Why hasn't a single religion established itself in India? Religions that originated in India
Publication 2017-09-18 I liked it 14 Views 5310
Geography of Indian religions
India is a very religious country. According to the latest census, less than 0.1% of the population described themselves as atheists or undecided. The rest of the inhabitants respect, honor and abide by the laws of various religions in India.
The majority of the population of India are believers and belong to some religion
Religion in India today
The following religions are currently practiced in India:
- Hinduism;
- Islam;
- Christianity;
- Sikhism;
- Buddhism;
- Jainism.
Four of these religions originated in India itself: Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism.
In this table we see the percentage of believers in each religion in India
The main religion in India is Hinduism. It is professed by 80% of the country's population, which is more than 800 million people. Islam is in second place - 13% or more than 130 million people. Next, Christianity - 2%, 24 million Indians. Representatives of the religion of Sikhism in India are 1.9%, Buddhism - 0.8%, Jainism - 0.4%.
This map shows the predominance of religions by state in India.
The Constitution of India is loyal to the religious feelings of Indians and all religions are officially recognized in India. This wise political move avoids interreligious strife. As a result, Indians generally respect the faith of others and do not often impose their own beliefs.
In India they are loyal to any religion, so they have a lot of different beautiful temples
This also applies to Buddhism. The tenets of this religion in India say not to propagate or impose faith. This is what happens: you may see an image or statue of Buddha, but you are unlikely to see a procession of Buddhists along the main street of the city. In Hinduism it is different: Indians regularly observe religious holidays and perform them with great zeal and pleasure. Often these events turn into grand celebrations.
Kumbh Mela is one of the largest religious festivals in India.
The legendary Maha Kumbh Mela festival, which took place in Allahabad in 2013, was attended by 70 million people. Taking a religious bath in the sacred waters of the Ganga on this festival is tantamount to reunification with the absolute spirit, Brahman.
What religion was in ancient India
The religion that preceded Hinduism and dominated in Ancient India is Vedism. This is the first form of Hinduism, some of the rituals and laws of which were adopted by the modern religion of India. Vedism is a system of belief, or rather a collection of practices that came from ancient scriptures. Despite the absence of a formed hierarchy of gods, their pantheon was preserved and was adopted by Hinduism. Here it was structured, and Vedism was transformed into Brahmanism. Thus he became the progenitor of the present-day religion of India.
The religion of Ancient India had a large pantheon of gods, which has survived to this day.
Hinduism has many movements, the main of which are Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. The great trinity of gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are considered the dominant gods, the creators of the world. However, the preserver of the world Vishnu and the destroyer Shiva are worshiped, but the creator Brahma is not. An ancient legend says that one day Brahma decided to find the beginning and end of the sacred Linga, for which he was cursed by Shiva. Since then, no one has worshiped him, and throughout India there are no more than a few temples dedicated to Brahma.
Geography of religions in India
During the Arab conquests, Islam penetrated into Indian territory and firmly established itself here. Most Muslims live in the states of Kashmir, Assam, West Bengal, Kerala, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
Islam as a religion is very widespread in India
Christianity is common in South India. The state of Goa is dotted with Catholic churches, crucifixes and icons of the Mother of God. This religion took hold in India thanks to two events: the arrival of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century AD. and Portuguese colonization in the 15th century. The state of Goa is reminiscent of Portuguese resort towns. Among Indian Christians, most are Catholics, the rest are Protestants.
The religion of Christianity is widespread mainly in the south of the country
The religion of India, Sikhism, is popular in Punjab, Haryana and the northwestern part of the country. Sikhs believe in One God, in Love, as the goal and reason for the creation of all things. For them there are no concepts of heaven, hell, karma or sins. This religion of India calls to love everything, treat all living beings with kindness and see God in the most ordinary things. Then happiness comes and anxiety goes away.
Sikhism is a religion of love, despite the fact that Sikhs are a warrior caste
Siddhartha Gautama was born in India. In Bodh Gaya (India) he gained enlightenment and became Buddha. In the present city of Varanasi, he gave his first lecture, after which he went to preach along the Ganga River.
Buddhism as a religion also originated in India
Consequently, Buddhism originated in India, but there are not as many followers of this religion within the country as outside its borders. Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Thailand are the leaders in the number of Buddhists.
Is Hinduism a complex mystery or a simple fairy tale?
The religion of India has no common creed. There is no information about its founder. What our teachers called by the strange and reprehensible word “paganism,” that is, polytheism, is the basis of the religion of India. Then no one told us that there are more than a billion people on earth of these same pagans.
Hinduism is a vibrant polytheistic religion with a whole host of gods and goddesses
At first glance, Indian religion may seem mystical, exotic and even barbaric. But no one will argue that there is no religion in the world more diverse, unusual, colorful, rich in history and legends than the religion of India. Reproducing the images of deities, in an understandable and simple way for Indians, has become a cultural heritage of the whole world. And the philosophy of reincarnation began to be adopted more and more often by new religious and esoteric schools. If 30-50 years ago the phrase “in a past life” was pronounced sarcastically, today no one laughs at it.
RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION OF INDIA
The religious composition of the Indian population is very complex. The peoples of this country profess Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, and local traditional beliefs. Religion has had and continues to have a huge impact on the entire life of society. Hinduism is the most common religion in India. It is professed by more than 80% of the country's residents. Hindus form a majority in all states of the country except Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland.
The religion of Hinduism formed in ancient India in the first millennium AD. Its basis is the doctrine of reincarnation of souls (samsara), which occurs in accordance with the law of retribution (karma) for virtuous or bad behavior. Steadfast adherence to virtue must ultimately lead to (moksha) - the salvation of the soul. This teaching is reflected in the sacred books of Hinduism, primarily in the Bhagavad Gita, as well as in such epic works as the Mahabharata (18 books) and the Ramayana, dedicated to the exploits of Rama.
There are many gods in the Hindu religion, but three main ones stand out among them. This is Brahma - the creator god, the creator of the Universe, people and everything in general. The cult of Brahma is practically absent in Hinduism; only a few temples were erected in his honor throughout India. Brahma himself is usually depicted with four faces, four arms, sitting on a swan.
Further, this is Vishnu - the great guardian god, who usually appears in a form benevolent to people. He is depicted in one of his ten incarnations, which he took upon descending to earth. The most common of them are examples of Prince Rama (hence the Ramayana) and the shepherd Krishna. Vishnu moves astride Garuda - half man, half eagle. Vaishnavism forms the first movement in Hinduism, widespread mainly in temples dedicated to it. The most famous of them are the temples in Mathura, Jaipur and others.
