Fundamentals of military topography. Cheat Sheet: Military Topography
TOPOGRAPHY
Commander's work card- this is a topographic map, prepared for work, used by the commander when solving assigned tasks.
1. Basic rules for drawing the situation on a working map
If unit commanders plot the situation on a map from the words of senior commanders giving an order or instruction, then in the process of hearing the order, they must quickly find the necessary points on the map and immediately put the necessary data on it. When setting up a combat mission directly on the ground, the map must be oriented and, comparing it with the terrain, the situation and your mission must be plotted on it.
Often the situation is plotted on a map from a written document (order, instruction). In this case, the following order is usually followed. First, they understand the contents of the written document, always focusing on the map and lightly emphasizing on it the names of settlements and landmarks mentioned in the document. When re-reading the text, the situational data (information about the enemy, unit tasks, etc.) set out in the document are plotted on a map.
The situation is drawn on working cards with pencils of certain colors.
Red color shows the position, tasks and actions of tank, motorized rifle, airborne units, their control points, demarcation lines, and rear institutions.
The position, tasks and actions of missile, artillery, anti-aircraft, engineering, chemical, radio engineering, communications units, logistical institutions of these troops, as well as signatures relating to their troops are indicated in black.
Enemy troops are depicted in blue, including their engineering structures, barriers, etc., as well as signatures and digital designations related to them.
To designate friendly troops and the enemy, they use the same tactical symbols, the size of which x is coordinated with the scale of the map and the size of the designated objects.
Contour and linear symbols, when drawn on a map, must be coordinated in outline - with the relief and contours of local objects along which they are located - (forest edges, the configuration of the outskirts of settlements, coastlines), always showing the directions of action and firing. Conventional signs of marching columns should be placed next to conventional road signs (Fig. 91).
The position and actions of friendly troops and the enemy are plotted with solid lines, and intended or planned actions are shown with intermittent lines. The positions of the unit, relating to different points in time, should be shown by lines of different styles, accompanied by a time stamp (Fig. 92).
Captions related to the tactical situation should be placed parallel to the northern side of the map frame, matching their size with the scale of the map, the size and significance of the objects to which they relate.
When plotting location data, you need to ensure that the necessary elements of the map content (elevation marks, landmarks, names of settlements, etc.) remain clearly readable.
Symbols and signatures are drawn on the map neatly and clearly. It is recommended to use commander’s ruler stencils for this. Thoroughness and accuracy in maintaining a work map must be combined with speed of work.
In order not to overload the map, you need to put on it only the main and most important things; minor and rapidly changing data should be remembered or written down in the margins or in an empty space on the card, and outdated information should be erased with an eraser.
2. What is a coordinate system. What coordinate systems do you know, their characteristics.
Coordinate systems used in topography
Coordinates are called angular and linear quantities (numbers) that determine the position of a point on any surface or in space.
There are many different coordinate systems that are widely used in various fields of science and technology.
In topography, coordinate systems are used that make it possible to most simply and unambiguously determine the position of points on the earth's surface, both from the results of direct measurements on the ground and using maps. Such systems include geographic, flat rectangular, polar and bipolar coordinates.
In the geographic coordinate system position of any point on the earth's surface relative to the origin of coordinates
is defined in angular measure. In our country and in most other countries, the point of intersection of the prime (Greenwich) meridian with the equator is taken as the beginning. Being thus uniform for our entire planet, the system of geographic coordinates is convenient for solving problems of determining the relative position of objects located at significant distances from each other. Therefore, in military affairs, this system is used mainly for conducting calculations related to the use of long-range combat weapons, for example, ballistic missiles, aviation, etc.
Plane rectangular coordinate system is zonal; it is established for each six-degree zone into which the Earth’s surface is divided when depicting it on maps in the Gaussian projection, and is intended to indicate the position of images of points of the earth’s surface on a plane (map) in this projection.
The origin of coordinates in a zone is the point of intersection of the axial meridian with the equator, relative to which the position of all other points in the zone is determined in a linear measure. The origin of the zone and its coordinate axes occupy a strictly defined position on the earth's surface. Therefore, the system of flat rectangular coordinates of each zone is connected both with the coordinate systems of all other zones and with the system of geographical coordinates.
The use of linear quantities to determine the position of points makes the system of flat rectangular coordinates very convenient for carrying out calculations both when working on the ground and on a map. Therefore, this system is most widely used among the troops. Rectangular coordinates indicate the position of terrain points, their battle formations and targets, and with their help determine the relative position of objects within one coordinate zone or in adjacent areas of two zones.
Polar and bipolar coordinate systems are local systems. In military practice, they are used to determine the position of some points relative to others in relatively small areas of the terrain, for example, when designating targets, marking landmarks and targets, drawing up terrain diagrams, etc. These systems can be associated with systems of rectangular and geographic coordinates.
The system of flat polar coordinates (Fig. 16) consists of point O - the origin, or pole, and the initial direction OR, called the polar axis. The position of point M on the ground or on the map in this system is determined by two coordinates: the position angle 0, which is measured clockwise from the polar axis to the direction to the defined point M (from 0 to 360°), and the distance
Depending on the problem being solved, the pole is taken to be an observation post, a firing position, or a starting point of movement.
etc., and beyond the polar axis - the geographic (true) meridian, the magnetic meridian (the direction of the magnetic compass needle) or the direction to some landmark. The system of flat bipolar (two-pole) coordinates (Fig. 17) consists of two poles A and B and a common axis AB, called the basis or base of the notch. The position of any point M relative to two data on the map (terrain) points A to B is determined by the coordinates that are measured on the map or on the terrain. These coordinates can be either two position angles that determine the directions from points A and B to the desired point M, or the distances D 1 = AM and D 2 - BM to it. The position angles in this case, as shown in Fig. 17, are measured at points A and B or from the direction of the basis (i.e. angle A = BAM and angle B = ABM) or from any other directions passing through points A and B and taken as the initial ones. For example, in Fig. The 17th place of point M is determined by position angles 61 and 62, measured from the direction of the magnetic meridians.
The above coordinate systems determine the planned position of points on the surface of the earth's ellipsoid. To determine the position of a point on the physical surface of the Earth, in addition to the planned position, indicate its height (elevation) above sea level. In the USSR, heights are calculated from the average level of the Baltic Sea, from the zero point of the Kronstadt water gauging station. The heights of points on the earth's surface above sea level are called absolute, and their elevations above any other point are called relative.
3. What is a work card. What does preparing a card for work include?
Commander's work card- this is a topographic map prepared for work and used by the commander in solving assigned tasks.
Unit commanders put on their work maps only those situational data that they need to understand the combat mission, make reports, assign tasks to subordinate units, as well as when drawing up reports and other combat documents. It is not recommended to put information on the karate that is not directly related to the performance of one’s functional duties.
Preparing the card for work includes:
Familiarization with the map consists of understanding its main characteristics - graphic accuracy, detail and modernity, as well as information placed in the outer design of the map;
Gluing the card;
Folding the card;
Raising the map (mapping the main objects for unit commanders).
4. Types of conventional topographic signs. What is their difference from tactical symbols (give examples).
Conventional signs, according to their purpose and properties, are divided into the following three types: scale, non-scale and explanatory.
Scale, or contour, symbols denote objects that are expressed on a map scale, that is, those whose dimensions (length, width, and area) can be measured on the map.
Each such sign consists of a contour, i.e., a planned outline of the depicted object, and an explanatory designation that fills it ^ in the form of background coloring, colored shading or a grid of icons (filling signs) identical in design, indicating the genus and variety of the object.
The contours of objects are shown as dotted lines on maps if they do not coincide with other terrain lines (ditches, coastlines, roads, fences, etc.), which are indicated by their own symbols.
In non-scale and, or point, symbols, small-sized objects are depicted (wells, tower-type structures, free-standing landmark trees, etc.), which are not expressed on the scale of the map, and therefore they can only be represented on it in the form of points.
