but also the country. Free income spoiled the Russian nobility to such an extent that when credit institutions appeared that issued loans secured by estates, landowners rushed to borrow, including “for peasants.” (Gogol wrote about this in his “ Dead Souls".) By 1859, 66% of serfs in Russia were mortgaged and remortgaged with credit institutions (in some provinces this figure reached 90%).
If the farm is run properly, secured loans are used either to introduce necessary improvements or to expand the farm with new purchases. The Russian nobility borrowed for their own pleasure, for the needs of personal comfort. Noble loans tended to gradually turn from long-term into eternal, and borrowed money, once leaving the banks’ cash desks, never returned there.
Some nobles, having moved abroad, amazed Europeans with their extravagance. One Russian aristocrat lived for some time in a small German town and amused himself by sending his servants to the market in the morning with orders to buy ALL the products and then admiring from the window how local housewives rushed about in search of food. In the gambling houses and resorts of Western Europe, Russian nobles were also well known to waste money. Of course, not all nobles behaved this way, only the “elite”; most of the nobles actually served and did not have extra money.
And so yesterday's serfs received liberation. Let's face it, the reform was carried out in such a way that the nobles would not suffer too much. The peasants were released “to freedom” with land, but with the use of it for a certain fixed rent or serving corvee. They could not give up these plots for nine years, and for complete liberation they had to buy the estate and, by agreement with the landowner, the plot, and only after that they became peasant owners, and before that they were considered to be in a “temporarily obligated position” . In addition, the size of the plots received by the peasants depended on the fertility of the soil and the economic characteristics of different regions and varied greatly.
All this did not contribute to the development Agriculture. Many peasants, experiencing a shortage of land, were forced to rent additional plots from the landowner and, in return, cultivate his land with their own equipment. Another part of the peasants abandoned their plots and went to work in the city or as farm laborers, hiring themselves out to work for landowners for a fee. There was little economic sense in all this and even less justice, although it should be noted that other European countries were moving into the industrial phase of development with even greater injustice to the rural population.
And the most amazing thing, which few people know, is that the privatization of land at that time took place according to a scenario that was painfully familiar to all of us. The lands of 50,000 (fifty thousand!) poor landowners who went bankrupt after the abolition of serfdom were bought not by peasants at all, but by 143 (one hundred and forty-three) major dignitaries, who then rented out the same lands to peasant communities.
1861 .– The first student unrest in St. Petersburg. Creation of the Council of Ministers. Autumn. – Emergence secret society"Land and Freedom". Permission for Jews higher education live outside the Pale of Settlement and enter the public service.
1862 . – First publication state budget.
1863, June 18 . – Approval of the new University Charter, which restored university autonomy.
The peasant reform was followed by a number of others: university (1863), zemstvo and judicial (1864), censorship (1865), city (1870), military (1874). In other words, the authorities understood that reforms were necessary, but decided to carry them out without leaps and gradually. Unfortunately, this approach did not allow Russia to overcome difficulties, but, fortunately, it did not allow Russia to completely slide into a hole - for which, to be honest, there were preconditions. But what was positive was that as a result of the continuity of power in the government of the country, goals of a higher order appeared than the simple survival of the rulers. For example, the problems of industrial policy and education began to be addressed.
In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” was published, which expanded the network of primary educational institutions. According to the “Regulations,” public institutions and even private individuals were allowed to open primary schools, but all of them were under the control of school councils. They taught writing, reading, arithmetic rules, the Law of God and church singing in elementary school. Most primary schools were zemstvo (created by zemstvos), parochial and “ministerial” (established by the Ministry of Public Education).
A new charter of gymnasiums was introduced, which began to be divided into classical (focused on noble and bureaucratic children) and real (mainly for children of the bourgeoisie). We studied in gymnasiums for seven years. The classical ones emphasized the careful study of ancient languages (Latin and Greek); in real life they taught advanced courses natural sciences. Graduates of classical gymnasiums could enter universities without exams; “realists” mainly went to technical higher education institutions.
The court in the middle of the century was class-based, the sessions were private and were not covered in the press. The judges were completely dependent on the administration, and the defendants had no defense lawyers. Now (November 20, 1864) new judicial statutes were approved: the judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, and the principle of irremovability of judges was established. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown, in charge of criminal cases) and world. Trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard at “ behind closed doors" An adversarial court was established, the positions of investigators and the legal profession were introduced; The question of the defendant’s guilt was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law. The position of a notary appeared.