Finally, this is Shiva - by origin a pre-Aryan god, “master of animals.” He is usually depicted in a menacing form, often in a sacred dance, with a third eye in the middle of his forehead. Shiva rides a bull and is armed with a trident. Shaivism forms the second movement in Hinduism, widespread mainly in the southern and eastern parts of India. Of the Shaivist temples, the temples in Varanasi (Benares), Amarnath, and a number of others are especially famous. However, Hindus perform religious rites not only in temples, but also at local and home altars, in sacred places.
Among the main tenets of Hinduism is the veneration of a number of animals as sacred, primarily cows and bulls, and snakes. This is why cows are not slaughtered and beef is not eaten. Some plants, such as lotus, are also considered sacred. The Ganges River is also sacred, in the waters of which millions of pilgrims from all over the country perform a cleansing ritual - ablution. Particularly many pilgrims are attracted to Varanasi, where the banks of the Ganges are lined with stone steps filled with those who have arrived for purification. The bodies of deceased Hindus are usually burned in funeral pyres, but in some cases they are also buried in the waters of the Ganges. To be buried in the waters of this river is the cherished dream of every devout Hindu. Hinduism prohibits divorce and remarriage of widows, even if they are still very young. Although these bans have been officially lifted, most of the population continues to observe them.
Naturally, all this has a very great influence on the life and way of life of Hindus. But, without any doubt, the greatest influence on them is exerted by the dogma of Hinduism, which provides for the division of society into castes (from the Latin castus - pure), or jati (in the ancient Indian language - Sanskrit). The system of caste organization of society originated in India in ancient times, but turned out to be so tenacious that it continues to exist and influence the entire life of the country and every person. The Constitution of India has legally abolished caste divisions and caste inequalities associated with ancient prejudices. However, caste stratification still persists in some parts of India. People from higher castes make up only 17% of the population; they still predominate among government employees.
The second most important religion in India is Islam. Muslims make up 11% of the total population, among them Sunnis predominate, but there are also Shiites. Muslims make up 2/3 of all residents in the northern state of Jammu and Kashmir alone. In the states of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala, although they do not predominate, they form a significant stratum. In family and marriage relations, Muslims adhere to the rules of Sharia, but polygamy is prohibited by law in all religious communities of the country.
Followers of other religions in the total population of India range from only 0.5% to 2.6%, but taking into account the size of this number, the absolute figures here look quite impressive: there are 18 million Christians in the country, 15 million Sikhs, 5 million Buddhists , Jains - 4 million. Christians live mainly in the southern states, especially in Kerala and Nagaland.
Sikhism has become widespread in Punjab, where adherents of this religion make up half of the total population. Sikhism as a religion originated in Punjab back in the 15th century. As if reflecting the geographical position of this state on the border of zones of Hindu and Muslim influence, Sikhism combines elements of these two religions, but at the same time is significantly different from them. For example, unlike Hinduism, it prohibits idolatry, the division of society into castes, does not recognize purification ceremonies at birth and death, and preaches monotheism. In Sikh temples: there are no images of gods. Sikhs also stand out externally. Sikh men (all of them add the prefix “Singh” to their name, which means “lion”) wear long hair, gathered in a bun on top of the head and covered with a colorful turban, long beards, and do not shave their mustaches. Every Sikh also has a dagger.
Buddhism originated in Northern India in the middle of the 1st millennium - BC. e. But today it is professed by less than 2% of its population - part of the residents of the states of Maharashtra, Jammu, Kashmir and Sikkim. Jainism arose at the same time as Buddhism and also in North India. It incorporated the teachings of Hinduism about the rebirth of souls and rewards for actions. Along with this, he preaches even stricter rules of not harming any living beings. Since plowing the land can entail the destruction of living beings - worms, insects, the Jains have always been dominated not by farmers, but by traders, artisans, and money lenders. The ethical precepts of Jainism include vows of truthfulness, restraint, dispassion, and a strict prohibition of theft.
The rather complex religious composition of the Indian population, as well as the ethnic composition, leaves its mark on the entire internal political situation in the country, leading to almost continuous religious contradictions. First of all, these are contradictions between Hindus and Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs.
This religion, which does not have any one founder and one fundamental text (there are many of them: the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and many others), originated so long ago that it is impossible to even determine its age, and spread throughout India and throughout many countries of Southeast Asia, and now, thanks to immigrants from India, who have settled everywhere - all over the world.
Each of the numerous Hindu gods carries within itself one of the facets of the omnipresent God, for it is said: “The truth is one, but the sages call it by different names.” For example, the god Brahma is the omnipotent ruler of the world, Vishnu is the preserver of the world, and Shiva is the destroyer and at the same time the recreater of the world. Hindu gods have several incarnations, which are sometimes called avatars. For example, Vishnu has many avatars and is often depicted as King Rama or shepherd Krishna. Often, images of gods have several arms, which is a symbol of their various divine abilities, and Brahma, for example, is endowed with four heads. God Shiva always has three eyes; the third eye symbolizes his divine wisdom.
Among the main tenets of Hinduism is the doctrine of the many reincarnations through which the soul of every person passes. All evil and good deeds have good and bad consequences, which do not always appear immediately, already in this life. This is called karma. Every living being has karma. The purpose of reincarnation is moksha, the salvation of the soul, delivering it from painful rebirths. But by strictly following virtue, a person can bring moksha closer.
Many Hindu temples (and there are a great many of them in India) are masterpieces of architecture and sculpture and are usually dedicated to a single deity. The choice of profession, as a rule, is not a personal matter: traditionally, Hindu society consists of a large number of groups - castes, called jati and united into several large classes (varnas). And everything, from marriage to profession, is subject to special, strictly defined rules. Intercaste marriages are still rare among Hindus. Married couples are often determined by parents when the bride and groom are still in infancy. Also, Hindu tradition prohibits divorce and remarriage of widows, although there are no rules without exceptions, especially in our time.
The bodies of the dead are burned in funeral pyres by adherents of Hinduism.
Hinduism is professed by 83% of the total population of India, i.e. about 850 million people. Muslims in India are 11%. The mass spread of this faith began in the 11th century, and it was introduced by the Arabs earlier, in the 7th century. In most Muslim communities in India, polygamy is prohibited.