The figurative drawing of such a sign includes this, as it were, main point, showing the exact position of this object on the ground, and indicates what kind of object it is. Such a main point is located (Fig. 33):
For signs of symmetrical shape (circle, square, rectangle, asterisk) - in the center of the figure;
For signs that have the shape of a figure with a wide base, in the middle of the base;
For signs that have a base in the form of a right angle, at the apex of the angle;
For signs that are a combination of several figures, in the center of the lower figure.
These main points must be used for accurate measurements on a map of distances between objects and for determining their coordinates.
Non-scale conventional signs also include signs of roads, streams and other linear local objects, for which only the length is expressed on a scale; the width cannot be measured from a map. The exact position of such objects on the ground corresponds to the longitudinal axis (middle) of the sign on the map.
It must be borne in mind that such small-sized objects as, for example, wells, gas stations (gas stations), water towers, etc., are depicted on all maps with out-of-scale symbols, while larger objects (settlements, rivers, etc.) etc.) are depicted, depending on the Map Scale, by contour or off-scale symbols. For example, settlements on a large scale are depicted by contour symbols with many details. As the map scale decreases, the same points are depicted in less detail, in a more general way; on small-scale maps they can only be shown as circles or other small figures, i.e., off-scale symbols.
Out-of-scale symbols themselves do not indicate the size of objects or the area they occupy, so it is impossible to measure, for example, the width of a bridge on a map.
Explanatory symbols are used to further characterize objects and show their varieties. For example, a symbol of a coniferous or deciduous tree inside a forest outline shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river shows the direction of flow, etc.
5. What is relief, the essence of depicting relief with horizontal lines.
Relief is a set of irregularities on the earth's surface, composed of a variety of elementary forms of various orders. ,
There are large, structural forms of relief that form the surface of relatively large geographical areas (mountains, plains, highlands), and smaller elementary forms of irregularities that make up the surface of these relief objects.
Combinations of homogeneous forms, similar in appearance, structure and size and naturally repeated in a certain territory, form different types and varieties of relief.
Based on the elevation above sea level and the degree of dissection of the earth's surface, two main types of relief are distinguished - mountainous and flat. Their classification by altitude above sea level is shown in Table.
6. Topographic map, its purpose. Nomenclature of topographic maps (give examples).
Nomenclature of map sheets
The nomenclature of each sheet is indicated above the north side of its frame. Next to the nomenclature, in addition, the name of the largest settlement shown on it is signed.
Each sheet also indicates the nomenclature of adjacent sheets, which facilitates their selection when gluing the card. These signatures are placed in the middle of the sides of the outer frame of the sheet. » The designation of sheets of topographic maps of any scale is based on the nomenclature of sheets of a millionth map.
The rows of sheets of this map are designated by capital letters of the Latin alphabet (from A to V) and are counted from the equator to the poles. The columns of the sheets are numbered from 1 to 60. The columns are counted from the 180° meridian from west to east.
The nomenclature of a 1:1000000 map sheet consists of indicating the row (letters) and columns (numbers) at the intersection of which it is located. For example, a sheet from the city of Smolensk has the nomenclature N-36 (Fig. 7).
The columns of the sheets of the millionth map coincide with the six-degree coordinate zones into which the surface of the earth's ellipsoid is divided when calculating coordinates and drawing up maps in the Gaussian projection. The difference lies only in their numbering: since the coordinate zones are counted from the zero (Greenwich) meridian, and the columns of the sheets of the millionth map are counted from the 180° meridian, the zone number differs from the column number by 30. Therefore, knowing the nomenclature of the diet card, it is easy determine which zone it belongs to. For example, sheet M-35 is located in the 5th zone (35-30), and sheet K-29 is located in the 59th zone (29 + 30).
The nomenclature of sheets of maps of scales 1:100,000 - 1:500,000 is made up of the nomenclature of the corresponding sheet of the millionth map with the addition of a number (digits) or a letter indicating the location of this sheet on it.
As can be seen from Fig. 8, sheets of all scales are counted from left to right and top to bottom, while:
Sheets of scale 1:500000 (4 sheets) are designated by Russian capital letters A, B, C and D. Therefore, if the nomenclature of a sheet of a millionth map is, for example, N-36, then the sheet of scale 1:500,000 shaded in the figure has nomenclature N- 36-Ga sheet from the city of Smolensk -N-36-A;
Sheets of scale 1:200000 (36 sheets) are designated by Roman numerals from I to XXXVI. Thus, the nomenclature of the sheet from Smolensk will be N-36-IX;
Sheets of scale 1:100000 are numbered from 1 to 144. For example, a sheet with the city of Smolensk has the nomenclature N-36-41.
A sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 corresponds to 4 sheets of a scale of 1:50,000, denoted by Russian capital letters A, B, C, D, and a sheet of a scale of 1:50,000 corresponds to 4 sheets of a map of 1:25,000, denoted by lowercase letters a, b, c, d (Fig. 9). In accordance with this, the nomenclature of map sheets 1:50000 is composed of the nomenclature of a sheet of scale 1:100000, and sheets maps 1:25000 - from the nomenclature of a sheet of scale 1:50000 with the addition of a letter indicating this sheet.
For example, N-36-41-8 denotes a sheet of scale 1:50000, and N-3641-В-а - sheet of scale 1:25000 from the city of Smolensk.
For areas north of the 60° parallel, topographic maps of all scales are published in double longitude sheets, and north of the 76° parallel - in quadruple sheets, with the exception of a map of scale 1:200000, which is published in triple sheets. The nomenclature of such summary sheets is composed of the nomenclature of the left single sheet with the addition of the final indices (letters or numbers) of the nomenclatures of the remaining sheets. For example, R-52-V, VI (1:200,000 scale map), R-52-23, 24 (1: 100,000 scale map).
Maps of scales 1: 500,000 and 1: 1,000,000 are issued along with the regular edition, in addition, in rectangular frames that do not coincide with the geographic grid. The pages of this edition are much larger than usual. They are convenient for gluing them into multi-leaf blocks covering large areas.
7. Explain the principle of movement in azimuth.
When moving along azimuths at each gate point of the route, starting from the starting point; They find the desired direction of the path on the ground using a compass and move along it, measuring the distance traveled in steps, and when driving a car, using a speedometer. In order to more accurately maintain this direction, select some auxiliary landmark on it. Having reached it, they mark the next intermediate landmark and continue moving towards it. At the turning point, these actions are repeated. And so on until the end of the route. You can use any celestial body as an auxiliary reference point at night. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that it moves across the vault of heaven, and if you do not take this into account and do not check the correctness of movement with a compass every 10 - 15 minutes, then you can significantly deviate to the side.
When moving through open, but poor terrain, the direction can be maintained along the target. To do this, having outlined the direction of the path with a compass at the beginning of the movement and moving along it, they leave behind themselves at certain intervals some leading signs (an end, a stake driven into the ground, a milestone) and then, looking back at these signs, make sure that the direction of movement did not deviate from the target line. When driving on soft ground and a snow field, the direction signs can be replaced by a trace of one’s own movement (traces of tracks or car wheels, ski tracks).
If you have a map, the correctness of drawing out the route of movement along azimuths in the sections between its turning points, even in a closed or poor area with landmarks, can at least occasionally be controlled by the nature of the relief and local objects encountered along the way. Therefore, when moving along azimuths, especially over long distances, you must definitely use a map.
If a unit moves along azimuths on foot, then it is advisable to appoint one of the soldiers as a guide (azimuth-keeper) with the task of correctly maintaining the direction of movement according to the compass, and one or two soldiers to measure the distance traveled in steps,
When driving a car using a gyro-semi-compass, first determine the directional angle or magnetic azimuth of the longitudinal axis of the car. This can be done according to the directional angle of direction - a landmark visible from the standing point, or according to the compass.
To determine the directional angle of the longitudinal axis of the machine, it is installed at a point from which any distant landmark indicated on the map is visible. Using a turret inclinometer or sight, the longitudinal axis of the vehicle is aligned with the direction to this landmark. The directional angle of direction to the landmark is determined from the map and set on the gyro-semi-compass scale. Instead of directing to a landmark, you can use any terrain line (straight section of road, clearing, power line, etc.).
