Complete classification of animals scheme. Animal taxonomy
(speech at the pedagogical council)
Barannik Dmitry Nikolaevich
Trainer-teacher
MBOUDOD YOUTH
Awkward movements on the beans
Bobsleigh is one of the Olympic sports, which is a downhill race on special, controlled bolide sleighs, called “bobs,” along ice tracks specially equipped for this purpose.
The name bobsleigh itself comes from the English verb bob - strange, awkward to move and sleigh - sled, ride on a sled.
Story
Like many winter sports, bobsleigh originates from Switzerland, where wealthy mountain resort guests were constantly coming up with all sorts of funny things for their own entertainment.
Sleighs, of course, have been known to people for a long time, but the construction of such a device as a bob only occurred at the end of the 19th century. True, the versions of the appearance of this device are different.
According to one of them, the English tourist Wilson Smith connected two sleighs with a board and, with the help of such a structure, traveled from the Swiss resort town of St. Moritz to the village of Chilerina located below, apparently due to laziness, not wanting to get there like all normal people. skiing or something else.
There, in St. Moritz, at the end of the 19th century. The world's first bobsled sports club was also organized, where the basic rules of competition in this sport were developed, and the sleigh crew then consisted of five people - three men and two women. Subsequently, the number of bobsleigh crew members varied - two, four, five, and sometimes eight people.
According to another version, the lazy Englishman has nothing to do with it - it’s all about the Swiss themselves, who came up with the idea of attaching a turning mechanism to the toboggan, that is, to such Indian wooden sleds without runners...
Be that as it may, bobsleigh soon became very fashionable in equally fashionable European resorts. The first bobsleigh club was founded in 1897 in St. Moritz. The world's first special sled, the “bob,” was designed in 1904.
Competitions and national championships even began to be held in this fascinating and dangerous sport. The pioneers in this were Austria and Germany, where bobsledders from all over the country could compete with each other already in 1908 and 1010. respectively. By 1914, competitions were held on a variety of ice tracks and athletes never tired of experimenting.
However, bobsleigh remained amateur and semi-professional until 1922. And in 1923, a significant event occurred for bobsledders around the world - their favorite sport was recognized as professional.
To commemorate this, the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation was even founded. And soon preparations began for the inclusion of bobsleigh (namely, a variety with four athletes) in the program of the 1924 Winter Olympic Games in Chamonix. The pairs event was officially introduced at the Olympic Games in Lake Placid in 1932.
For a long time, bobsleigh remained a sport for the elite - that is, for young and rich lovers of adventure and thrills. The cream of society, vacationing at various ski resorts, did not even really train - they simply bought or rented a sled (which, of course, was difficult for the average citizen with an average salary), went down the slope a couple of times as a co-pilot, and then, Having understood the principle of management, they took it upon themselves.
Only in the 50s did this sport begin to acquire modern features. Bobsledders realized the importance of the run-up before the start, and therefore began to attract representatives of other sports to their teams who could provide a powerful push. Soon many handball players, track and field athletes and gymnasts became interested in bobsleigh.
And in 1952, a rule was introduced limiting the weight of participants, and thus for fat people, due to their mass alone giving greater acceleration to the bob, this sport was closed. But it is open to athletes who brought the necessary professionalism to bobsleigh.
Since then, bobsleigh has continued to develop, keeping pace with scientific and technological progress, improving tracks and equipment, as will be discussed below.
The International Federation of Bobsleigh and Toboggan - FIBT was founded in 1923. Unites more than 50 national federations. Word toboggan, mentioned in the name of the Federation - a tribute to tradition, describes the useless wooden sleds common among the Indians of Canada, which, in a slightly modified form, began to be used as sports equipment.
At the beginning of the 20th century, official competitions were held in tobogganing. Then this word was traditionally preserved in the name of the International Federation of FIBT, which is still in charge of the development of bobsleigh in the world, although at present this sport has replaced skeleton.