One of the oldest religions in the world, Buddhism, originated in India in the fifth century BC. Buddhists believe that enlightenment, that is, liberation from suffering in the endless cycle of rebirth, can be achieved by every living being, and especially by humans, since, according to Buddhism, everyone initially has the nature of Buddha. Unlike Hindus, Buddhists do not recognize castes. Every person who sincerely accepts this teaching can become its follower. Although India is the birthplace of Buddhism, Buddhism in India today is represented either in the Tibetan or (rarely) Sri Lankan variant. Hinduism, having absorbed much of the teachings of Buddha Gautama, conceptualized the latter as one of the avatars of the god Vishnu.
If you meet a person on the streets of India in a colorful turban with a thick, thick beard, you should know that he is a Sikh, that is, a follower of Sikhism, a faith that has absorbed and united Hinduism and Islam. Once in a Sikh temple - gurudwara, do not look for images of gods. They are not here, but there are images of Sikh gurus - noble bearded men in turbans, sitting in a pose of contemplation. Sikhs worship the holy book Granth Sahib.
If your neighbor on the train turns out to be a person whose mouth is covered with a scarf, do not rush to change your ticket: he is not sick with any dangerous disease. He simply closed his mouth so that, God forbid, he would not accidentally swallow some midge. And know that this person professes Jainism and, most likely, is in a hurry to go on pilgrimage. This faith, like Buddhism, originated in India in the sixth century BC. Jains are opposed to any form of violence. Therefore, Jains eat exclusively plant foods. This also explains the presence of a scarf on the face. Jains never lie, since they all take a vow of truthfulness; this does not prevent many of them from being major businessmen.
The Parsis worship Ahura Mazda, the god of light. Its symbol is fire. This religion is one of the most ancient on earth. It originated in Persia in ancient times, and in the 8th century BC it was reformed by the prophet Zoroaster and received the name Zoroastrianism. Parsis believe in the purity of the elements: fire, water, air, earth. They do not burn the bodies of the deceased, leaving them in “towers of silence.” There, the bodies of followers of this faith become prey for vultures.
There are also ancient Christian communities in India, many of which maintain close contacts with the Russian Orthodox Church. There are also Catholics here. In short, there are not so few Christians in India - 18 million.
Holy places:
-Bodhgaya (Bihar state) - the place of enlightenment of Buddha Shakyamuni; on the eve of the Tibetan New Year (January - February), a general monlam prayer is held here, accompanied by a large gathering of pilgrims from Nepal, Bhutan and Tibetan settlements in India, as well as a large bazaar.
Amritsar (Haryana and Punjab) - the holy of holies of the Sikhs - the famous Golden Temple.
Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) is the oldest city in India, allegedly founded by Shiva, famous for its embankments (called ghats) for bathing pilgrims in the waters of the sacred Ganges.
Gangotri (Uttar Pradesh) is a glacier cave, the place where the Ganga, the most sacred river of the Hindus, originates.
Madurai (Tamil Nadu) is a typical South Indian city with a huge luxurious temple in the center dedicated to Meenakshi, the earthly princess who married Shiva himself.
The main places where Tibetans live:
-Dharamsala (Himachal Pradesh) - here is the residence of His Holiness the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government in exile; sometimes this city is called "little Lhasa."
Dehradun (Uttar Pradesh) - here is the gompa (monastery), the residence of His Holiness Sakya Trindzin, the head of the Sakya school.
Bir (Himachal Pradesh) - here is the gompa residence of the famous lamas of the Nyingma school - Choglin Rinpoche and Orgyen Tobgyal Rinpoche; It was here that the film "The Cup" was recently filmed with the participation of these lamas.
Rewalsar (Himachal Pradesh) is a holy lake associated with the life of Guru Padmasambhava - the second Buddha, as he is sometimes called by the Tibetans.
Dolanji (Himachal Pradesh) - here is the gompa residence of the most respected lama of the Bon religion - Lobpon Tendzin Namdak.
Rumtek (Sikkim state) - here is the residence of the Karmapa, the head of the Karma Kagyu school.
If you wanted to know what Hinduism is and read a brief description of this religion, then this article is for you. Hinduism is now considered the oldest and most complex religion in the world. According to Sanskrit, Hinduism is called the eternal law - Sanatana Dharma.
Origin of Hinduism
Hinduism is a syncretic religion that has evolved over thousands of years and includes both the Neolithic animistic beliefs of ancient people and the religious components of the religions of the ancient Aryans, the Indus civilization, the beliefs of the Dravidians, and also elements of the philosophies of Buddhists and Jains. Considering the large mass of various traditions of Hinduism, it unites followers of this faith in the authority of the Vedas.
It is believed that the interpretation of the very name of the Indian religion is based on the Aryan word Sindhu (river). A clear allusion to the deification of rivers by the pre-Aryan population of India, first the Saraswati River, and later the Ganga. The belief in the sacred nature of rivers was so strong that the Aryan newcomers also had to invoke the special status of rivers. For their part, the Aryans introduced into Hinduism the unique status of the cow as a sacred animal, the murder of which in the old days in India was punished more severely than the murder of a person.
From the 8th-9th centuries, Muslims began to call non-Muslim residents of India Hindus. Subsequently, the British transferred the name Hindus to all residents of Hindustan who were not adherents of world religions and did not profess Sikhism, or. It was only in 1816 that the term Hinduism itself appeared.
Basic principles of religion
All Hindus, regardless of sect, recognize the authority of the Vedas, which are called the word shruti (heard). There are four Vedas in total: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda. Based on the four Vedas, the second part of the sacred canon of Hindus was written, which is called Smriti. Smritis include: Dharmashastras, Ichtihasas (including the two most important Mahabharata and Ramayana), Puranas, Vedangas and Agamas. Different sects of Hinduism do not consider all Smriti texts sacred.
However, the vast majority of Hindus believe that all living beings, or at least humans, are endowed with a spiritual essence (jiva) soul, which is associated with a creator god (most Hindus believe that the creator god was Vishnu). After the death of a person, the soul can move into the body of another person, or into the body of an animal, or even into inanimate matter. Thus, the cycle of transmigration of souls from one body to another is called samsara by Hindus.
It is possible to free the soul from the ring of samsara due to spiritual rebirth, enlightenment, which goes by different names (most often moksha, or nirvana). It is possible to achieve a favorable reincarnation, or nirvana, through the purification of karma. Karma is the totality of all human actions: mental, physical and verbal.
