Examples of symbiosis in the evolution of biological systems. Symbiosis - examples
In 1877, Albert Bernhard Frank used the term "symbiosis", which had previously been used to refer to people living together in a community, to describe the mutual relationships in lichens. The definition has varied among scientists to the effect that it should apply only to persistent reciprocity, while other scientists have believed that the definition should apply to any type of persistent biological interaction.
After 130 years of debate, modern biology and ecology textbooks use a broader definition in which symbiosis means all types of interactions.
Some scientists argue that symbiosis is the main driving force of evolution. They believe that Darwin's concept of evolution driven by competition is incomplete. And they also claim that evolution is based on cooperation, interaction and mutual dependence between organisms.
What is symbiosis
may be mandatory, that is, one or both symbionts are completely dependent on each other or facultative (optional), when the organisms can live independently.Symbiosis is also classified by physical affection; a symbiosis where organisms have a bodily union is called conjunctive symbiosis, and a symbiosis where they are not in union is called disjunctive symbiosis. When one organism lives on another, it is called ectosymbiosis, and if one of the partners lives inside the tissues of the other, it is endosymbiosis.
Obligatory and facultative symbioses
The relationship can be obligatory when one or both symbionts are completely dependent on each other. For example, in lichens, which consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts, the fungal partners cannot live independently. Algal sprouts or cyan bacteria in lichens such as Trentepohlia can usually live independently of each other, and therefore their symbiosis is facultative (not obligatory).
Physical interaction
Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives in the tissues of another either inside cells or outside cells. Examples include:
- nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodes on legume roots;
- actinomycetes, nitrogen-fixing bacteria called Frankia, live in alder root nodes;
- single-chain algae that live inside reef-building corals;
- bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to approximately 10–15% of insects.
Mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is relationship between different species. In general, only lifelong interactions involving close physical and biochemical contact can be considered symbiotic. Mutualism can be either obligatory for both species, obligatory for one, facultative for the other, or facultative for both.
A large percentage of herbivores have mutated intestinal flora that help them digest plant matter. This intestinal flora is protozoa or bacteria. Coral reefs are the result of mutualism between coral organisms and the various algae that live within them. Most land plants and terrestrial ecosystems are based on reciprocity between plants, which absorb carbon from the air, and mycorrhizal fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the soil.
An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. The clown fish ventilates the water, in turn, the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clown from predators. Special mucus on the clown protects it from stinging tentacles.
Fascinating examples of obligate interchange exist between tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live in hydrothermal vents. The worm has no digestive tract and is entirely dependent on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane, which the worm brings to them.
There are also many species of tropical and subtropical ants that have developed very complex relationships with certain types of trees.
Commensalism
Commensalism describes the relationship between two living organisms in which one has an advantage and the other does not provide significant harm or assistance. The term comes from the English word commensal, which is used for human social interaction.
Amensalism is a type of relationship that exists where one species oppresses or completely destroys another. An example is growing a seedling under the shade of a mature tree. A mature tree can deprive a fathom of needed sunlight, and if the mature tree is very large, it can absorb rainwater and deplete soil nutrients.
Synnecrosis is a rare type of symbiosis, in which the interaction between species harmful to both organisms involved. This is a short-lived condition as the interaction eventually leads to death. This term is rarely used.
Coevolution
Symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force in evolution, with many species having a long history of interdependent coevolution. According to the endosymbiotic theory, evolution is the result of symbiosis between different species of bacteria. This theory is supported by some organelles dividing independently of the cell and the observation that some organelles appear to have their own genome.
Symbiosis has played an important role in the coevolution of flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them. Many plants pollinated by insects, bats or birds have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator, which is also suitably adapted.
The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and at the same time corresponding speciation occurred in some groups of insects. Some plant groups evolved nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some plant and insect taxa the relationship has become dependent, where plant species can only be pollinated by one insect species.
From συμ- - together + βίος - life) is a form of relationship in which both partners or only one benefits from the other.
There is a wide range of examples of mutually beneficial symbiosis (mutualism) found in nature. From stomach and intestinal bacteria, without which digestion would be impossible, to plants (an example is some orchids, whose pollen can only be spread by one, specific type of insect). Such relationships are always successful when they increase the chances of survival for both partners. The actions carried out during symbiosis or the substances produced are essential and irreplaceable for the partners. In a generalized sense, such symbiosis is an intermediate link between interaction and fusion.