1863, September-October . – Arrival of two Russian squadrons in New York and San Francisco.
From 1861 to 1865 there was a civil war in the United States. Many people think that the northerners wanted to do a noble cause and free the blacks who were languishing in slavery, but the reason lay in the economy. The financial and industrial oligarchs of the North needed to destroy the self-government of the states and subordinate the rich and independent South to the power of the federal center. And the farmers of the North, who could not compete with the planters of the South, saw in the elimination of cheap labor from these planters an opportunity to strengthen their economic position.
22 million people lived in the north, the states were covered by a dense network of railways and had a developed industry (almost all metallurgy, textiles and weapons). About 9 million people lived in the South, including 4 million black slaves. The South did not have the economic base to fight a long war.
Despite this, at the first stage of the war the North suffered a number of heavy defeats. After six months of fighting, the poor people of the North lost the desire to fight, which forced President Lincoln to issue a decree on forced mobilization, evasion of which was punishable by hard labor. But this didn’t help either. To correct the situation, Congress passed a law according to which any US citizen had the right to receive 15 acres of land for a symbolic price; All that was required was to conquer this land. And yet it was necessary to open immigration missions in Europe to attract fighters.
The army of southerners, consisting entirely of volunteers, defended their way of life, their right to self-government. The federal troops were mostly poor white Americans who wanted land. If the blacks of the South from the very first days of the war voluntarily enlisted in the army of the southerners, then the federal authorities for a long time Blacks were not drafted into service.
Only on January 1, 1863, Lincoln’s proclamation on the emancipation of black slaves was issued. southern states: slaves were freed without ransom, but also without land. And only in December 1865 did Congress officially sanction the emancipation of blacks! A year later, the 14th Amendment to the Constitution recognized the right of blacks to vote.
To speed up victory, the North began to wage a war of extermination: with mass executions of civilians, destruction of cities and the creation of concentration camps. And only then did the army of the northerners, who did not take into account their own and other people’s losses, manage to intercept military initiative, and in April 1865, Commander-in-Chief of the US Army, future president America's General Ulysses Grant accepted the surrender of the commander-in-chief of the forces of the South, General Robert E. Lee.
Russia was interested in the existence of a united United States, because in this way America could resist Great Britain and France, which at that time became Russia's main rivals. The arrival of two Russian squadrons in New York and San Francisco in September-October 1863 was perceived in the United States as a friendly demonstration towards the Lincoln government.
1863–1864 .- Uprising in Poland.
1864–1885 . – Conquest of Central Asia.
In the 1860s, the annexation of Kazakh lands to Russia was completed.
In the middle of the 19th century, the Kokand, Bukhara and Khiva khanates existed in Central Asia, which were feudal formations with remnants of slavery. And for the Russian government, Central Asia was an important strategic area adjacent to the Indian possessions of England; Transit trade routes crossed here. The role of the region was high and how raw material base, which was especially important due to the cessation of the supply of cotton necessary for the production of gunpowder from the United States during the period civil war between North and South.
In 1864, Russian troops entered the Kokand Khanate and took Tashkent (1865). Attempts by the Emir of Bukhara to intervene in events led to his defeat and the occupation of Samarkand (1868), and the Bukhara Emirate fell into vassal dependence on Russia. Khiva capitulated in 1873, and Ashgabat was occupied in 1881. The annexation of Central Asia to Russia was finally completed in 1885.
Carrying out an active foreign policy in Central Asia was important for Russian diplomacy in order to weaken the influence of England, which was seizing Asian lands without being embarrassed by anyone or anything. At the same time, England and France strengthened their position in China. Since the early 1840s, since the Anglo-Chinese (the first “Opium”) War, Great Britain has constantly fought here, imposing unequal treaties on China; also on Far East France and the United States exploited its rich natural resources.
But the politics of Russia neither in the 18th nor in the 19th centuries did not have an aggressive character in the Far East, and the agreements concluded were not imposed military force and were voluntary.