To determine the magnetic azimuth of the longitudinal axis of the car using a compass, move forward or backward from it by 50 - 60 m and measure the direction azimuth along one side of the car with a compass, and then along the other and take the average of the two results.
After the directional angle (magnetic azimuth) of the longitudinal axis of the machine has been set on the gyro-semi-compass scale, it is turned so that the scale index has a reading equal to the directional angle (magnetic azimuth) of the direction to the first turning point, the lock is released and movement begins. The car is driven in such a way that, throughout the entire section of the route to the next landmark, the index reading corresponding to the established course is maintained. Having reached the turn and making sure that the movement is correct, they turn the car so that a reading equal to the directional angle of the next section of the route stands opposite the index, and move in this direction.
To control and clarify the gyro-semi-compass readings during movement, linear landmarks indicated on the map are used. If this is not possible, every 1.5 - 2 hours of movement, at one of the turning points, the directional angle of the longitudinal axis of the machine is determined by the same methods as at the starting point.
8. Orientation on the terrain. Methods of orientation. Types of landmarks (give examples).
Navigate the terrain in combat conditions- this means determining your location and the desired direction of movement or action relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding terrain objects, the location of your troops and enemy troops. The essence of orientation consists of three main elements:
Recognizing the area you are in by its characteristic features and landmarks;
Determination of location (your own, observed targets and other objects of interest);
Finding and determining the necessary directions on the ground.
The most important task of orientation is finding and maintaining a given direction of movement in any situation: during combat, during reconnaissance, during a march.
All actions of the unit commander are inevitably related to terrain orientation. Without orientation, assigning combat missions to units and firepower, target designation, mapping the results of enemy reconnaissance and terrain, and controlling units during combat are unthinkable.
The ability to quickly and accurately navigate the terrain in any conditions is one of the most important elements of field training for officers. Terrain orientation is not an occasional event in the work of a commander. It must be carried out systematically by the commander himself and the personnel of the unit under his leadership, both during preparation and during the execution of a combat mission.
Orienteering is based on the ability to select landmarks on the ground and use them as beacons indicating the desired directions, points and boundaries.
Studying and memorizing an unfamiliar area of terrain should always begin by selecting three or four of the most noticeable landmarks. You need to remember their appearance and relative position well, so that in the future you can use them to identify the area at any point and determine your location. When moving, landmarks are chosen in the direction of the path, sequentially marking them as they enter new areas.
You can navigate the area in various ways. Unit commanders are guided primarily by the map. Using it, they determine their location, identify surrounding local objects and relief elements, and establish the location of observed targets and other objects. Soldiers and sergeants have to navigate mainly by landmarks and with the help of a compass. To reach the desired point, the commander indicates to them the azimuth of the direction of movement and landmarks along the route of movement. The unit commander usually prepares this data using a map.
For orientation in areas poor in landmarks, in large populated areas and in areas where significant changes in the terrain have occurred, it is advantageous to use aerial photographs. Detailed images on aerial photographs of the outlines of local objects and small details that cannot be placed on the map, and other features inherent in photographic images, allow in most cases to accurately determine their location and observed objects, select landmarks along the route of movement and control the correctness of the intended route.
For reliable and accurate orientation in any terrain and weather conditions - in the forest, desert, in poor visibility - many combat vehicles are equipped with special so-called navigation equipment. It allows you to know the coordinates of the vehicle’s location and the directional angle of the direction of movement at any time.
Closely related to orientation is target designation, the tasks of which are to determine and indicate the location of detected targets.
In order to accurately determine your location and the position of observed objects and correctly carry out target designation, you must be able to determine the distances to objects and directions to them on the ground.
9. Measuring angles and distances on the ground.
During orientation and target designation, it is necessary not only to determine magnetic azimuths, but also to measure horizontal angles between different directions to objects. These measurements can be made using a turret inclinometer, compass, binoculars and aiming devices available on combat vehicles, as well as a periscope artillery compass.
Measuring angles using a tower inclinometer. On tanks and some other combat vehicles there is a goniometer device for measuring the angle of rotation of the turret (Fig. 62). It consists of the main scale 1, located on the shoulder strap along the entire length of its circumference, and the reporting scale 2, mounted on the rotating cap of the turret. The main scale is divided into 600 divisions (division value 0-10). The reporting scale has 10 divisions and allows you to count angles with an accuracy of 0-01. In some machines, the turret is mechanically connected to the arrows of the azimuth indicator, on which there are scales for coarse and fine angle readings. The azimuth pointer also allows you to read the angle with an accuracy of 0-01. To aim at the observed object, an optical sight is used, in the field of view of which there is a crosshair or square. The optical sight is mounted on a rotating turret in such a way that in the 0-00 position its optical axis is parallel to the longitudinal axis of the machine.
To determine the angle between the longitudinal axis of the machine and the direction towards the object, it is necessary to turn the rotating turret cap in the direction towards this object until the crosshair (square) aligns with the object and read the reading on the goniometric scale. The horizontal angle between the directions of any two objects will be equal to the difference in the scale reading for these objects.
Measuring angles with a compass. To measure the angle on the ground between the directions of two objects in degrees, you need to set the compass pointer to zero on the dial and turn the compass so that the sighting line is directed to the left object. Then turn to face the second object and, rotating the lid, direct the sight line to this object. The count against the front sight pointer will be the desired angle. When measuring an angle in thousandths, the zero count of the dial is directed to the right object, since the count of thousandths increases counterclockwise.
Measuring angles with binoculars and observation and aiming devices, are carried out mainly during target designation. To do this, combine some stroke of the goniometric scale with one of the directions and count the number of divisions to the second direction. By multiplying this reading and the value of the scale division, we obtain the value of the measured angle in thousandths.
Determination of distances on the ground.
Eye gauge.
An eye meter is the main and fastest way to determine distances. To develop the eye, systematic exercises are required on a variety of terrain, checking the results on a map, aerial photographs, or by direct measurements on the ground with a rangefinder, tape measure, or steps. To develop your eye, you first need to learn to confidently distinguish distances of 25, 50 and 100 m on any terrain. After these distances have been mastered, training begins to determine large distances (200, 400, 800 and 1000 m). When these distances are fixed in visual memory, they are used as standards, comparing the distances to the observed objects with them.
The accuracy of the eye meter depends on the training of the observer, on the magnitude of the distances being determined and on the observation conditions. For distances up to 1000 m, with sufficiently experienced observers, errors usually do not exceed 10–15a of the distance. At larger distances they can in some cases reach 50.
Determination of distances based on the measured angular dimensions of objects
10. Justify the thousandth formula. Its practical application.
This method is applicable only if the linear value (height, width or length) of the object to which the distance D is determined, or any other object located in close proximity to it, is known. The method is reduced to measuring in thousandths of an angle, at which the object is visible, and to the subsequent solution of the problem: by the ratio of the linear magnitude (B) and angular magnitude (Y) of the object, determine the distance to it. This proportion is called the thousandths formula:
The angular magnitude of an object is measured using field binoculars or observation and aiming devices available on the combat vehicle.
Example. The power line support, whose height is 18 m, covers four divisions of the observation device, the price of one division is 0-05. Determine the distance to the support.
Solution: Applying the thousandths formula, we get:
m
The error in measuring distances based on the angular dimensions of objects does not exceed 8% of the determined distance, provided that the dimensions of the observed object are known quite accurately and the value of the angle Y does not exceed 300 thousandths (3-00).
11. Determination of coordinates. Methods of target designation on the map and on the ground.
12. Methods for determining the sides of the horizon on the ground (give examples).
13. Classification of topographic maps (give examples).
14. Determination of coordinates. Methods for measuring distances and areas on a map
15.Use of the map for reports and setting tasks. Conventional abbreviations used in combat documents (give examples).
Install a secure browser
Document preview
Military printing house
Question 1 Topographic map
such a map, the completeness of the content and accuracy of which allows solving technical problems.
Topography is the science of creating topographic maps.