Also, the majority of Hindus are united by their adherence to the varna-caste system, although in the 21st century this system has begun to actively disappear in India and various yogic traditions.
It is worth noting that Hinduism is considered the religion with the largest number of gods , there are at least three thousand gods. Three thousand years ago, Indra and Brahma were considered the main gods in India, but from the beginning of the Middle Ages, Vishnu and Shiva seized the status of the leading gods of Hinduism.
Main branches of Hinduism
The main branch of Hinduism is Vaishnavism. Vaishnavites believe that the supreme god is Vishnu, who appears on earth through his avatars (earthly incarnations): Krishna, Rama, and others. Vaishnavism is practiced by up to 68-70% of all Hindus.
The second largest branch of Hinduism is called Shaivism. Supporters of this movement, approximately 26% of the total number of Hindus, worship Shiva; according to some sources, Shiva was the supreme god of the Harappan civilization 3300-1500. to. n. e. If the information is reliable, Shaivism can be considered the oldest movement of Hinduism.
The third branch of the Indian religion is Shaktism (numbering about 3%), the essence of which is the worship of the great mother goddess, who goes by different names: Shakti, Durga, Saraswati, Kali, Lakshmi.
Also popular in India is Smartism, a slightly modified Brahmanism that involves the worship of a number of gods, or one chosen one. The most popular gods of smartism: Vishnu, Ganesh, Shiva, Surya, Skanda, Indra.
On the territory of the Hindustan Peninsula, at different times and among the different nationalities that inhabited it, diverse religious ideas and practices took shape and developed. These ideas and practices can be systematized within individual Indian religions. These include Hinduism(in the broad sense of the word), Jainism, Sikhism And Buddhism. The first three are national religions, while the last is the oldest world religion. All of these religious traditions have their own history, their own sacred texts, their own sanctuaries, their own spiritual leaders. Indian religiosity as a whole is characterized by a spirit of tolerance, non-dogmatism, readiness to assimilate foreign things (inclusivism) and describe the new in the categories of traditional culture, high authority of spiritual mentors and some other features.
Hinduism
Hinduism is the world's largest national religion. The term “Hinduism” first appears in the works of European Indologists of the 19th century. In a broad sense Hinduism- this is a mass of cults and beliefs that have existed since ancient times in Hindustan and in areas influenced by the traditional culture of India (the territory of the present
Nepal, Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka). Hinduism understood in this way also includes the religious tradition of the Indo-Aryans, starting from the era of the Rig Veda. In a narrow sense, Hinduism is the third stage in the development of the Indo-Aryan religion (after Vedism and Brahmanism), which was influenced by both non-Vedic religious traditions and unorthodox Indo-Aryan religious and philosophical systems. Followers of Hinduism are called Hindus, or Hindus. Hindus themselves have traditionally used the word “dharma” to designate their religion. At the same time, “dharma” means not so much the religious component of Hindu life, but rather the general set of norms and laws with which followers of Hinduism must balance their lifestyle. Thus, Hindu “dharma” is much broader than “Hinduism”, understood only from a religious point of view, since it includes both religious and non-religious components.
In Hinduism it is difficult to isolate a single, clear organizational and ideological structure, so it seems mosaic and unsystematic. It lacks the church as a central social institution that unites its members; there are no “sects” and “heresies”; the meaning of sacred texts is interpreted differently; there are no universal dogmas and objects of worship; there is no practice of holding councils to resolve theological issues, etc. It is difficult to unambiguously classify Hinduism as a monotheistic or polytheistic religion, although to a greater extent it still gravitates towards the latter. Some researchers tend to see in Hinduism not just one religion, but a complex of religions, or to perceive Hinduism as a kind of civilization, one of the many components of which is religion.
There are a number of factors that ensure the relative unity of Hinduism. So, in 1966 and 1995. The Supreme Court of India has identified seven characteristics of Hinduism:
- 1) reverence for the sacred scriptures - the Vedas;
- 2) tolerance for a different point of view;
- 3) recognition of the fact of enormous periods of creation, preservation and destruction of the Universe;
- 4) belief in rebirth and the previous existence of the soul;
- 5) recognition of achieving spiritual liberation in various ways;
- 6) the equivalence of various religious practices;
- 7) the absence of an unambiguous set of ideological guidelines.
However, this “legal” formalization of Hinduism does not mean that all Hindus, without exception, recognize exactly this set of characteristics. In Hinduism, ideological flexibility is paradoxically combined with the rigidity of social relations. In many ways, this helps Hinduism maintain vitality and adapt to a changing world.
Hinduism has a large variety of religious movements, the most important of which are Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism; each of them, in turn, is divided into separate schools and lines. Due to the heterogeneity of the religious movements included in Hinduism, there is no common founder for all of them. The “founder” of Shaivism can be considered the god Shiva, Vaishnavism - Vishnu, etc.
The origins of Hinduism in the broad sense are usually traced to two types of religious traditions - Vedism (and its continuation of Brahmanism) and local traditions. Vedic religion, which was carried by the Indo-Aryan tribes, appears on the territory of India (Punjab) around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The religion of the Indo-Aryans is reflected in their sacred texts (Vedas), also called shruti (literally “heard”), or “revelation”. Shruti, understood in the broad sense of the word, includes four genres of sacred literature: self-hits, or “collections” (“Rigveda”, “Samaveda”, “Yajurveda” and “Atharva Veda”), Brahmins, Aranyakas and Upanishads. According to Hindus, shruti is revealed by the deities. Vedic literature also includes works of the smriti (“memory”) section, often created in the genre of sutras (short, laconic texts) relating to individual aspects of knowledge (ritual studies, phonetics, etymology, grammar, metrics, astronomy). In addition, epics, puranas (mythological tales), and treatises on dharma belong to smriti. Many works of Vedism-Brahmanism retain their sacred status in developed Hinduism. Particularly important is a text such as the Bhagavad Gita, which in turn is part of the largest epic corpus in world literature - the Mahabharata.