During the Crimean War, England tried to capture our Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka. At the same time, the need arose to clearly define the borders of China and Russia. This border was established as a result of the signing of the Aigun (1858), Tianjin (1858) and Beijing (1860) treaties, according to which Primorye and the Amur region were transferred to Russia.
1864 .– Approval of the Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions. Issue of the first internal winning loan. Approval of the Regulations on primary public schools and the new Charter of gymnasiums. Creation of the St. Petersburg private commercial bank, the first joint-stock bank in Russia.
Among the most important measures to streamline finances was the creation of the State Bank in 1860, and four years later private commercial joint-stock banks began to emerge, the number of which reached forty by 1873, streamlining the process of forming the state budget. But financial transformations did not change the class nature of the taxation system, in which the entire burden of taxes fell on the tax-paying population.
Transformations in the field of finance could not solve the problem of stabilizing the monetary system due to the costs of wars during the reign of Alexander II. These were: the Caucasian War, which began under Alexander I and ended in 1864; the suppression of the Polish uprising in 1863–1864 and the Russian-Turkish war in the Balkans of 1877–1878, which contributed to the liberation of Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Romania from Ottoman rule and brought Russia a number of Black Sea fortresses.
1865, April 6 . – Approval of Temporary Rules for the Press, which eliminated some censorship restrictions. June 28. – Allowing Jewish master craftsmen to live outside the Pale of Settlement.
1866 . – Abolition of mutual responsibility and poll tax from urban residents and the introduction of a property tax for them. April, 4. – Attempt by D.V. Karakozov on Emperor Alexander II.
A new credit system developed. During 1866–1875, 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866, the largest European banks. Thanks to state regulation, foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction, and railways ensured the expansion of the economic market across the vast expanses of Russia. In addition, they were important for the rapid transfer of military units.
The construction of railways, according to the plan of Finance Minister Reitern, who outlined his views in a note to the Tsar in 1866, was supposed to provide Russia with a transport network for the delivery of the main export product - bread - to the Baltic and Black Sea ports. And an increase in exports was necessary to ensure a positive trade balance and obtain foreign currency for investment in industry. Reitern argued that a railway owned by a private individual, including a foreigner, would serve state interests no worse than a state-owned one. Reutern motivated the sale of Alaska to the United States by the need for additional funds for railway construction. In 1867, he organized the sale (for $7.2 million), and in an atmosphere of extreme secrecy: besides him, of the highest dignitaries, only Chancellor Prince Gorchakov and Minister of Naval Admiral Krabbe were privy to the matter. All others were informed only a few days after the signing of the treaty in Washington; the country was stunned.
The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms went bankrupt, and the number of poor people grew. On the other hand, strong kulak farms emerged, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But unexpectedly for them, the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade intensified in the country, manifested in hatred towards the kulak, merchant, buyer - in a word, towards the “successful entrepreneur” who grew up on the wave of reforms.
In Russia, large-scale industry was initially created as a state-owned industry. The government's main concern after the failures of the Crimean War was enterprises producing military equipment; in budget planning Special attention addressed the development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that funds, both Russian and foreign, fell; the government distributed special orders, and, accordingly, the big bourgeoisie was closely connected with the state. The industrialist received an order and profit, the official received a bribe; corruption was in full bloom.
1867 .– Creation of the Red Cross Society in Russia. Abolition of inheritance by kinship of positions of priests and clergy. Sale of Russian possessions in America (Alaska) to the government of the North American United States.
1868 . – The beginning of the abolition of mutual responsibility among peasants (in communities with less than 21 male souls).
1869 . – The first student unrest that spread across several cities. Exemption of children of the clergy from mandatory registration in the clergy.
1872 , October. – Invention of the incandescent electric light bulb by A. N. Lodygin.
1873–1874 . – Mass “going to the people” for the purpose of agitation. However, the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of the peasant uprising.
1874, January 1 . – Military reform, introduction of universal conscription.
Back in 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. The system of military educational institutions was reformed, and new military regulations were adopted. The army was being rearmed. Ten years later, in 1874, all-class military service with a limited period of military service was introduced in Russia. Recruitment was cancelled, and the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. Military service was established for a period of six years in active service and nine years in reserve. They served in the navy for seven years and three years in the reserves. These terms were reduced for those with education.