Depending on the scale, topographic maps are divided into:
Topographic plans (scale 1:400-1:5000)
Large-scale topographic maps (scale 1:10000-1:100000)
Medium-scale (scale 1:200 thousand-1:1 million)
Small-scale (scale more than 1 million)
[that is, if the scale is larger than 1:5000, it is a topographic plan, and if smaller, it is a topographic map]
Depending on the type of layout, topographic maps can be divided into:
Rectangular maps
Cards with international graphics
Question 2 Nomenclature of cards
The division of a multi-sheet map into separate sheets according to a certain system is called map layout, and the designation of a sheet of a multi-sheet map is called nomenclature. In cartographic practice, the following map layout systems are used:
along the lines of the cartographic grid of meridians and parallels;
along the lines of a rectangular coordinate grid;
along auxiliary lines parallel to the middle meridian of the map and a line perpendicular to it, etc.
The most widespread in cartography is the layout of maps along the lines of meridians and parallels, since in this case the position of each sheet of the map on the earth's surface is precisely determined by the values of the geographical coordinates of the corners of the frame and the position of its lines. Such a system is universal, convenient for depicting any territory of the globe, except for the polar regions. It is used in Russia, the USA, France, Germany and many other countries of the world.
The basis for the layout and nomenclatures of map sheets at a scale of 1:500,000 and larger are the international layout and nomenclatures of map sheets at a scale of 1:1,000,000. The sheets of this map along the parallels form belts, each with 4° latitude, and along the meridians - columns, each with 6 ° longitude. The belts are designated by capital letters of the Latin alphabet (from A to V), starting from the equator to the north and south, and the columns by Arabic numerals (from 1 to 60) from the 180° meridian from west to east. The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 consists of a letter indicating the belt and a column number (for example, a sheet with the city of Moscow is designated N-37)
Question 4 Measuring distances on a map.
Determining a distance on a map means measuring the distance between two points or the length of a route.
1). Straight lines shorter than a linear scale are measured using a linear scale.
2). Straight lines longer than the linear scale are measured by compass increments or on a kilometer grid. The remainder of the kilometer line or the remainder less than the step of the compass is measured on a linear scale.
3). Broken lines are measured by the pitch of a compass with a constant increase.
4). Distances along curved lines are measured using a compass step, the alignment of which should not exceed 0.5 - 1 cm.
5). When measuring distances along broken lines, you need to use a curvimeter.
Note: the compass and ruler can be replaced with a sheet of paper, a match, etc.
A linear scale is a geographic representation of a numerical scale in the form of a straight line with divisions for measuring distances. The linear scale on maps is plotted below the numerical scale.
The numerical scale is indicated on the map in the form of a ratio 1: M, where M is a number indicating how many times the lengths of terrain lines are reduced when depicting them on the map. Example: 1:50,000 means that any unit of length on the map corresponds to 50,000 of the same units on the ground.
Corrections in distance for slope and tortuosity of lines
The distance measured on the map turns out to be shorter than the actual one, because the inclined lines are larger than their positions, and it is not always possible to depict all the curves of the road on the map scale. Therefore, when determining the true distance, it is necessary to take into account the coefficient (see below).
TABLE OF CORRECTION COEFFICIENTS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT OF ROAD SLOPE AND TURNOUSITY:
Character
terrain
Route increase factor,
measured by map
HILLY
PLAIN
TOPOGRAPHIC ELEMENTS OF THE TERRAIN
Typical landforms and their characteristics
All the variety of irregularities that form the earth's surface can be divided
into different forms, which are usually called basic
typical landforms. These include landforms.
A hill that is usually domed or conical
form. The top part of a mountain, called the summit, may look like a dome
(dome-shaped mountain) or flat level area (plateau), or ends
tip (peak). The lower part of the mountain (base) is called the sole, and the slopes from
tops to bottom - slopes. The shape of the slope can be smooth, convex,
concave and wavy. Flat and concave slopes visible from the top
hills to the sole. Convexities and slopes are characterized by the presence of an inflection, which
covers part of the terrain, thereby creating blind areas when
view of the slope from the top of the hill. A slope is called wavy if it is
along its course it moves from flat to convex, then to concave, again to
flat, etc.; it is a combination of different stingrays. Wavy ramp
creates unfavorable conditions for viewing the area, since the presence of
kinks do not allow viewing the entire slope. At the same time, such slope kinks
often create favorable conditions for covert movement and approach to
the intended object.
Depending on the steepness, slopes are divided into flat (up to 10°), medium
steepness (10-20°), steep (20-30°), very steep (30-60°) and steep (over
60°).
Slope steepness (KS) refers to the angle formed by an inclined surface
slope and horizontal plane (Fig. 1). The magnitude of this angle is usually expressed in
degrees, but can be expressed in any other angular measures, for example in
thousandths The steepness of the slope can be determined both directly on the ground and
and on the map. A mountain of small height, with a clearly defined base, slopes and
the top is called a hill. The height of hills above the surrounding area is usually
does not exceed 200 m. Artificially created hills are called mounds.
2. Ridge.
A combination of several hills stretched in one direction,
or one such hill. A line that connects the highest points along
ridge (or any other hill) and from which in opposite directions
slopes diverge, called a watershed or topographic ridge.
3. Basin.
A depression that is clearly visible on the ground and has the shape
closed cup-shaped depression. The place where the decline begins is called
the edge of the basin, and the lowest part of the basin is the bottom. Small basin
called a pit.
4. Hollow.
An elongated and descending depression in one direction.
The line connecting the lowest points along the bottom of the ravine is called a weir. hollows,
located on a plain or on a gentle slope of a mountain and having sharply defined
the boundaries from which steep steep slopes go to the bottom of the ravine are called
ravines.
5. Saddle.
The lower part of the ridge, located between two adjacent
peaks. A saddle is almost always the starting point of two valleys that diverge into
opposite directions. In mountainous areas, communication routes through ridges, like
usually go through saddles. Such saddles are called passes. Mountain, ridge,
basin, ravine and saddle are typical landforms; top, bottom
basins are characteristic points, and the spillway and watershed are characteristic lines
relief. These points and lines constitute, as it were, the skeleton (skeleton) of the relief, defining
the general nature and relative position of the irregularities of a given area.
The essence of depicting relief with horizontal lines. The horizontal line is a closed line depicting a horizontal contour of unevenness on the map, all points of which on the ground are located at the same height above sea level. Horizontal lines can be represented as lines obtained as a result of cutting the terrain with level surfaces, that is, surfaces parallel to the water level in the oceans.
Fig. 1 The essence of depicting relief with horizontal lines.
Let's consider the essence of depicting relief with horizontal lines. Figure 1 shows an island with peaks A and B and coastlines D, E, F. The closed curve d e f is an image of the coastline in plan. Since the coastline is a cross-section of the island by the surface of the ocean, the image of this line on the map is a zero horizontal line, all points of which have a height equal to zero. Let us assume that the ocean level has risen to a height h, then a new section of the island is formed by an imaginary cutting plane h - h. By designing this section using plumb lines, we obtain on the map an image of the first horizontal line, all points of which have height h. In the same way, you can get on the map an image of other sections made at heights 2h, 3h, 4h, etc. As a result, the map will depict the island's relief with contour lines. In this case, the relief of the island is depicted by three horizontal lines, covering the entire island, and two horizontal lines, covering each of the peaks separately. Peak A is slightly higher than 4h, and peak B is slightly higher than 3h relative to ocean level. The slopes of hill A are steeper than the slopes of hill B, so in the first case the contour lines on the map are located closer to each other than in the second. It can be seen from the figure that the method of depicting the relief with horizontal lines allows you to correctly not only display the shapes of the relief, but also determine the heights of individual points of the earth's surface based on the height of the relief section and the steepness of the slopes.
Question 6 Types of conventional topographic signs
Conventional signs of local objects, according to their purpose and properties, are divided into the following three types: large-scale, non-scale and explanatory.
Scale symbols are used to designate local objects expressed on the map scale. They are divided into contour and linear. Contour ones consist of a contour and characters that are identical in design or tone color filling it (cities, forests, swamps, rivers). Linear signs are used when depicting objects of a linear nature (roads, power lines, borders, etc.).