The religion of the Indo-Aryans before Hinduism in the narrow sense of the word is chronologically divided into two stages. Its early stage (approximately the 15th-10th centuries BC), or Vedism in the proper sense of the word, is reflected in the collection of sacred hymns (Rigveda), generally edited by the 10th century. BC e. Among the deities (deva) of this collection, the most often mentioned is the thunder god Indra, a generous giver of blessings and at the same time a fierce warrior with the forces of evil, the mythological personification of which is the dragon Vritra. Also of considerable importance are Soma, the god of the sacred drink of the same name; god of fire Agni; the keeper of the cosmic law is Rita Varuna; the sun deities Surya and Savitar, etc. In general, the early Vedic religion is patriarchal; among the few female deities, the goddess of dawn Ushas stands out. The content of many magical spells of the Atharva Veda also dates back to the early period of the Vedic religion.
The later stage of the Vedic religion, reflected in three later Samhitas, created approximately one hundred to two hundred years after the Rig Veda, smoothly passes into the next, which is known as Brahmanical period(c. VIII - c. 2nd centuries BC). Its name is associated, firstly, with religious texts commenting on the Samhitas (Brahmins), and secondly, with the priestly class (Brahmins), which during this period acquired enormous authority due to the complication of ritual procedures. The development of ritualism and the specificity of the images of Vedic deities stimulated the priests' reflection on various aspects of ritual practice and symbolism and led them to the idea of a single principle underlying the entire universe - the idea of Brahman. The doctrine of Brahman develops in mystical religious and philosophical works - the Upanishads. In the same texts, other important categories of classical Indian thought were developed - Atman (immortal soul), samsara (world of suffering), karma (law of moral retribution), moksha (liberation), etc. It was in the era of Brahmanism that the foundations of the worldview of later religious and philosophical schools
In Brahmanism, a vast complex of rituals is divided into “official” (srauta) and domestic (grihya). Mythological explanations are given for the rituals. Among the gods, Prajapati takes the leading role, personifying creative cosmic energy and perceived as the sacrifice from which the universe is created. In this regard, the concept of sacrifice becomes key in Brahmanistic ritual studies, acquiring a cosmogonic meaning. Various systems of psycho-practical activities (asceticism, yoga) are being developed aimed at transforming consciousness and accumulating special internal strength in the body of the practitioner. In addition, in the era of Brahmanism, the varna system finally took shape and the beginnings of a caste system appeared (see below); in special works the concept of dharma as a set of instructions is developed; the doctrine of four types of age obligations is being formed, etc.
In parallel with the Vedic tradition (and also long before it), local religious traditions also developed. One of the most archaic is associated with the Proto-Indian (Harappan) civilization in the Indus River valley, which existed from approximately the 25th to the 18th centuries. BC e. On the territory of this civilization, the cult of the Mother Goddess, the patroness of fertility, was most widespread. There was also a cult of her divine spouse, the ruler of the underworld, the plant and animal worlds. Perhaps it is he who is depicted on one of the seals found, sitting in a yogic pose and surrounded by wild animals; With some of its attributes this deity resembles the image of the later Shiva. In addition, some plants, animals (buffalo, elephant, etc.), natural elements, and phallic symbols were also revered. Cults were performed by the priestly class in special sanctuaries; Sacrifices, including human ones, were made to deities and spirits. It is assumed that after the collapse of this civilization, its legacy was transferred to other regions and had a certain influence on the religious ideas of local tribes and peoples belonging to the Dravidian-speaking groups.
The merging of Vedic and local traditions took place over many centuries and eventually led to the forms of Hinduism known today. In its main features, Hinduism appears towards the end of the 1st millennium BC. e., and acquires its classic appearance a thousand years later, when the caste system finally took shape. Unorthodox religious movements (Buddhism, Jainism, etc.), which were a significant force in the religious life of the country in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, made a significant contribution to the formation of Hinduism. e. - first half of the 1st millennium AD e. Brahmanism, being influenced by such teachings (in particular in the field of ethics), directly or indirectly borrowed their provisions.
During the formation of Hinduism, the cults of the former deities of the Vedic pantheon (Indra, Soma, etc.) fade into the background, and instead of them, popular cults of other deities such as Vishnu (Krishna), Shiva, Devi, etc. are put forward. Hinduism becomes more popular and spreads over vast territories, not least due to the adoption of special methods of reverent worship of deities (bhakti). At the end of the ancient era (mid-1st millennium AD), under the influence of bhakti, the construction of Hindu temples began. Hinduism successfully assimilates local tribal beliefs as well as the ideas of heterodox movements, while simultaneously displacing these movements themselves. Already from the second half of the 1st millennium AD. e. Hinduism completely dominates the public consciousness and becomes the determining factor in Indian spiritual culture.
Various worldviews of Hinduism are developed in orthodox philosophical schools, of which there are traditionally six: Samkhya, Yoga, Vedanta, Mimamsa, Nyaya And vai-sheshika. However, there are no ideas and ideas that would be accepted in all Hindu directions without exception. One can speak about a single Hindu worldview only with great convention. One of the most popular Hindu ideas is the idea karma, found even in the Upanishads. According to it, the actions of an individual performed in one life bring consequences (“fruits”) in his next lives. The character of an individual, his social and financial situation, life span, etc. - all this is determined by his actions in previous incarnations. During the time the universe exists, the soul undergoes many reincarnations. The totality of transitions from one life to another forms samsara(lit., whirlwind) - a world full of suffering. Hindu thinkers call the cause of samsara and the action of karmic laws fundamental ignorance (avidya) of one’s own spiritual essence (Atman) or isolation from the supreme God. Getting rid of spiritual ignorance frees the individual from samsara. Psychotechnical exercises (yoga), intellectual reflection, and ardent love for the deity are used as means to achieve such a state.
(bhakti), performance of complex rituals, selfless lifestyle (karma-marga), etc. The ideal of liberation is difficult to achieve, so most ordinary believers hope to end up in heaven, in paradise (svarga) after death. However, the ideals of liberation and being in heaven can overlap each other - for example, in Krishnaism.
In the center Hindu theology- the idea of the highest, absolute deity, which, depending on the specific school or direction, is called differently - Krishna, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, etc.; each of these deities, in turn, has many names and epithets. The absolute deity is endowed with omniscience, omnipresence, omnipotence and other perfections. The whole world and individual souls, particles of this deity, depend on him. At the same time, the existence of the supreme God does not cancel the existence of other, secondary deities, which are thought of as his special “forms.” In order for undeveloped souls to have the opportunity to improve, the demiurge god (Brahma), prompted to activity by the absolute God, creates the cosmos and fills it with various bodily shells. By moving into them, souls begin to act and thereby become subject to the law of karma. At the same time, karma does not darken the essence of God himself.