The World Bobsleigh Championships have been held since 1924. Bobsleigh has been included in the Winter Olympics program since 1924.
Then the competitions were held on four-seater sleds, in 1928 - on five-seater sleds, and since 1932, competitions have been held on two- and four-seater sleds.
Until 2002, competitions were held only among men. But at the Salt Lake City Olympics (2002 Winter Olympics), women took part in the double bob race.
In each issue of the Olympic program, a country is represented by no more than three crews. Places are determined by the sum of the times of two races.
At the World Championships and Olympic Games there are 4 races, and places are determined by their sum. The starting order in the first heat is determined by the current FIBT ranking.
In the third heat, they start from the best crew to the worst, and in the fourth, from the worst (over three heats) to the best, with only the 20 best crews participating in the last heat. Thus, the main contenders for victory will start last.
Until the mid-80s, the largest competitions for bobsledders were the European and World Championships, and, of course, the Olympic Games. However, from that time on, the World Cup began, the numerous stages of which added intensity to the rivalry between bobsledders.
Well, to end our not-so-brief historical excursion on a happy note, let us inform you that in the early 90s, a significant omission was corrected in bobsleigh - for the first time, female bobsledders began to participate in the competition.
Equipment
It is not difficult to guess that for bobsleigh, first of all, you need a bob, that is, a specially designed device that gave the name to the sport. The world's first bean appeared in 1904, and it was made of wood. More than a hundred years have passed since then, and the appearance of the bean has changed radically.
Modern bobsleigh sleds are made of an all-metal body with a streamlined shape (to ensure the aerodynamics of the projectile), to which two pairs of skate runners are attached. The front pair of skates is movable and connected to the steering wheel, while the rear pair, equipped with a brake, is stationary. Although throughout the history of bobsleigh, the number of athletes in one bob varied from 2 to 5 (some teams even consisted of three men and two women - “a crazy situation,” as they said in one American youth movie).
Today, beans come in double and quadruple sizes. Each sled must meet very strict standards. Thus, a double bob should not be longer than 2.7 m and not exceed 165 kg, and a four-seat bob should not exceed 3.8 m and 230 kg. The rear pair is stationary with a brake. Two-seater (“deuce”) and four-seater (“four”) bobsleds are used. The length of the pair is no more than 2.7 m, the weight is no more than 165 kg, and the weight of the crew is no more than 200 kg. The length of the four is no more than 3.8 m, the weight is no more than 230 kg, and the weight of the crew is no more than 400 kg.
There are an unimaginable number of other rules, including the chemical composition of the runners (for example, they should not contain radium), their temperature, the use of lubricants (which is prohibited), special parameters and weighing procedures, and much, much more, to list It would take a lot of time.
Today, the IBSF federation strictly regulates the technical support capabilities of teams. The rules for the 2011-2012 season, for example, state that bob runners must be made from specially licensed materials at specially licensed enterprises, each pair of runners must have a serial number, which is checked before each official start.
In addition, the federation limits the number of runners used by one rider per season. All this is done with the aim of ensuring equal basic opportunities for all participants in official competitions
The bobsleigh track is an ice trench on a reinforced concrete base, with turns and turns of varying steepness. The length of the route is 1500-2000 m with 15 turns of a minimum radius of 8 m, and the elevation difference is from 130 to 150 m.
The length of bobsleigh tracks, the difference in elevation between start and finish, and the number of turns and bends are not constant. For example, in Lake Placid in 1932, the length of the track was 2366 m, the vertical difference was 228 meters, and there were 26 turns and turns on the track.
In Lillehammer, in 1994, bobsledders competed on a 1,365-meter track with a 107-meter vertical drop and 16 turns and bankings.
Technical improvement of bobsleigh sleds is carried out taking into account the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress. However, for obvious reasons, it is limited by the weight and size restrictions established by international rules for two-seater and four-seater sleds.