Clergymen and members of the ranks were not subject to conscription into the army. religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North. Released from service The only son, the only breadwinner in the family. Since in Peaceful time the need for soldiers was insignificant; everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. This is how the country was created mass army, which had limited personnel composition in peacetime and large human resources in case of war. However, still personnel officers consisted mainly of nobles, soldiers - from peasants.
1869–1870 .– Creation of the Russian section of the First International.
1870 . – Transfer of inquiries on political affairs to provincial gendarmerie departments.
1875 . – The emergence of the first workers’ organization in Odessa – the “South Russian Union of Workers”.
1876 . – Formation of the organization “Land and Freedom”. First full translation Bibles into Russian. December 6. – First demonstration (in St. Petersburg near the Kazan Cathedral).
In Western Europe, as always, there was a fight. In the second half of the 1860s - early 1870s, the process of German unification was completed, and the fate of the unification was decided in an open military clash between Prussia and Austria. In 1866, Austria was defeated, and in 1867 the North German Confederation was created, with the Prussian king becoming its president. But this development of events raised concerns among the authorities of neighboring France. They wanted to stop the territorial claims of Prussia, and in July 1870 the Franco-Prussian War began, which a few months later ended with the brutal defeat of the French at Sedan. And Russia began a rapprochement with the German Empire formed after the Franco-Prussian War, and this led to the emergence in 1873 of the Union of Three Emperors (Russia, Germany, Austria). This alliance was not strong; it was determined more by the fear of mutual strengthening than by a commonality of interests. During the next aggravation of Franco-German relations in 1875, Russia made it clear that it would not allow the defeat of France.
In 1875, under an agreement with Japan, the island of Sakhalin went to Russia.
By the mid-1870s, the Turkish government was pursuing a policy of economic and political pressure on the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. In the spring of 1875, a popular uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Russia in these years was not ready for war (there was a risk of diplomatic isolation, military reforms were not completed, the rearmament of the army was not completed, virtually nothing was done to strengthen Russian fleet After the cancellation of neutralization in the Black Sea, the economic and political situation within the country remained difficult). Russian diplomats tried to resolve the conflict peacefully and persuade Turkey to make concessions to the Slavic population.
However, such diplomacy was not successful. Türkiye, confident of England's support, actually refused to accept these proposals. The new demarche of European states (the so-called London Protocol, March 1877, which proposed reforms in favor of Christians) was rejected by Turkey and was regarded by it as interference in internal affairs. Ottoman Empire hastily prepared for war, and the war began in April 1877.
Our troops did not have well-trained reserves; they were inferior in quality of small arms Turkish army(it was armed with the help of England and the USA), the Russian fleet was inferior in number to the Turkish one. However, we were superior to the Turks in artillery.
Military operations were also carried out in the Caucasian theater, where the Russian army achieved remarkable victories. In October-November 1877, the well-defended Kars fortress, which was considered impregnable, was taken by night assault (after a siege). Even earlier, the territory of Abkhazia was cleared of the Turks.
Soon the Turkish government requested negotiations, then (in January 1878) a truce was signed, and a month later a peace treaty. Montenegro, Serbia and Romania received full independence, Bosnia and Herzegovina became autonomous. A particularly important point of the agreement was the creation of a large autonomous Bulgarian state. On the territory of Bulgaria, fortresses were destroyed and Turkish troops were withdrawn, and Russia regained Southern Bessarabia, lost after the Crimean War; in the Caucasus, Ardahan, Kars, Bayazet and Batum were assigned to it.
But these decisions did not suit England and Austria-Hungary, who did not participate in the war, but wanted to increase their territories and weaken Russia. At their insistence, the St. Petersburg cabinet, which was not in a position to wage a new war with strong European states, agreed to the convening of an international congress in Berlin, where the peace treaty was revised. Although the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were confirmed, Bulgaria found itself divided into two parts: the northern Bulgarian principality received autonomy, and South part, the so-called Eastern Rumelia, remained under Turkish rule. Bosnia and Herzegovina found themselves in the zone of occupation of Austria-Hungary. In the Caucasus, Russia retained Kars and Ardagan, Batum became a port free for trade.
For its assistance to Turkey, England, which entered into a secret agreement with the Sultan, received Cyprus.
Assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II
1878 .– Opening of the Bestuzhev Courses in St. Petersburg, the first women’s educational institution in Russia. Shot by V.I. Zasulich at F.F. Trepov, her acquittal by the jury.