Out-of-scale - for depicting local objects that are not expressed on the scale of the map (individual trees, houses, factories, etc.).
All of them include a main point showing the exact position of a given object on the map (Fig. 18).
Legend: Location of the main point of the symbol:
☼ - geometric center of the figure;
The middle of the base of the sign;
The vertex of a right angle;
Geometric center of the bottom figure.
This main point is located:
For signs of symmetrical shape (circle, square, rectangle, asterisk) in the center of the figure;
For signs that have a right angle at the base (windmills, free-standing trees, gas stations) - the apex of a right angle;
For signs with a wide base (factory chimneys, traffic lights and semaphores, monuments) - the middle of the base;
For signs that are a combination of several figures (factories, tower-type structures, radio stations, oil and gas rigs) - the geometric center of the lower figure.
Explanatory signs (inscriptions on maps):
A). full – names of rivers, cities, settlements;
b). abbreviated - for additional characteristics of the objects depicted on the map;
V). digital characteristics - to indicate the number of houses, heights, relief points, forest characteristics.
When depicting conventional topographical signs, the following colors of maps are used:
Forests, gardens, etc. – green color;
Hydrography – blue, cyan, turquoise;
Relief – brown;
Motorways, highways, populated areas – orange;
Improved dirt roads - yellow.
Question 7 Tactical properties of the terrain
Terrain properties important for military operations.
Cross-country ability is the ability of terrain to be overcome by a particular class of vehicle in a particular direction.
Fireability - how freely the terrain can be shot through from different types of weapons.
Camouflage - how well can soldiers and equipment be camouflaged on the ground.
Defensive properties - how much the terrain helps the defender.
Overview - how well the enemy's maneuvers are visible.
Based on tactical properties, terrain is divided into two main types: open (with poorly defined relief and with a small number of local objects) and closed (with pronounced relief and with a large number of both natural and artificial local objects). Both terrains can be rugged and have many different obstacles.
Depending on the nature of the relief, the area is divided into flat, hilly and mountainous.
Flat terrain within the visible horizon appears flat or slightly hilly. It is characterized by a slight steepness of slopes and the absence of pronounced surface irregularities.
Hilly terrain differs from flat terrain by the presence of hills and depressions, which in most cases have gentle ascents and descents, allowing the movement of all types of military equipment and transport.
The mountainous terrain has pronounced hills and depressions. The predominant forms of relief are mountains, ridges, hollows, and ravines.
According to the nature of the soil and vegetation cover, the area can be wooded, swampy, desert, steppe. The combination of relief and local objects creates other types of terrain: mountainous - wooded, wooded - swampy, etc.
Wooded area Wooded area refers to an area where over 50% of the area is covered with forest.
Mountain-forested terrain is characterized by the presence of mountains covered with forest. This creates favorable conditions for camouflaging troops from ground and air surveillance, for covert concentration of units and maneuver in battle.
Swampy terrain limits the movement of military equipment and vehicles, and often units on foot. This property of swampy terrain depends mainly on the nature and type of swamps, as well as on the time of year and weather.
Wooded and swampy terrain is characterized by the predominance of large forests located on loose soil, and a large number of swamps, streams, rivers and lakes.
Desert terrain is usually a plain or somewhat hilly surface, usually covered with sand or, less commonly, with rocky or clayey soil.
The steppe area is a large plain covered, as a rule, with grassy vegetation. In most cases, such terrain has the properties of open and flat terrain. Sometimes the steppe is cut up by deep ravines and gullies; then it refers to rough terrain.
Question 8 The essence of orientation.
Terrain orientation in combat conditions includes:
1. Determining your location;
2. Choosing the desired direction of movement or action relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding terrain objects, the location of friendly troops and the enemy.
The essence of orientation consists of three main elements:
Identification of the area in which you are located by its characteristic features and landmarks;
Determination of location: your own, observed targets and other objects of interest;
Finding and determining the necessary directions on the ground.
The most important task of orientation is finding and maintaining a given direction of movement in any environmental conditions.
Orienteering is based on the ability to select landmarks on the ground and use them as beacons indicating the desired direction, points and boundaries.
You can navigate the area in various ways:
Based on the map, local objects and relief elements;
Using aerial photographs;
Using navigation equipment;
Using a compass;
According to the heavenly bodies.
Tactical orientation is topographical orientation performed against the background of a tactical situation. The commander performs tactical terrain orientation in the following sequence:
Facing the enemy, shows one side of the horizon;
Names the square of the coordinate grid in which it is located and indicates its standing point relative to the nearest landmark indicated on the map;
Shows characteristic local objects and landforms. Unobservable objects are indicated by the direction and distance to them;
Calls landmarks from right to left and towards the enemy;
Shows the line of contact between friendly and enemy troops (or the lines reached by friendly and enemy troops).
To determine distances on the ground during orientation and target designation, the following methods are used:
1. Eye-based – which requires constant training with checking the results on a map, aerial photographs, steps, and a rangefinder.
Determination of distances based on the measured angular dimensions of objects.
This method is applicable only when the linear magnitude of the object (length, width or height) to which the distance is determined is known. To do this, use the formula:
where: D - distance to the object (m);
B - height (width) of the object (m);
Y is the angular magnitude of the object (in thousandths).
The angular magnitude of the object (Y) is determined using:
A). binoculars or other optical observation devices;
b). any available means, knowing that 1mm at a distance of 0.5 m from the eye cuts off 0-02 (2 thousandths) on the ground. For example: ruler, fingers, match, matchbox, cigarette, cartridge case, etc.
Example: Determine the distance to a high-voltage support (18 m), if it is covered by four scale divisions of an observation device, the division value of which is 0-05 (5 thousandths).
3). Determining distances using the speedometer.
4). Determining distances using an optical rangefinder.
5). According to the time of movement.
This method is used as an auxiliary method for approximate calculations of the distance traveled in the dark, in conditions of limited visibility. To do this, you need to know the average speed of movement in various terrain conditions.
6). Steps.
Taking the average step length as 0.75 m, and a pair as 1.5 m, we can assume that the distance in meters is approximately equal to the number of pairs of steps increased by 1.5 times. To count pairs w
Question 9 Determination of cardinal directions by compass, celestial bodies and local signs.
Determining parts of the world using a compass.
The easiest and most correct option is to determine the cardinal directions using a compass. To do this, place the device on your outstretched palm, face up, and move your hand from side to side until the magnetic needle stops its blue magnetized tip opposite the letter “C”, indicating north. The other end of the arrow, yellow or steel-colored, will stop right at the letter “U”, i.e. south. Accordingly, the west will be on the left, and the east will be on the right. If Latin symbols are applied to the compass field, then north is “N” and south is “S”.
There is also a small brake lever inside the compass with a button that extends outwards. To preserve the precision instrument, after each use you need to close the needle brake using this button.
Orientation by celestial bodies
The sides of the horizon can be determined by the celestial bodies.
Using the Sun, you can determine the sides of the horizon quite approximately, remembering that in our hemisphere it is approximately located:
at 7 o'clock local maternity time in the east;
at 13 o'clock local maternity time in the south;
at 19 o'clock local maternity time in the west;
at 1 o'clock local maternity time in the north.
With greater accuracy, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the Sun and the clock (Fig. 17).
It's done like this. Set the clock horizontally, then turn it so that the hour hand is directed towards the Sun. The angle on the watch dial between the clockwise direction and the direction at number 1 is divided in half. The bisector of this angle will show the direction to the south.