As before, the final results in bobsleigh competitions are determined by the speed gained by the crew at the starting acceleration section - before boarding the sled; at a distance, the result depends primarily on the skill of the pilot - helmsman, on his ability to pass the track along the optimal trajectory, overcoming the least loss of speed turns and bends.
Naturally, you can’t make porridge with beans alone. The second main element of this sport is the downhill track. It is nothing more than an ice trench fixed on a reinforced concrete base, consisting of turns and bends varying in steepness.
Today, strict compliance standards for the bobsleigh track have been developed. Its length is 1500-2000 meters, which includes 15 turns with a minimum 8-meter radius.
By the way, during the descent, the bob can reach a speed of about 135 km/h in just 60 seconds, while the athletes have a very hard time - during this they experience four times the force of gravity.
A bobsleigh team consists of a pilot, that is, the person directly controlling the bob, and a brakeman, that is, the athlete sitting behind and responsible for braking.
The team of four, in addition to the indicated characters, includes two so-called pushers, who, in fact, are engaged in pushing the bob, and during the race they maintain the balance of the projectile (they shift the mass back and forth, that is, as yachtsmen would say, they tilt).
In addition to the basic elements, bobsledders need special suits that at the same time must protect athletes from the cold, but not cause overheating, allow enough air to pass through and at the same time be lightweight.
Today, such suits use specially developed material designed for active pastime in extreme temperature and atmospheric conditions. bobsleigh sport olympic
And, of course, we must not forget about helmets, especially considering that not very lucky athletes sometimes have to do part of the descent literally on their heads. Now they are also made from a special material, which, thanks to a unique technology, absorbs shock as much as possible and does not weigh very much
The shoes worn by bobsledders are also not simple - the soles have spikes for better repulsion from the ice, however, they should not be thicker than 1 mm, longer than 4 mm and located no closer than 3 mm from each other (yes, in bobsleigh, nothing is really simple) .
Rules
At the Olympics, each team must complete 4 races. To keep everything fair, the order of starts in each race is determined by a simple draw. After the end of the races, the results are summed up and the winners are those with the shortest total race time.
By the way, no more than two crews can compete from each country. In terms of rules, everything is quite simple.
World leaders
At the dawn of bobsleigh, the leading positions in it were occupied by the British, and then by the Americans. However, when bobsleigh became a truly professional sport, the situation changed somewhat. Dominance has been consolidated in those countries in which the conditions for
training and development of bobsleigh were the best, because it is logical that representatives of, say, Cameroon or Kenya will achieve excellent results in this sport.
In addition, representatives of North America, that is, residents of the United States and Canadians, maintain and strengthen their achievements. True, Swiss athletes were especially successful in their field - in the entire history of bobsleigh they won the largest number of medals.
Today, new players are also entering the scene, for example, Russia has broken into the top three, whose men's four is in second place this season, and their men's two is third.
In addition, Russian bobsledder Alexander Zubkov takes third place in the individual competition (American Todd Hayes and German Andre Lange are ahead of the Russian). This is in the twos competition, and in the fours the second and third places are the same, and the Austrian bobsledder Martin Annen sits in first.
Well, the first places are occupied by the USA, Germany and Switzerland, replacing each other in this honorable position. In doubles, the German team is in the lead with 365 points, the Yankees are second (350), and the Russian duo has 279 points.
And among the four, the leader is Germany (360 points), followed by Russia (330 - I would like to add, everyone...), and third place is occupied by four guys from Switzerland (325 points).
For women, the situation is approximately the same, although there are no rich bobsleigh traditions, because ladies began performing only in the 90s, and women’s doubles were included in the Olympic program in 2002.
In first place in the individual competition is German Sandra Kiriasis (400), second is Shauna Robock from the States (330), and third is yet another fearless American Jane Prum (285). As for the national teams, Germany has 400, the USA 350, and Canada 305 points. All these figures are based on the results of 4 of the 7 stages of the World Cup.