1878–1880 . – “Northern Union of Russian Workers” in St. Petersburg.
1879–1881 . – Political crisis in Russia.
1879 . – Attempt by A.K. Solovyov on Alexander II. The split of “Land and Freedom” into parties “ People's will" and "Black redistribution".
1879–1882 . – Formation of the Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy).
1880 . – Explosion in Zimny, prepared by S. N. Khalturin. Abolition of Division III, creation of the Police Department.
On February 12, 1880, the Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of public order and public peace" headed by M. P. Loris-Melikov. In April 1880, the commission was liquidated, and Loris-Melikov, appointed Minister of Internal Affairs, began preparing the completion of the “great work” government reforms" The so-called Loris-Melikov Constitution, approved in advance by the emperor, provided for the election of representatives from public institutions in higher authorities state power.
On the morning of March 1, 1881, Alexander II appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill. A few hours later he was killed by members of the Narodnaya Volya organization.
From the book Imperial Russia authorPart VI The reign of Alexander II. The era of great reforms. 1855-1881 Personality of Alexander II. The beginning of reforms The eldest son of Nicholas I, Tsarevich Alexander, who ascended the throne, was handsome, smart, and educated. The Frenchman A. Custine wrote about him this way: The expression of this look is kindness. This is in
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A historical look at the establishment of colleges, schools, educational institutions and learned societies that contributed to the education of the Russian people from 1025 to 1855. Ed. 2nd. , Lebedev N.A.. This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology.
The book is a reprint of 1875. Despite the fact that a serious…
1855-1881 - reign of Alexander II (son of Nicholas I).
1856, March 18 - Treaty of Paris, ending the Crimean War. Russia's loss of Southern Bessarabia. Neutralization of the Black Sea (prohibition of keeping a navy and building military fortifications on the coast).
1856 - Blagoveshchensk (now the center of the Amur region) was founded.
1857 - beginning of the publication of “The Bell” by A. I. Herzen.
1857, November - rescript from Alexander II to V.I. Nazimov, which ordered the Lithuanian nobles to create provincial committees to develop projects for the liberation of the peasants.
1857 - “temperance movement.” 1858 - Aigun Peace Treaty with China. 1858, May 31 - the settlement of Khabarovka was founded, marking the beginning of the city of Khabarovsk (now
administrative center
Khabarovsk Territory).
1859 - Surrender of Shamil’s troops in the village of Gunib.
1859-1860 - activities of the Editorial Commissions.
1860 - Beijing peace treaty with China.
1863-1864 - uprising in Poland.
1863 - university charter. Expanding university autonomy.
1863-1866 - existence of N. Ishutin’s circle.
1864 - gymnasium charter, which established the equality of all classes in receiving secondary education. Creation of classical and real gymnasiums.
1865 - capture of Tashkent by Russian troops under the command of M. G. Chernyaev.
1865 - founding of Elista (now the capital of Kalmykia).
1867 - sale of Alaska by Russia to the USA for $7 million.
1867 - creation of the Turkestan General Government.
1870 - urban reform. Creation of a system of city self-government.
1870 - creation of the Association of Itinerants.
1871 - London Conference. Cancellation of the articles of the Paris Treaty on the neutralization of the Black Sea.
1871 - the city of Ivanovo-Voznesensk was formed, since 1930 the city of Ivanovo (now the administrative center of the Ivanovo region).
1873 - Khiva campaign. Transformation of the Khiva Khanate into a vassal of the Russian Empire.
1873 - creation of the Union of Three Emperors (Russia, Austria and Prussia).
1874 - “Walking among the people.”
1875 - Treaty of St. Petersburg between Russia and Japan. Recognition of Sakhalin Island as exclusively Russian possession.
1876—1879 — populist organization"Land and Freedom".
1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war.
1878, February - Treaty of San Stefano with Turkey. Turkey recognizes the independence of Serbia, Romania and Montenegro. Granting autonomy to Bulgaria. The return of Southern Bessarabia to Russia and the transfer of fortresses in the Caucasus to it.
1878 - Berlin Congress. Revision of the terms of the San Stefano Peace Treaty.