In the desert, the north-south direction can also be determined using a gnomon. This can only be done during the day, and in sunny weather. The principle of operation of the gnomon is as follows. If you draw several concentric circles with an arbitrary radius on a sheet of drawing paper glued to the tablet, fix a long needle in a vertical position in the center of the circle, and then mark the intersection of the shadow of the end of the needle before and after noon with the circles, then by connecting the resulting points with straight lines and dividing straight lines in half, we get the north-south direction (in the figure this line is designated NS). Obelisks (gnomons) are common throughout Armenia. Thus, quite recently, a young candidate of geological and mineralogical sciences, Suren Ayvazyan, discovered a new gnomon on the slope of Mount Aragats, which is a basalt obelisk 5 m high, 1 m wide and 1.5 m thick. “At the top of this gnomon there is a convex circle , surrounded by four pairs of perpendicular semicircles. According to scientists, they correspond to the four cardinal directions.”1
In a semi-desert or flat desert area, the north-south line can be determined by the directions of the rising and setting Sun. To do this, it is necessary to mark point A on the ground with a peg and at a certain distance from it, for example 10 m, at sunrise in the direction of its center, mark point C with a peg. And in the same way, at sunset, at the same distance in the direction of the center of the Sun, mark point B with a peg The middle of the line BC should be designated by point O. The direction of AD passing through point O will be the north-south line.
The North Star is always located in the north in the constellation Ursa Minor. But it should be remembered that when observing at southern latitudes, the North Star deviates from the meridian by no more than 1° 30". Orientation along the Moon provides approximate data.
On local subjects.
The bark of most trees is coarser on the north side, thinner, more elastic (birch is lighter) on the south;
In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk;
On the north side, trees, stones, wooden, tiled and slate roofs are covered earlier and more abundantly with lichens and fungi;
On coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side;
Anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps and bushes; in addition, the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, and the northern slope is steep;
In spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern edges of the clearings, warmed by the sun's rays; in the hot period of summer - on the southern, shaded ones;
Berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (turn red, turn yellow) on the south side;
In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch;
Snow melts faster on southern slopes; as a result of thawing, notches are formed on the snow - “spikes” directed to the south;
In the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes. Other signs:
Clearings in large forests are usually oriented in the north-south and west-east directions; the numbering of forest blocks in the USSR goes from west to east and further to the south;
On a free-standing tree, the thickest branches tend to grow on the south side, as this receives more sunlight;
Sunflower flowers always turn towards the sun and never look north;
Migratory birds fly north in spring and south in autumn;
Near isolated trees, the snow on the north side is loose, and on the south side
becomes crusty because the sun is shining on it.
Question 10 Orienting a map using a compass
consists in giving it a position in the horizontal plane in which the northern side of the map frame faces north, and all directions on the map are parallel to the corresponding lines on the ground.
The compass map is oriented by pointing along the magnetic needle, the side frame of the map (true meridian) or the vertical line of the kilometer grid.
If you orient the map by compass using the map frame, then take into account the angle between the northern direction of the true meridian and the northern end of the magnetic needle. The angle between the northern direction of the true meridian and the direction of the magnetic needle (magnetic meridian) is called magnetic declination - (SC). It is formed due to the fact that the true (geographic) and magnetic poles do not coincide. As a result, the meridians (true and magnetic) passing through the corresponding poles intersect.
In areas of magnetic anomalies, you cannot use a magnetic needle. These areas are marked on topographic maps with special signs.
Taking into account the magnetic declination, the map is oriented by compass as follows:
The compass is installed on the map so that the zero diameter of its dial coincides with the side frame of the map in the north direction;
Rotate the map with the compass until the northern end of the arrow approaches the division corresponding to the CS value.
If the map is oriented using a kilometer grid, then the angle between the vertical line of the kilometer grid and the compass needle in the north direction is taken into account. This angle is called direction correction (DC). It is measured from the north direction of the vertical grid line and is considered positive if the northern end of the magnetic needle deviates east of this line, and negative if the magnetic needle deviates to the west.
Magnetic declination and direction correction are different values. Therefore, the direction correction is the difference between the magnetic declination and the convergence of the meridians.
Mon = (SK) - (SAT)
Meridian convergence (MC) is the angle between the true meridian of a given point and the vertical line of the kilometer grid or a line parallel to it. On topographic maps of Russia, the convergence of the meridians does not exceed 3°.
The direction of the true meridian on the topographic map corresponds to the sides of its frame, as well as straight lines that can be drawn between the minute divisions of longitude.
The convergence of meridians is considered positive if the vertical line of the kilometer grid deviates to the right from the true meridian (side frame of the map), and negative if it deviates to the left. The direction correction and its constituent meridian convergence and magnetic declination are shown on the map under the southern side of the frame in the form of a diagram with explanatory text.
Magnetic azimuth (Am) is an angle in the horizontal plane, measured clockwise from the northern direction of the magnetic meridian to the direction towards the object.
In order to measure Am on any object using Adrianov's compass, you must:
Face this object;
Orient the compass;
By rotating the cover, set the sighting device with the slot towards you, and the front sight on the observed object;
After making sure that the compass is oriented correctly, secure the arrow with the braking device;
If it is necessary to measure Am in degrees, then readings are taken on the dial against the reading indicator;
If it is necessary to measure Am in thousandths, then the zero division of the limb is directed to the observed object, and the reading is made against the northern end of the magnetic needle.
Magnetic azimuths on the map are determined using a compass and protractor. When determining magnetic azimuths from a map, it becomes necessary to take into account magnetic declination (magnetic needle declination) and direction correction.
These angles must be taken into account for the reason that the magnetic meridian is not marked on the map. Therefore, the magnetic azimuth on the map can only be calculated relative to the true meridian (side frame of the map) or the vertical line of the kilometer grid.
The angle between the geographic meridian (side frame of the map) and the direction to a specific object is called true azimuth.
Am = A – (± SK)
The angle measured on the map between the northern direction of the vertical grid line and the direction to the object being identified is called the directional angle ().
Measurements on the map of directional angles are performed with a protractor, an artillery circle or a chord angle meter. Using a protractor, angles are measured in the following order: the starting point and a local object (target) are connected by a straight line, the length of which from the point of intersection with the vertical grid line should be greater than the radius of the protractor. The directional angle is measured from the north direction of the vertical grid line in a clockwise direction. The average angle measurement error is 0.5°.
If the directional angle of any direction is measured on the map, then the magnetic azimuth of this direction on the ground is calculated using the formula:
Am = - (±Mon)
The magnetic azimuth of any direction measured on the ground is converted into the directional angle of this direction according to the formula:
Am + (±Mon)
With accurate measurements, the transition from directional angles to magnetic azimuths and back is carried out taking into account the annual change in magnetic declination.
The art of survival
Topography and basics of orientation
TOPOGRAPHY AND ORIENTATION
Military topography is one of the most important subjects in intelligence training. If he does not know the basics of topography, then there is little point in sending him to the enemy rear: he simply will not be able to go to the indicated square, find the wanted object, determine its exact location and correctly report these coordinates to headquarters.
Any scout must have the following skills: determining his position on the ground day and night (from the map); by orientation on the terrain with a map and compass, as well as without them; on preparing data for movement in azimuths; by taking a terrain plan and plotting scouted enemy targets on a map; for target designation to guide their aircraft or to adjust artillery fire.
Navigating the terrain using a map and compass is not very difficult. But sometimes scouts have to act without either a map or a compass. Therefore, during preparation, it is necessary to pay special attention to instilling solid skills in the basic techniques, rules and methods of navigating the terrain without a map and compass.
Each scout must be able to navigate well and quickly in various terrain and in any weather. This is determined by the nature of his actions. Due to the secrecy of his actions, he should not go out onto the roads or approach populated areas, nor can he contact local residents in order to make sure that his orientation or direction of movement is correct. The route of movement of a scout (reconnaissance group) may change significantly or deviate from the previously planned one due to developing circumstances. The scout's task is to make the necessary adjustments to the route and accurately reach the intended area (to the object).
Military maps and their use The scout must be able to use the map, mainly read it. To do this, you must first determine what scale the map is and know the conventional topographic signs. In our maps, the measure of scale is the centimeter, and the measure of terrain is the meter or kilometer. Map scales are indicated in the bottom edge of the map outside the frame.
Some maps have what is called a coordinate grid (squares). They can be used for target designation, and first indicate the numbers of the corresponding horizontal grid, and then the numbers of the corresponding vertical.