Bobsleigh in Russia
In Russia, the beginning of the development of bobsleigh is considered to be 1980, when the Committee on Physical Culture and Sports under the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a Resolution on the creation of the USSR national bobsleigh team. Simultaneously with the creation of the country's national team, the development of bobsleigh in sports societies began.
Why was it necessary to classify all living beings into certain categories?
To many people, taxonomy seems to be a completely unnecessary direction.
However, this section of science has very clear goals and objectives.
Task No. 1
Description of organisms (morphological) both modern and extinct.
Task No. 2
Based on knowledge about the structure of organisms, establish related and evolutionary relationships between them.
Task No. 3
Finding out patterns that make it possible to predict the signs of some new living object.
Scientists have been trying to systematize all living things for a very long time. If we talk about attempts known to history, then it was Aristotle, i.e. We're talking about time BC! There were a lot of scientists involved in systematics; we will not list them all here. The most thorough works belong to C. Linnaeus, C. Darwin and E. Haeckel.
Let's look at the main taxa of modern taxonomy.
Taxa |
|
Plants |
Animals |
Family |
Family |
Overkingdom (or empire)
The first, most global division is into nucleus-containing organisms ( eukaryotes) and nuclear-free ( prokaryotes)
The main criterion for this division is the presence or absence of a nucleus.
Kingdoms:
1. Animals 2. Plants 3. Mushrooms
This division is based on several parameters:
1) reserve nutrient (animals - proteins and glycogen, Plants - carbohydrates, mushrooms - glycogen and chitin);
2) cell structure (there are organelles unique to one of the kingdoms);
3) type of nutrition (heterotrophs, autotrophs, decomposers).
Sub-kingdoms:
Taxonomy of animals.
Type.
The criterion is the presence of an internal skeleton and its absence (or exoskeleton).
Class.
This is based on the structure and morphology of the animal. Both the external structure and all organ systems are considered.
For example, you saw this creation:
Looks like a big worm or a small snake... how to define a class?
If you are not a zoologist - a professional who will do this by appearance, then only by the internal structure.
1) there is a skull and a skeleton - that means it is not a worm;
2) there are lungs, an incomplete septum in the heart and the skin is covered with mucus;
Conclusion - the animal belongs to the class of amphibians.
Squad
The unification is already in more detail, for example:
- in insects - according to the structure of the wings: Orthoptera, Coleoptera, etc.
- in birds: order Stork-shaped, order Pigeon-shaped, order Galliformes, etc.
- in mammals: bats, rodents, carnivores, primates, etc.
The criterion becomes a more detailed difference in structure, nutrition and lifestyle.
Plant taxonomy
The division into departments is based on - body structure ( presence of tissues and organs) and basic type of reproduction.
Classes- these are, for example, differences in the structure of a seed, flower, leaf, stem, etc.
Order- the association is based on kinship.
Family- common origin, flower structure and method of reproduction.
Next - like animals - genus and species.
Scheme of subordination of animal groups
Animal taxonomy is a science that deals with the distribution of animals into groups - types, classes, orders, genera.
The Animal Kingdom is usually divided into a number of systematic units, the main of which is the species. In zoology, as in botany, species similar in characteristics and close in origin are combined into a genus, genera into a family, families into an order, orders into a class, classes into a phylum.
The diagram below shows the subordination of systematic groups (taxa) of animals. The highest taxon is the kingdom, the lowest is the species.
Classification Kingdom Animals
In the animal kingdom, there are subkingdoms of unicellular (protozoa) and multicellular animals. The subkingdom Unicellular includes the phyla Sarcoflagellates, Apicomplexans and Ciliates. The subkingdom Metazoans contains the following phyla: molluscs, chordates, coelenterates, echinoderms, arthropods, flatworms, roundworms and annelids. The diagram below shows the complete classification of Kingdom Animals.