1879-1881 - activities of the People's Will organization. "Hunt for the Tsar"
1879-1881 - “Dictatorship” by M. T. Loris-Melikov. Draft "constitution"
An ultra-conspiracy version (UKV) of Russian history of the 17th–19th centuries
Official history claims that terrorists killed Alexander II and his son came to power Alexander III.
According to the ultra-conspiracy theory, Alexander II turned out to be more cunning. He knew that the English crown was plotting his murder at the hands of the Narodnaya Volya revolutionaries. Together with the security department, Alexander II carried out the following operation: he allowed a terrorist attack and widely announced his murder in the press. He waited until the secret players in the power structures showed their interest in seizing power, and then struck back. Returned to power under the guise of his son Alexander. And he called himself Alexander III.
In 1894, Alexander III (according to the reconstruction of the VHF - born Alexander Lanskoy, born 1818 according to the SHS (modern chronological scale) died. Power passed to his son Nikolai Alexandrovich, the future Emperor Nicholas II. Lack of political experience, cunning and strategic vision of the new ruler led to fatal consequences.
The English crown managed to pit Russia and Germany against each other and lead to a fratricidal war. The finale is the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917...
How did Emperor Alexander manage to maintain power and resist the machinations of political enemies?
Alexander had a good school. VHF version: the future emperor was “trained” to acquire political experience by Empress Catherine II herself!
At the very beginning of his career, in 1779 (this is according to the official version, and according to the reconstruction of the VHF - in 1838 according to the SHS), Alexander became the young favorite (21 years old) of the aging empress. In 1784 (1843 according to the Soviet Union), one of the courtiers, dissatisfied with the growing rapprochement between Catherine and Lansky, poisoned the favorite.
Catherine hid the fact that Lanskoy survived. For those around her, she put on a whole performance: she buried her pet and spent several months grieving over her “dead” lover. But in the same year, a certain Alexander Matveevich Dmitriev-Mamonov, who was like two peas in a pod, was appointed to serve in the Izmailovsky regiment. Appointed adjutant to Potemkin. In 1786 (official) he was introduced to Catherine and became her lover.
VHF version: Catherine planned to make her favorite emperor after her death. To do this, she gave her daughter Elizabeth to Alexander. In 1855 (according to the Soviet Union, and officially in 1796), Catherine II dies and Alexander becomes emperor. At the same time, a new calendar is introduced. The first year of the emperor's reign was 1801 (1856 according to the USSR).
Contradictions in dating and oddities in calendars are an operation prepared by Catherine to conceal the historical truth. Alexander realized her plan with calendars. (After 1881, he would finally consolidate the fictitious official history of the 18th–19th centuries.)
“War of the 12th year” is the war of the 12th year of Alexander’s reign (officially 1812, according to the Soviet Union - 1867).
VHF version: events 1801–1825. (the period of the reign of Emperor Alexander I) are at the same time the events of the reign of Alexander II (1856–1881 official).
Alexander I and Alexander II are the same historical character, but placed by historians in different historical periods! Emperor Nicholas I never existed. This is a fake historical character, whose image was created artificially, as a compilation of images of real people of that time. The same fake historical characters: Empress Anna, Peter III, Paul I. The periods of their reign are a kind of “gaskets” necessary for gluing together real historical periods and their duplicates.
Empress Elizabeth is a historical duplicate of Catherine II, partly reflects the image of Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter I and Martha Skavronskaya (Empress Catherine I–II). Similar to how Alexander I is an artistically processed duplicate of Alexander II.
Who did this and why? The reasons are as follows: Alexander hid the history of his appearance on the throne as a favorite, replacing it with a noble descent from Paul I as the legal heir of the tsar and emperor, the great-grandson of Peter the Great. They, together with Catherine, came up with the “Romanov” dynasty.
Catherine II (aka the wife of Peter the Great, Catherine I) created the history of her noble origins, separating herself as a historical character from her past - Martha Skavronskaya, the mistress and field wife of Tsar Peter the Great.
In 1881, everything was ready to create the official historical version of Russian history. In 1881–1895 it was carried out hard work to connect the official versions of history between all the major powers of Europe. Since 1881, large-scale manipulations with chronology and dating, carried out by official historians commissioned by the authorities, have ceased.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the official world history of the 18th–19th centuries, constructed from real and fake periods, was ready.
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