The entire daily life of a person should ideally be permeated with spiritual aspirations. Righteous way of life ( dharma) usually includes the performance of pious acts (rites, prayer, reading sacred works, almsgiving, fasting, pilgrimage, etc.), the fulfillment of basic commandments (do not kill, do not steal, do not lie, etc.). In addition to dharma, there are other life values, or goals: artha (increase in wealth, prosperity of the family, etc.); kama (receipt of various sensual pleasures) and moksha (final liberation).
Mythology. According to Hindu mythology, the world is a gigantic closed structure - the “egg of Brahma” (brahmanda), consisting of a set of vertical levels - from 3 to 21. The above-ground spheres form svarga, or heaven, inhabited by divine beings. At the highest level are the halls of Brahma, the head of the pantheon. The middle level of this structure is our earth, which has a flat shape and is surrounded by the World Ocean. In the middle of the earth rises the sacred Mount Meru, around which there are four or seven “continents” (dvipa). The main of these “continents” is Jambudvipa, part of which is Bharatavarsha, i.e. India. Mount Meru is the axis of the world, which permeates almost the entire Brahmanda; The Sun, Moon and planets revolve around it. Below the earth are the hells (naraka); the number of hells varies in different mythological schemes; Each hellish realm has certain types of suffering associated with it. Beneath the naraka, supporting the entire structure of the brahmanda, rests the giant serpent Shesha. In Hindu mythology there is also the idea of a plurality of worlds united into a single universal universe.
The ideas of Hindu texts about time are also mythological. The observable “historical” era is divided into four time periods of unequal length (yuga), following each other, starting with the “true age” (satya-yuga), or the “age” of high piety and morality, and ending with the “age” of the complete fall of truth , a period of misfortune (Kali-yuga), in which modern humanity also finds itself. Kali Yuga is the shortest Yuga, lasting “only” 4,320,000 Earth years, after which, after zones of cosmic “timelessness,” Satya Yuga begins again. Four yugas (chaturyuga) make one great yuga (mahayuga). A thousand such mahayugas form one kalpa, or "day of Brahma"; at the end of this “day,” the fire hidden in the depths of the ocean bursts out and burns the entire world, which thereby disappears into Brahma. The “night of Brahma” lasts the same amount of time. The cycles of “dissolution” and new creation follow each other in strict sequence. In total, Brahma lives 100 “his” years, after which he dies and dissolves into an absolute deity. But after a certain time, this deity gives birth to another Brahma, who creates a new universe.
According to another view, the world at any given period of time is under the leadership of one or another world ruler - Manu. There are 14 Manus in total, and currently the seventh of them, Manu Vivasvat, rules the universe. Finally, according to another concept, there are three alternating stages of the existence of the world - creation (srishti), preservation (sthiti) and disappearance, destruction (pralaya). These three stages are associated with three mythological characters - Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, respectively. After the completion of one cycle, another follows after some time, and so on without end.
The creator god Brahma, identified with the god Prajapati, has been considered the recognized head of the large Hindu pantheon since the Brahman period. Various versions of the creation of the world are associated with Brahma. According to one of them, the “egg of Brahma,” the embryo of the universe, appears in the primordial waters of space. Brahma is born in him by himself. Then he comes out of the egg and from the shell creates the universe. Having created the world, God gives various spheres of the world to control to his descendants, establishes laws, a system of varnas, begins counting time, and also creates death, which saves the world from overpopulation. He makes Indra king over all the gods. In developed Hinduism, Brahma turns into a secondary demiurge who creates the universe at the direction of the supreme God - most often Vishnu (in Vaishnavism) or Shiva (in Shaivism).
Many myths and legends are associated with Vishnu and Shiva, which gives grounds to distinguish between Vaishnava and Shaivite mythology. The first includes myths not only about Vishnu himself, but also about his avatars (“descents”), or incarnations on earth for the sake of some high moral goal. Most often, 10 avatars stand out, among which Krishna and Rama are especially important. Associated with Shiva is his wife, the goddess Parvati (Devi, Durga, etc.), who is highly revered in Shaktism. The sons of Shiva are the elephant-headed god of wisdom Ganesha and the god of war Skanda. In the south of India (Tamil Nadu), the god Murugan, the son of the local war goddess Kottravey, who is also the patron of love, spring and hunting, is identified with Skanda. Many myths are associated with such deities as the god of love Kama, the goddess of eloquence and education Saraswati, the goddess of love, happiness and prosperity Lakshmi, the monkey god Hanuman, the god of the Himalayas Himavat, the god of wealth Kubera, etc.
Hindu deities are more anthropomorphic compared to Vedic ones. Each deity has his own vahana, or vehicle in the form of some living creature: for Shiva it is a bull, for Vishnu it is Garuda, a gigantic eagle with human features, for Devi it is a lion, for Ganesha it is a mouse, for Kubera it is a man and etc. Male deities have divine consorts or girlfriends (Vishnu and Lakshmi, Krishna and Radha, Kama and Rati, etc.).
A huge place in the mythology of Hinduism is also occupied by tales of numerous demigods and spirits, heroes and sages, animals and plants, etc. Among these creatures there are both malicious, demonic in nature, and beneficent characters. Thus, the category of demons and evil spirits includes: warlike asuras, constantly in conflict with the gods; rakshasas - cruel and disgusting cannibals; pishachis, devouring corpses and competing with the spirits of ancestors (pitris), etc. Positive (or neutral) creatures include, for example, yakshas, spirits of fertility and protection; gandharvas, celestial musicians and singers; apsaras, heavenly beauties who entertain the gods and fallen heroes with songs and dances; nagas, wise snake-like spirits guarding treasures in underground settlements, etc.
Animals appear in many myths, especially the cow. Thus, the Kamadhenu cow grants its owner the fulfillment of any desire. In addition, there is the mythology of plants (banyan and ashwatha), rocks and mountains (Kailasa, Himalayas, Meru), rivers (Ganges, Yamuna), cities (Benares). Many mythological stories touch on the theme of the struggle between the forces of good and evil, or between divine and demonic armies. So, for example, the asuras built a triple fortification (Tripura), from where they raided the settlements of the gods, Shiva struck this fortress with one arrow and threw it into the ocean. The myth of the churning of the “milk ocean” is also popular: the gods and asuras, using a churning rod (Mount Meru), churn the ocean of milk, from the waters of which valuable substances and creatures emerge, including the drink of immortality - amrita. Common mythological motifs are also the acquisition by some ascetic of some great gift from the god Brahma, the curse of a sage offended by someone, etc.