Comparison of plants and animals
PLANTS |
ANIMALS |
Similarities |
|
1. Cellular structure. 2. Nutrition. 3. Breathing. 4. Selection. 5. Reproduction. 6. Irritability (the ability to respond to changes in external |
|
Differences |
|
1. Autotrophic nutrition (formation of organic substances from inorganic ones). 2. Less irritability. |
1. Heterotrophic nutrition (ready-made organic substances). 2. More irritability. |
_______________
Source of information: Biology in tables and diagrams./ Edition 2, - St. Petersburg: 2004.
From the simple jellyfish to the highly organized apes, the animal kingdom amazes us with a huge variety of living organisms. It is estimated that there are 9-10 million unique animal species on Earth. To make sense of such a bewildering number of organisms, biologists use a classification system that includes tiered ranks that group animals together based on their similarities. With a little practice, this system will seem very simple to you!
Steps
How to read a taxonomic table
Rank | Description | Examples |
---|---|---|
Kingdom | Largest taxonomic groups. Living organisms are divided into large and broad categories. | Animalia, Plantae, Bacteria |
Type | Large taxonomic units that include members of a kingdom united by a certain similar structural or genetic common characteristic. | Chordata, Magnoliophyta, Proteobacteria |
Class | An average taxonomic unit, including representatives of the same type, united by a narrower characteristic, for example, body structure, common ancestry, and so on. | Mammalia, Magnoliopsida, Gamma Proteobacteria |
Squad | A group of organisms of the same class, united on the basis of body structure, certain external characteristics, or a common ancestor. The names of animal groups we are accustomed to often coincide with this taxonomic rank. For example, we call all representatives of the primate order “monkeys.” | Primates, Rosales, Enterobacteriales |
Family | A rather narrow group of organisms that unites externally similar organisms of related origin. The family name usually ends in "-y" | Hominidae, Rosaceae, Enterobacteriaceae |
Genus | A special group of organisms that includes closely related members of the same family. Almost all members of the same genus are usually descendants of one common ancestor. The genus name forms the first part of the scientific name of the organism and is written in italics. | Homo , Rubus , Escherichia |
View | The narrowest taxonomic unit. Species division is based on the identification of a narrow, specific group of organisms that usually have the same structure. Only individuals of the same species are able to interbreed and produce high-quality offspring. The species name forms the second part of the scientific name of the organism and is also written in italics. | sapiens , rosifolius , coli |
- Red entries correspond Homo sapiens, or to humans (animals).
- Highlighted in blue Rubus rosifolius, or Indian raspberry (plant).
- Information about Escherichia coli, which is better known as Escherichia coli (bacterium).
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Remember the order of the taxonomic categories. You can use mnemonics to remember the seven main ranks: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. Come up with a phrase in which the first letter of the first word corresponds to the first letter in the word “kingdom,” the first letter of the second word corresponds to the first letter in the word “type,” and so on.
Move from the broadest to the narrowest category. For example, any animal falls into the category of the animal kingdom, but not all can be called "sapiens". As you move down the list, you will notice that in order to fall into any narrow category, a living organism will have to have specific properties.
Classify a living organism based on morphology. To classify an organism into any category, you need to determine its morphology. Morphology is the external and internal characteristics of an animal. For example, does it have fur or scales? What kind of stomach does he have? If you know the characteristics of an animal, you will be able to correctly identify its species.
Learn the taxonomic system of classifying animals. This system is based on the characteristics of the animals. It was proposed by the botanist Carl Lynaeus in the 18th century. However, when biologists talk about taxonomic ranks, they are talking about the classic seven categories shown in the table above. Categories are arranged in order of narrowing. Please note that the entries in the "Examples" column are color-coded, which allows you to follow the sequence in which you want to classify a living organism.