This theory easily explains the existence of a two-layer membrane. The inner layer originates from the membrane of the absorbed cell, and the outer layer is part of the membrane of the absorbed cell, wrapped around the alien cell. The presence of mitochondrial DNA is also well understood - it is nothing more than remnants of the DNA of the alien cell. So, many organelles of a eukaryotic cell at the beginning of their existence were separate organisms, and about a billion years ago they joined forces to create a new type of cell. Therefore, our own bodies are an illustration of one of the oldest partnerships in nature.
It should also be remembered that symbiosis is not only the coexistence of different types of living organisms. At the dawn of evolution, symbiosis was the engine that brought unicellular organisms of the same species into one multicellular organism (colony) and became the basis for the diversity of modern flora and fauna.
In which both partners benefit from the other.
There is a wide range of examples of mutually beneficial symbiosis (mutualism) found in nature. From stomach and intestinal bacteria, without which digestion would be impossible, to plants (an example is some orchids, whose pollen can only be spread by one, specific type of insect). Such relationships are always successful when they increase the chances of survival for both partners. The actions carried out during symbiosis or the substances produced are essential and irreplaceable for the partners. In a generalized sense, such symbiosis is an intermediate link between interaction and fusion.
This theory easily explains the existence of a two-layer membrane. The inner layer originates from the membrane of the absorbed cell, and the outer layer is part of the membrane of the absorbed cell, wrapped around the alien cell. The presence of mitochondrial DNA is also well understood - it is nothing more than remnants of the DNA of the alien cell. So, many organelles of a eukaryotic cell at the beginning of their existence were separate organisms, and about a billion years ago they joined forces to create a new type of cell. Therefore, our own bodies are an illustration of one of the oldest partnerships in nature.
It should also be remembered that symbiosis is not only the coexistence of different types of living organisms. At the dawn of evolution, symbiosis was the engine that brought unicellular organisms of the same species into one multicellular organism (colony) and became the basis for the diversity of modern flora and fauna.
Examples of symbiosis
- Endophytes live inside the plant, feed on its substances, releasing compounds that promote the growth of the host organism.
- Transportation of plant seeds by animals, which eat the fruits and excrete undigested seeds along with droppings elsewhere.
Insects/plants
Mushrooms/algae
- A lichen consists of a fungus and an alga. The algae, through photosynthesis, produces organic substances (carbohydrates) that are used by the fungus, which supplies water and minerals.
Animals/algae
Mushrooms/plants
- Many fungi obtain nutrients from the tree and supply it with minerals (mycorrhiza).
Insects/insects
- Some ants protect (“graze”) aphids and receive from them in return secretions containing
Symbiosis) is a psychological state in which the contents of one person's personal unconscious are experienced by another.
Symbiosis manifests itself in unconscious interpersonal connections; dynamically it easily arises and is established, but it is quite difficult to stop it. Jung gave an example of symbiosis in the context of extraversion - introversion. Where one of these attitudes dominates, the other, turning out to be unconscious, is automatically projected,
"<...>Mostly people of different types enter into marriage, and moreover - unconsciously - for mutual complementarity. The reflective nature of an introvert encourages him to constantly reflect or collect his thoughts before acting. Thus, of course, his actions are slowed down. His timidity in front of objects and his distrust of them lead him to indecisiveness, and thus he always has difficulty adjusting to the outside world. An extrovert, on the contrary, has a positive attitude towards things. They, so to speak, attract him<...>As a rule, he acts first and only then thinks about it. Therefore, his actions are quick and not subject to doubts and hesitations. These two types are therefore, as it were, created for symbiosis. One takes on the thinking, and the other takes the initiative and practical action. Therefore, a marriage between representatives of these two different types can be ideal. While they are busy adapting to the external needs of life, they are perfectly suited to each other. But if, for example, the husband has already earned enough money or if fate has sent them a large inheritance and thus the difficulties of life disappear, then they have time to take care of each other. Before this, they stood back to back and defended themselves against need. Now they turn to face each other and want to understand each other - and they make the discovery that they never understood each other. They speak different languages.
Thus begins a conflict of two types. This dispute is caustic, associated with violence and mutual devaluation, even if it is conducted very quietly and in the most intimate way. For the value of one is the negative value of the other. It would be reasonable to believe that one, realizing his own value, could calmly recognize the value of the other and that in this way all conflict would become unnecessary. I have seen many cases where arguments of this kind have been put forward and yet nothing satisfactory has been achieved. Where normal people are concerned, this critical transition period is overcome more or less smoothly. A person who can exist in absolutely all circumstances that provide him with the necessary minimum of life opportunities is considered normal.