Hindu mythology has become an inexhaustible source of inspiration for the creators of Indian art and Indian literature in different languages.
The deities that are most revered are Vishnu (primarily Krishna), Shiva and Devi. The cults of the gods Ganesha, Surya, Skanda (Murugan), etc. are of somewhat less importance. The god Brahma is very poorly represented at the cult level; only one temple is dedicated to him. In addition to the cults of gods, in Hinduism there are also cults of heroes, rulers, holy sages, ascetics, ancestors, and sati women. The creatures of lower mythology are surrounded by varying degrees of veneration: rakshasas, asuras, apsaras, etc. Malicious creatures are “revered” mainly for the purpose of daring them.
The cow is surrounded by universal worship; killing this animal is considered a very serious crime. In addition to the cow, monkeys, bulls, etc. are also sacred, although to a lesser extent. Some types of plants are sacred - banyan, ashwattha (in Hinduism as a whole), tulsi (in Vaishnavism), rudraksha (in Shaivism). The cult of mountains, traditionally considered the haven of the gods, is also developed. The Himalayas are especially popular, the caves of which still attract many religious devotees. Mount Kailasa (Western Tibet) is associated with Shiva and Parvati, and Govardhana with Krishna. Reservoirs and rivers are also revered, the Ganges River (Ganges) is especially sacred; Yamuna (Jamna), Narmada, Krishna, etc. are also popular. Hindus believe that the waters of sacred rivers have a cleansing effect on the human soul and are able to transfer it after the death of the body to the upper limits of existence. There are also sacred fields (Kurukshetra), sacred cities (Benares, Mathura, Puri, etc.).
There are many places of worship, temples and other shrines that attract many pilgrims. Among the most significant Hindu temples are the Venkateswara temple in Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh), Meenakshi in Madurai (Tamil Nadu), Jagannath in Puri (Orissa), Vitthala in Pandharpur (Maharashtra), etc. The entire Indian land (Bharatavarsha) is sacred.
Theoretically, in Hinduism, any unusual object or person can become an object of religious worship. The emergence and development of Hindu cults continues to this day.
Rituals and rituals occupy a very important place in Hinduism. Ritual worship of certain sacred beings and objects is called puja(lit., worship, glorification). The phenomenon of puja goes back to local, non-Vedic religious customs. The cult object in puja, in the form of its image or symbol, is served directly, which distinguishes puja from the Vedic yagna (sacrifice). In large shrines such as the Jagannath Temple, major services are held five times a day. At the head of the temple clergy, usually consisting of Brahmins, is the pujari, or pujapanda.
It is believed that during puja, the deity descends into the body of the pujari, after which it “moves” into its anthropomorphic image (murti), most often made in the form of some kind of statue, or into a corresponding symbol (for example, into a lingam if Shiva is worshiped). After performing the puja, the deity leaves the murti and ascends again to its transcendental spheres. Each puja consists of certain steps. Liturgical manuals usually describe 16 such steps, including contemplation of the deity’s transition into the murti, offering the deity a seat (asana), water for washing hands and feet, offering food, betel nut for chewing, etc. A ritual swaying of the lamp is performed in front of the deity’s face. , burn incense, read sacred sayings - mantras, sing religious hymns, fold their fingers in special gestures (mudras). In its form, the attitude towards the deity in puja goes back to the ancient customs of treating the guest of honor. In the morning, the deity (in the form of his murti) is awakened in his bedroom, entertaining him with singing and dancing; they dress, feed, etc. In the evening the murti is put to bed. On holidays, murtis ritually travel around a city or village on chariots.
Ordinary believers do not take part in temple puja. The purpose of the visit of believers to the temple is to contemplate the object of worship, with a ritual walk around it, as well as to make an offering. Among the offerings, rice, fruits, and dairy products predominate; In some Hindu cults, such as Shaktism, animals are sacrificed during pujas. In Shaktism, followers of high degrees of initiation use erotic elements in some rituals (panchamakara). Magic rituals in which their performer tries to impose his will on a particular creature also have a certain significance. Home or family puja is not much different from temple puja; it is simpler in its implementation and is carried out, as a rule, through the efforts of the family members themselves.
Rituals and ceremonies accompany Hindus throughout their lives. In the dharmashastras - ancient treatises containing various prescriptions - there are on average up to 40 household rituals of the life cycle (sanskaras), many of which date back to the Vedic era. Such ceremonies begin long before the birth of a future member of the Hindu community. Thus, special rituals are designed to help conceive a child and promote its development in the womb. At about six months of age, the child is solemnly given a name corresponding to the social status of his parents (namakarana). One of the most significant and ancient household rituals is initiation (upanayana), which all males from the first three varnas (brahmins, kshatriyas and vaishyas) must undergo. The main element of Upanayana is putting on the sacred thread, which symbolizes the “second birth” of a person and at the same time the entry into the first of four age stages, or ashram - the stage of discipleship. Anyone who fails to complete this ceremony becomes an outcast. Marriage (vivaha) is also a very important ritual. Ancient texts distinguish eight types of marriage. The actual marriage ceremony is preceded by an engagement, also ritually furnished, with visits from relatives, gifts, and treats. The ritual is carried out on a favorable, pre-selected day. During the vivah ritual, the bride and groom walk around the sacred fire and perform other ceremonial actions. The series of sanskars ends with a series of rites of farewell to the deceased and cremation (less often burial) of the latter.
Certain events in the life of a family or community that do not fit into the framework of regularly celebrated calendar events or age-related ceremonies also have their own rituals. Thus, when a building is inhabited, a puja is performed in honor of the god Vastupurusha, the guardian of the order of sacrifice. Religious suicides, widespread in medieval Hinduism, were also perceived as ritual acts. The burning of a widow was ritually performed (the rite of sati). The execution of criminals was also perceived in a ritual sense, which allowed the latter to be cleared of guilt. Mass folk festivals (Diwali, Holi, etc.) are also ritualized.