Analysis of taxonomic categories
- In addition to the animal kingdom, there is also the kingdom of plants, fungi, protists (single-celled eukaryotes) and shotworms (prokaryotes).
- Let's try to classify modern humans in accordance with the taxonomic system. Humans are animals that can breathe, so we can immediately determine the kingdom - this is the animal kingdom.
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Determine the type. Type is a category that is immediately below kingdom. There are 35 phyla in the animal kingdom. To roughly generalize, organisms are grouped within a phylum based on their general morphology. For example, organisms classified as chordates have a rigid spine along the entire body with a spinal nerve above it and an alimentary canal below it. Representatives of echinoderms have a five-pointed shape and a spiny body surface.
- Remember that taxonomic categories were developed before the advent of modern genetics, so organisms may not be grouped correctly within the same phylum. Some representatives of the phyla became the predecessors of other organisms. For example, flatworms are the predecessors of animals with a through digestive canal.
- Returning to our example, people should be classified as chordates, because above our spine there is a canal with a spinal nerve.
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Define a class. After type comes class. In total there are about 111 classes. Typically, living organisms are grouped into a class based on similar genetic and/or morphological characteristics. Below we give examples of classes within the phylum Chordata:
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Determine the squad. After the class comes the squad. An order is a narrower group compared to a class or phylum, but broader than a species and genus. Here is an example of two orders within the class of reptiles:
- Turtles.
- Scaly (snakes, lizards).
- The person belongs to primates, that is, to the same order that includes monkeys and human ancestors.
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Define a family. After the detachment, the characteristics become increasingly narrower. The name of an animal familiar to us may come from the Latin name of its family. For example, geckos belong to the family Gekkonidae. Below we give several examples of families within the order Squamate:
- Chamaeleonidae - chameleons
- Iguanidae - iguanas
- Scincidae (skinks) - skinks
- The person belongs to the family hominids, like the great apes and human ancestors.
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Determine the gender. The genus of an animal allows it to be separated from other animals that may be very similar to it or even have a similar name. For example, all animals in the gecko family (Gekkonidae) are geckos, but members of the genus Dixonius(leaf-shaped geckos) differ from members of the genus Lepidodactylus having scaly paws. There are a total of 51 genera within this family.
- A person belongs to a family homo, which includes modern man and the ancient predecessors of man - Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and so on.
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Define the species. Species is the narrowest category in the taxonomic system. Members of the same species have a similar appearance, can interbreed within their species, and cannot do so with other species. In other words, only representatives of the same species can interbreed and produce offspring. When different species are crossed, offspring may be produced, but they will almost always be infertile and will not be able to reproduce (an example is the mule, which cannot produce offspring itself and is the result of crossing a horse and a donkey).
- Remember that animals of the same kind can appear different, despite being related. For example, a Chihuahua and a Great Dane look different, but are members of the same species.
- Man belongs to the species sapiens. The only representative of this species is man. Remember that modern people belonging to the genus homo and mind sapiens, have a number of morphological differences - size, face appearance, skin color, hair, and so on. However, all healthy couples consisting of a man and a woman can produce healthy offspring, so all representatives of these categories are people.
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If necessary, define a subspecies. As a rule, species is the most accurate characteristic of a living organism. However, there are exceptions to this rule, and organisms are often classified into two or more subspecies. A species may have two or more subspecies, or none, but never just one. Often the need to use a subspecies arises when certain groups of living organisms can produce healthy offspring, but do not do so in natural conditions due to geographic separation, behavioral tendencies, or other reasons.
- If we are talking about anatomically modern man (that is, about a person who lives now), we can use subtypes of the category sapiens, to separate man from man Idaltu - another representative of ancient man, part of the species Homo sapiens.
Start with the animal kingdom. All animals by definition belong to this group (also called metazoa). All organisms in this group are animals, and all organisms outside this group are non-animals. Thus, when starting classification, you can immediately find out whether an organism belongs to the animal kingdom or not.