However, many are not capable of this; That's why there aren't too many normal people. What we usually understand by a “normal person” is, in fact, a kind of ideal person, and a happy combination of traits that define his character is a rare phenomenon. The vast majority of more or less differentiated people require living conditions that provide more than relatively secure food and sleep. For them, the end of a symbiotic relationship means a severe shock" ("The Problem of Attitude Type", PB, pp. 92-93).
SYMBIOSIS
A concept denoting the state of the relationship between a child and his mother. Introduced into psychoanalytic theory by Alice Balint (1949) and Teresa Benedek (1949), the term symbiosis reflects the mutual, interconnected needs and ways of satisfying the child and mother. Regardless of the authors mentioned above, the concept of symbiosis was developed in the works of Mahler and her colleagues in a slightly different - metaphorical sense (Mahler, 1952; Mahler & Gosliner, 1955, Mahler & Purer, 1968). Mahler used this term not so much to denote the mother’s feelings about the child, nor to reflect the biological concept of the unity of two nominally independent beings, but to describe “... a fusion with the mother, in which the Self is not yet differentiated from the non-Self, and the difference between internal and external is only just beginning to be felt.”
In 1975, Mahler, Pine and Bergman attempted to expand the definition of symbiosis to include Benedek's definition: "Symbiosis is the expression of a sociobiological relationship between an infant aged one to five months and its mother... in which the infant's intrapsychic representations of mother and self are not sufficient differentiated. From the second month of life, the child begins to behave as if he and his mother represent a dual unity within common boundaries (“symbiotic membrane”) (pp. 290-291).
SYMBIOSIS
A biological term referring to two separate but interdependent organisms. Mahler uses it to describe the type of object relations characteristic of an infant of two to four to five months of age; she believes that at this age the child does not yet have a sense of separation from the mother. Since we now recognize that the child from birth has a variety of abilities of consciousness and perception that allow him to distinguish between the concepts of "inside" and "outside", to distinguish himself from another, and that the child is born already adapted to social interaction, Mahler's point of view is better expressed in in terms of optimal affective relationships during the period under discussion: mother and child are finely “tuned” to each other. In this sense, we believe that the term retains its meaning as a metaphor characterizing the affective ideal when there is some kind of affective unity between mother and child. The fantasy that infancy is a symbiotic state of complete need satisfaction is not uncommon in children, and the fantasy of a symbiotic union of mother and child is often maintained in the pregnant woman. A person may similarly fantasize about having such an experience with his mother in early childhood and try to relive it again with someone else.
SYMBIOSIS
from Greek “sym-biosis” - “together”) is a union between organisms dependent on each other, a relationship between two people, usually between a child and a mother, who need each other. In biological terms, symbiosis is the connection between a mother and an embryo in her womb. In a mental symbiotic relationship, the bodies are independent of each other, but psychologically interconnected.
Ideas about symbiosis were contained in many works of psychoanalysts who studied the relationship between the infant and the mother. In particular, the concept of symbiosis was used by psychoanalysts such as A. Balint, T. Benedict, M. Mahler. However, in a more general sense, E. Fromm (1900–1980) thought about symbiosis, who tried, following S. Freud, to consider the specifics of masochism and sadism. In his work “Flight from Freedom” (1941), he showed that, despite the obvious differences, there is something in common between sadistic and masochistic tendencies, between the desire for unlimited power, domination over another person and the desire to depend on others and experience suffering. From a psychological point of view, both tendencies originate from the same source - uncertainty, weakness of personality, inability to tolerate isolation. Based on this, he proposed calling the goal common to sadism and masochism symbiosis. “In the psychological sense of the word, symbiosis is a kind of union, that is, mutual influence and interdependence, of one personality with another (or a force external to the individual), in which each of the parties is deprived of its individuality, its “I”.
According to E. Fromm, a sadist and a masochist are in dire need of their object. In both cases, the main role is played by the inability to endure the loneliness of one’s own self. And although outwardly sadistic and masochistic tendencies seem mutually exclusive, psychologically they have much in common. Their fundamental basis turns out to be the same need to avoid loneliness. Therefore, it rarely happens that a person is either only a sadist or only a masochist. In reality, “between the active and passive sides of the symbiotic union there are constant fluctuations and deviations in one direction or the other.”