Everything related to the ritual requires special purity. The idea of ritual purity and impurity became one of the key ones in the process of formation of the caste system of Indian society. Thus, butchers, executioners, scavengers, etc. were considered ritually unclean social groups. The dead and relatives of those who died recently, women during menstruation and childbirth, and widows are considered unclean. Contact with ritually unclean things or people should entail additional cleansing rituals for a devout Hindu, otherwise he himself is considered unclean. Purification includes fasting, reading mantras and prayers, ascetic practices, and the use of products from a sacred animal - the cow. Hindu rituals had a great influence on the ritual practices of Jainism and Buddhism, and became the basis for the formation and rituals of Sikhism. In fact, Hindu rituals acquired pan-Indian significance and began to be largely perceived as synonymous with the practical component of Indian spiritual culture as a whole.
Even in the era of Brahmanism it was established four-part varna system of society, Members of each varna are prescribed strictly specific activities. Brahmins must perform rituals and teach sacred knowledge, kshatriyas- rule, fight and defend, vaishyas- trade and Shudras- serve. The first three classes were called "twice-born" because their members underwent an initiation rite. Shudras had no right to undergo such initiation.
However, real life often refuted both the hierarchy of varnas and their imaginary impenetrability.
From about the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. A caste system begins to form, which is superimposed on the varna system. It is assumed that the emergence of castes was associated with the process of differentiation of various professions and occupations, as well as with the settlement of Aryans throughout the country. The developing trend of ritual purity was also of some importance. In the process of “Arization,” i.e., mass integration into Indo-Aryan society of many local tribes and nationalities at different stages of development, the latter found themselves outside the established social structure and fell into the category of low-caste or non-caste layers. The caste system finally took shape by the end of the 1st millennium AD. e. The term caste itself is of Portuguese origin, it has been known since the beginning of the 16th century, but in India a similar term was used jati(genus). The main features of caste (jati) are endogamy (marriages take place only within the caste); strict regulation of contacts with other castes; general occupation; veneration of a certain circle of deities; finally, your status in the social environment.
Caste is one big family whose members support each other. Observance of caste regulations actually coincides with observance of religious commandments. To be expelled from the caste for violating the rules for a Hindu means moving into the state of a social outcast. There is a hierarchy of castes, with powerless groups of “untouchables” (chandals) at the very bottom. Currently there are almost 3 thousand castes. Although officially, according to the Indian constitution, there are no castes in the country, at the everyday level the caste division of society in many places in India still persists. Only a person who was born into one of the castes can be a Hindu, therefore there is no proselytism in traditional Hinduism.
The institution of varshrama (regulation of a person’s lifestyle depending on his age; relates primarily to brahmins), consisting of four life stages: apprenticeship (brahmacharya), owning a house and farm (grihastha), forest hermitage (vanaprastha) and wandering (sannyasa).
In the XIII-XVI centuries. the bhakti movement is experiencing significant growth in various regions of the country; the most important directions of bhakti (the schools of Dnyaneshwar, Chaitanya, Kabir, etc.) became at that time a powerful and influential religious force. Based on one of the directions of bhakti at the beginning of the 16th century. The Sikh religion, or Sikhism, is formed. In the same era of the Middle Ages, Hinduism faced such an ideological enemy as Islam, but managed to adapt to it and even partially influenced it. On the other hand, certain Hindu movements (Kabir Panth, etc.) adopted some Islamic (Sufi) ideas. The Mughal ruling elite showed interest in Hinduism: Emperor Akbar tried to combine on a rationalistic basis a number of provisions of Islam and Hinduism in the new religion he invented, “din-i-ilahi” (“divine faith”), and by order of Prince Dara Shukoh in mid-17th century The texts of 50 Upanishads were translated into Persian from Sanskrit. But there were also frequent cases of brutal oppression of Hindus by Muslim rulers, in particular the destruction of Hindu temples and the construction of mosques in their place. Emperor Aurangzeb (second half of the 17th century) became famous for his intolerant attitude towards Hinduism.
In the middle of the 18th century. British colonial rule was established in India. A few decades after this, some educated Hindus, who became acquainted with the achievements of Western civilization, reflecting on the peculiarities of their own tradition, began to come to the conclusion about the need for socio-religious reforms. This is how neo-Hinduism arose, a special form of Hinduism that had a significant impact on the growth of national self-awareness. Until today, neo-Hinduism is closely intertwined with classical Hinduism.
The twentieth century was marked by powerful protests by the “untouchables” who protested against the discrimination they suffered at the hands of caste Hindus. The outstanding public and statesman of India B. R. R. Ambedkar (1891-1956) managed to achieve a legislative prohibition of caste discrimination. In the post-war period, which coincided with India gaining complete independence from England (since 1947) and the separation of India from Muslim Pakistan, tension grew between Islam and Hinduism, as well as between Hinduism and Sikhism, which continues to this day. Much of this tension was caused by the development of the nationalist idea of Hindutva, or "Hindu communalism", according to which Indian soil was the sacred homeland of Hindus. Hindutva ideologists dream of establishing a Hindu state in the country and talk about the superiority of Hinduism over other religions.
Currently, over 80% of India's population, or more than 800 million people, consider themselves Hindus. Many Hindus also live abroad - in the USA, Europe, and African countries. In Russia, followers of Hindu cults are attested from the 17th century. (as part of the Indian trade embassies in Astrakhan), however, the attitude towards Hinduism on the part of the majority of Russians continues to be ambiguous. At the beginning of the 21st century. The number of followers of Hinduism in Russia is small, only a few thousand people, and the vast majority of them belong to various Hare Krishna communities. Yoga, which is popular in our country, is almost not perceived in the context of Hinduism.
Modern Hinduism is a very complex phenomenon in which traditionalism and archaism coexist with innovation. Some Hindu customs are dying out (for example, sati or child marriage), on the other hand, other facets and shades appear in Hinduism as it tries to adapt to new realities. Modern Hindus form large organizations and associations, hold meetings and congresses, and actively participate in the political and social life of the country.
Centuries of peaceful coexistence in Hinduism of various cults and forms of religious practice, combined with the idea of non-violence, contributed to the development in it of a special spirit of religious tolerance. Hinduism had a huge impact on the formation of traditional Indian society. To this day, the concepts of “Indian” and “Hindu” are closely intertwined (cf. English, hindu). In addition, Hinduism has partly influenced the religious and philosophical beliefs of the West; throughout the 20th century. there was an export of Hindu practices and concepts beyond the spread of traditional Indian culture, which partly gives rise to talk about the tendency of Hinduism to become a world religion. So, although Hinduism faces certain difficulties in the face of changes and challenges of the current period of history, it continues to be a powerful force in the modern religious situation both in India and in the rest of the world.