The map scale can be determined as follows: Using a coordinate grid. To do this, you need to measure the distance on the map between the grid lines and determine how many kilometers these lines are drawn through. By the distance between local objects. To do this, the known distance - the number of meters between two local objects on the ground - is divided by the number of centimeters contained between the images of these objects on the map.
The map scale is the degree to which lines and distances on the map are reduced in comparison with their actual size on the ground. Scales are represented by a fraction or a drawing. In the first case, the scale is called numerical, and in the second - linear. On a numerical scale, the numerator is one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the line and distance on the map are smaller than the corresponding lines and distances on the ground.
For example, if we are given a scale of 1/10,000, or 1: 10,000, or 10,000, then this means that each line taken from the map corresponds to a line on the ground that is 10,000 times larger. So, the length of any line of 10 cm on the map will be the actual value of this line on the ground 10x10,000 == 100,000 cm, or 100,000/100 = 1000m, or 1 km.
A linear scale is a straight line on which several equal parts are plotted. If the linear scale is specified as 100 m to 1 cm, then each segment on the map equal to 1 cm corresponds to an actual ground line equal to 100 m.
For accurate measurements on the map, the first scale segment is divided into several equal parts. To construct a linear scale using a numerical scale, for example, 1/25,000, you need to divide 25,000 by 100, then the quotient of 250 will show that the numerical scale of 1/25,000 corresponds to a linear scale of 250 m per 1 cm. To move from a linear scale to a numerical one, for example, from a scale of 500 m to 1 cm, you need 500 x 100, then the numerical scale will be 1/50,000.
Finding your location
The determination is made using a map and local objects that are striking. When determining your location, you need to orient the map at the point where you are standing, that is, rotate it so that its sides are directed according to the cardinal directions (north, east, south, west), and the local objects depicted on it coincide with the direction of the same objects on the ground .
On any map, the top is always north, the bottom is south, the right is east, the left is west. To rotate the map according to the cardinal directions, you need to place a compass with a diameter of N on the western (eastern) frame of the map or on the vertical line of the map’s kilometer grid, with the letter C in the direction of the northern frame. Then, releasing the compass needle, rotate the map together with the compass until the north end of the needle is positioned opposite the letter C.
Orientation of the map by local objects
Knowing the position of local objects in relation to the cardinal points, it is already easy to determine your location on the ground and mark this point on the map. To find an object visible on the map on the map, you need to:
- stand facing the specified object;
- orient the map;
- find your standing point on the map;
- mentally draw a line from the standing point to the indicated object on the ground;
- in the direction of this line, look for the symbol of this item on the map.
To find an object marked on the map on the ground, you need to:
- orientate the map and find your standing point on it;
- attach a ruler on the map to the standing point and to the symbol of the object; without confusing the orientation of the map and without moving the ruler, look for the corresponding object on the ground on an imaginary continuation of the line. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the distance to it, previously determined on the map.
The map is oriented using a compass in areas with poor landmarks: in the forest, in desert-steppe areas, and also if the scout does not even approximately know the point of his standing.
Azimuths and movement along azimuths
Azimuth is the angle formed between the direction towards any terrain object and the direction to the north. Azimuths are counted from 0 to 360 o clockwise.
Determination of azimuth by compass
To determine the azimuth on the ground, you need to:
- stand facing in the direction of the object to which you want to determine the azimuth;
- orient the compass, that is, place its zero division (or the letter C) under the darkened end of the compass needle;
- by rotating the compass cover, aim the sighting device at the object;
- against the pointer of the sighting device facing the object, read the azimuth value.
To determine a given azimuth on the ground, you need to:
- set the pointer of the compass sighting device with a point above the division corresponding to the value of the given azimuth;
- turn the compass so that the sight pointer is in front;
- turn yourself along with the compass until the zero point coincides with the northern end of the arrow; the direction of the viewfinder pointer will be the direction along the given azimuth.
The alignment of the sighting line with the direction towards the object (target) is achieved by repeatedly moving the gaze from the sighting line to the target and back. It is not recommended to raise the compass to eye level, as the measurement accuracy will decrease. The accuracy of measuring azimuths using Andrianov's compass is plus or minus 2-3 o.
Azimuth movement
To move along a given azimuth you need to:
- study on the map the area between the starting and final points of movement and outline a route that is easily recognizable by local objects;
- draw the chosen route on the map and determine the azimuths of all route links;
- determine on the map the length of each link of the route in steps (a pair of steps is on average 1.5 m);
- write down all data for movement in the field book in the form of a table or schematic drawing.
Having arrived at the starting point, you should:
- navigate by compass;
- set the pointer of the moving compass ring against a reference equal to the azimuth of the first link of the route (in our example - 335 o);
- smoothly turn the compass until the zero division coincides with the northern end of the arrow; then the sighting device will show the direction of movement in azimuth - 335 o;
- in this direction, select an object and go to it. Having approached the object, you need to check the orientation of the compass and continue the path to the first turning point;
- at the first turning point you need to set the compass azimuth to the next turning point and move to it in the same way as from the starting point.
Determining azimuths on a map with a protractor
First, the landmarks chosen along the route of movement are connected by a straight line, but so that this line intersects at least one of the vertical lines of the kilometer grid.
Then use a protractor to measure the angle from the north direction of the vertical line of the kilometer grid clockwise to the direction towards the object. In this case, the protractor is applied to the vertical line of the kilometer grid so that the mark (dash) on the protractor ruler coincides with the point where the drawn direction intersects the vertical line of the kilometer grid, and the extreme divisions of the protractor (0 o and 180 o) align with the direction of this line.
Next, by decreasing or increasing the measured angles by the amount of magnetic needle deviation, we obtain magnetic azimuths. Magnetic needle deviation or direction correction is the angle between the vertical line of the kilometer grid and the compass needle (magnetic meridian). Data on the declination value of the needle is always given under the southern (lower) side of the map frame in the form of a diagram and text.
Determination of magnetic azimuths
This is done in contrast to the above on an oriented map, taking into account magnetic declination. Magnetic declination is either eastern with a “+” sign or western with a “-” sign. Knowing the magnitude and sign deviation, it is not difficult to combine the direction of one of the sides of the frame of the map sheet (western or eastern) with the direction of the true meridian. When the sides of the map frame are aligned with the direction of the true meridian, the map will be oriented accurately.
In practice they do it like this:
- install a compass on one of the sides of the map so that the north-south line of the compass scale coincides with the direction of this side of the frame, and the zero (C) on the scale is directed to the north side of the map frame;
- release the compass needle brake and, when the needle calms down, turn the map until the needle points to its northern end opposite the zero division (C) of the compass scale,
- rotate the map without moving the compass so that the northern end of the arrow is opposite the division corresponding to the magnitude and sign of declination for a given sheet of the map.
- the map oriented in this way is fixed;
- connect landmarks with straight lines: ravine - barn, barn - stone;
- set the compass on the drawn straight line between the landmark so that the “north-south” line of the scale coincides with this direction, and the zero division (C) is directed in the direction of movement;
- when the arrow calms down, count down on the scale against the northern end of the arrow; subtract the resulting reading from 360 o, this difference will be the magnetic azimuth.
Measuring the distance between landmarks
Measuring the distance between landmarks is done as follows:
- determine the length of segments on the map with a compass or ruler;
- using the map scale, find out what distance segments on the ground correspond to;
For example, on a map of scale 1:25,000, the measured distance between two landmarks is 6.4 cm. The scale value is 250 m in 1 cm. The distance will be 250 x 6.4 = 1600 m.
The data necessary for movement is drawn up in a specially designed route diagram, or in the form of a table. The movement begins by finding the desired azimuth of the direction of movement. In the direction of movement, it is advisable to select and remember the most distant landmark possible. While moving, the distance traveled is counted (usually in pairs of steps).