Subsequently, the concept of symbiosis was extended by E. Fromm to the incestuous relationship between mother and child, which is the central concept of S. Freud. He believed that the discovery of the connection with the mother was one of the most significant discoveries in human science. However, unlike S. Freud, who viewed the incestuous relationship between mother and child through the prism of sexuality, E. Fromm proceeded from the fact that in the incestuous relationship with the mother lies not only a longing for her love and protection, but also fear of her. If a son or daughter is raised by a cannibalistic, vampire-like, or necrophilic mother and does not sever ties with her, he will inevitably suffer from intense fears of being destroyed by that mother. Discussing these issues, E. Fromm made a distinction between a benign form of communication with the mother and a malignant form of incestuous communication, which he called “incestuous symbiosis.”
In his work “The Soul of Man” (1964), E. Fromm emphasized that there are symbioses of varying degrees, but they are united by one thing: a person, symbiotically connected with another person, becomes part of his “master” with whom he is connected. When this connection is threatened, the person falls into a state of fear and horror. We are not necessarily talking about a physical connection, but about that attachment, which by its nature is a connection through feeling and fantasy. A person may have the feeling that he is part of another person. “The more extreme the symbiosis, the more difficult it becomes to draw a clear line of demarcation between the two individuals.” This symbiotic unity can be compared to the unity of mother and fetus.
According to E. Fromm, the tendency to connect with the mother or its equivalent (family, tribe, country, nation) is inherent in all men and women. It is in conflict with the tendencies of birth, growth, and movement forward. In normal development, the growth tendency takes over; in pathology, the “regressive tendency toward symbiotic unification” wins. The more malignant the form of incestuous relationship and the closer it converges with necrophilic and narcissistic orientations, the more a person is characterized by what E. Fromm called “decay syndrome.”
For many psychoanalysts, symbiosis reflects the relationship between the child and the mother. Thus, M. Mahler (1897–1985) understood symbiosis as such a fusion of a child with his mother, in which the baby does not yet have a sense of the difference between the external and the internal. Investigating the problem of merging a child with his mother in the first months of his life, she correlated the infant’s complete dependence on his mother with “symbiotic psychosis.” This understanding of symbiosis was reflected in the article by M. Mahler and B. Gosliner “On symbiotic childhood psychosis” (1955). At the same time, the symbiotic relationship was characterized by psychoanalysts not only by the child’s dependence on the mother, but also by the mother’s dependence on the child. In a word, symbiosis does not reflect one-sided dependence, but interdependence and mutual influence due to biological, social and psychological unity.
Without which digestion would be impossible, including plants (an example is some orchids, whose pollen can only be distributed by one, specific type of insect). Such relationships are always successful when they increase the chances of survival for both partners. The actions carried out during symbiosis or the substances produced are essential and irreplaceable for the partners. In a generalized sense, such symbiosis is an intermediate link between interaction and fusion.
This theory easily explains the existence of a two-layer membrane. The inner layer originates from the membrane of the absorbed cell, and the outer layer is part of the membrane of the absorbed cell, wrapped around the alien cell. The presence of mitochondrial DNA is also well understood - it is nothing more than remnants of the DNA of the alien cell. So, many organelles of a eukaryotic cell at the beginning of their existence were separate organisms, and about a billion years ago they joined forces to create a new type of cell. Therefore, our own bodies are an illustration of one of the oldest partnerships in nature.
It should also be remembered that symbiosis is not only the coexistence of different types of living organisms. At the dawn of evolution, symbiosis was the engine that brought unicellular organisms of the same species into one multicellular organism (colony) and became the basis for the diversity of modern flora and fauna.
Examples of symbiosis
- Endophytes live inside the plant, feed on its substances, releasing compounds that promote the growth of the host organism.
- Transportation of plant seeds by animals, which eat the fruits and excrete undigested seeds along with droppings elsewhere.
Insects/plants
Mushrooms/algae
- A lichen consists of a fungus and an alga. The algae, through photosynthesis, produces organic substances (carbohydrates) that are used by the fungus, which supplies water and minerals.
Animals/algae
Mushrooms/plants
- Many fungi obtain nutrients from the tree and supply it with minerals (mycorrhiza).
Insects/insects
- Some ants protect (“graze”) aphids and receive from them in return secretions containing
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