If the landmark is not at this point, a sign or one or two fighters are left at the exit point, and the landmark is searched for within a radius equal to 0.1 of the distance traveled from the previous landmark. When moving, additional landmarks are used: power lines, rivers, roads, etc. Avoiding obstacles, depending on the conditions, can be done in one of the following ways:
If there is visibility through an obstacle:
- notice a landmark in the direction of movement on the opposite side of the obstacle;
- go around the obstacle and continue moving from the noticed landmark, determine the width of the obstacle in any way and add it to the distance traveled;
In the absence of visibility through an obstacle, for example, when going around a forest blockage, as well as in conditions of limited visibility: fog, rain, etc.
Let us assume that the movement was made along an azimuth of 65 o and 340 pairs of steps were taken before stopping in front of the obstacle. After studying the area, it was decided to make a detour on the right side. Using a compass, determine the azimuth of the direction along the obstacle (from point 1 to point 2), continue moving in this direction, counting the pairs of steps to the right edge of the obstacle. In the figure, the azimuth is 145 o, and the distance traveled is 180 pairs of steps. Having made a stop at point 2, use the compass to determine the direction corresponding to the initial azimuth along which the movement was made to the obstacle (65 o) and continue to move until the obstacle is exceeded. Counting in pairs of steps is carried out from point 2 to the stopping point behind the obstacle (point 3). In the figure, the distance traveled is 270 pairs of steps. From point 3, the movement is made to the left along the reverse azimuth of the direction from point 1 to point 2 (in the figure, the reverse azimuth is 325 o) until a distance of 180 pairs of steps is covered (in the figure to point 4). At point 4, determine the direction according to the original azimuth (65 o) and adding the distance from point 2 to point 3 to the distance traveled to the obstacle, continue moving to a new landmark.
Soldiers need to remember that reverse azimuth differs from direct azimuth by 180 degrees. For example, Am = 330, the return azimuth will be 330-180 = 150 Am = 30, the return will be 180 + 30 = 210.
Converting the length of each section between landmarks into pairs of steps: from landmark 1 to landmark 2 will be 1200m. 1200: 1.5 = 800 p.s. (1.5 m is the average length of 2 pairs of steps).
Drawing a detected object on a map
This is one of the most important moments in the work of a scout. The accuracy of determining its coordinates depends on how accurately the object (target) is plotted on the map. A mistake will cause weapons to fire into an empty area. Having discovered an object (target), the reconnaissance officer must first accurately determine by various signs what has been discovered. Then, without stopping observing the object and without detecting yourself, put the object on the map.
There are several ways to plot an object on a map. Visual: an object is plotted on the map if it is located near a known landmark.
By direction and distance: orientate the map, find your standing point on it, indicate on the map the direction to the detected object and draw a line, determine the distance to the object, plot this distance on the map from the standing point. The resulting point will be the position of the object on the map. If it is graphically impossible to solve the problem in this way (the enemy is in the way, poor visibility, etc.), then you need to accurately measure the azimuth to the object, then translate it into a directional angle and draw on the map from the standing point the direction at which to plot the distance to the object. To obtain a directional angle, you need to add the magnetic declination of a given map to the magnetic azimuth (direction correction).
Straight serif. In this way, an object is placed on a map of 2-3 points from which it can be observed. To do this, from each selected point, the direction to the object is drawn on an oriented map, then the intersection of the lines determines the location of the object.
Determining distances on the ground
Very often, a scout needs to determine the distances to various objects on the ground, as well as estimate their sizes. Distances are most accurately and quickly determined using special instruments (rangefinders) and rangefinder scales of binoculars, stereo scopes, and sights. But due to the lack of instruments, distances are often determined using improvised means and by eye.
The simplest ways to determine the range (distances) to objects on the ground include the following: - by eye; - by linear dimensions of objects; - by visibility (discernibility) of objects; - by the angular magnitude of known objects: - by sound.
By eye - this is the easiest and fastest way. The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally lay down a well-imagined constant measure on the ground (50, 100, 200, 500 meters). Having fixed these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and estimate distances on the ground.
When measuring distance by successively mentally setting aside a well-studied constant measure, one must remember that the terrain and local objects seem reduced in accordance with their distance, that is, when removed by half, the object will seem half as large. Therefore, when measuring distances, the mentally plotted segments (measures of terrain) will decrease according to the distance.
The following must be taken into account:
- the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us;
- the closer the object, the larger it seems;
- larger objects seem closer than small objects located at the same distance;
- an object of a brighter color appears closer than an object of a dark color;
- brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit ones that are at the same distance;
- during fog, rain, twilight, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, observed objects seem further away than on clear and sunny days;
- the sharper the difference in the color of the object and the background against which it is visible, the more reduced the distances seem; for example, in winter a snow field seems to bring the darker objects on it closer;
- objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, distances defined across vast expanses of water seem especially shortened;
- folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not fully visible to the observer, conceal the distance;
- when observing while lying down, objects seem closer than when observing while standing;
- when observed from the bottom up - from the bottom of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further away.
- when the sun is behind the scout, the distance disappears; shines into the eyes - it seems larger than in reality;
- the fewer objects there are in the area under consideration (when observed through a body of water, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the smaller the distances seem.
The accuracy of the eye gauge depends on the intelligence of the scout. For a distance of 1000 m, the usual error ranges from 10-20%.
By linear dimensions. To determine the distance using this method, you need to:
- hold a ruler in front of you at arm’s length (50-60 cm from the eye) and use it to measure in millimeters the apparent width or height of the object to which you want to determine the distance;
- divide the actual height (width) of an object, expressed in centimeters, by the apparent height (width) in millimeters, and multiply the result by 6 (a constant number), we get the distance.
For example, if a pole 4 m (400 cm) high is closed along an 8 mm ruler, then the distance to it will be 400 x 6 = 2400; further 2400: 8 = 300 m (actual distance). If we solve this problem as a similar geometric problem, we will obtain similar results.
Name of items Height (m) Length (m) Width (m) Height of an average person (with shoes) 1.65-1.75 Kneeling shooter 1.05-1.20 Telegraph pole 6.00 Ordinary mixed forest 6.50- 8.40 Railway booth 4.00 One-story house with a roof 6-8 Horseman on horseback 2.20-2.30 Tanks 2.30-2.70 6.8-7.7 3.1-3.7 Armored personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles 1 .8-2.0 4.6-6.5 2.5-2.7 One floor of a permanent residential building 3-4 - - One floor of an industrial building 5-6 - - Distance between communication line poles 50-60 Distance between supports high-voltage electrical networks 100 Factory chimney 30 All-metal passenger car 4.25 24-25 2.75 Freight cars: biaxial 3.8 7.2 2.75 multi-axle 4 13.6 2.75 Railway tanks: biaxial 3 6.75 2, 75 four-axle 3 9 2.75 Railway platforms: two-axle 1.6 9.2 2.75 four-axle 1.6 13 2.75 Cars: two-axle freight 2 5-6 2-2.5 passenger cars 1.5-1.8 4 -5 1.5 Heavy heavy machine gun 0.75 1.65 0.75 Heavy machine gun 0.5 1.5 0.5 Motorcyclist on a motorcycle with a sidecar 1.5 2 1.2
To determine distances in this way, you need to know well the linear dimensions of various objects, or have this data at hand (on a tablet, in a notebook). The reconnaissance officer must remember the dimensions of the most frequently encountered objects, since they are required and for the method of measuring by angular magnitude, which is the main method for reconnaissance officers with the naked eye, the distance to targets (objects) can be approximately determined by the degree of their visibility. A scout with normal visual acuity can see and distinguish some objects from the following maximum distances indicated in the table. It must be borne in mind that the table indicates the maximum distances from which certain objects begin to be visible. For example, if a scout saw a pipe on the roof of a house, this means that the house is no more than 3 km away, and not exactly 3 km. It is not recommended to use this table as a reference. Each intelligence officer must individually clarify this data for himself. Determination of distances by the visibility (discernibility) of certain objects.
Objects and signs Limit visibility (in km) Bell towers, towers, large houses against the sky 15-18 Settlements 10-12 Windmills and their wings 11 Villages and individual large houses 8 Factory chimneys 6 Individual small houses 5 Windows in houses (without details) 4 Pipes on the roofs 3 Airplanes on the ground, tanks in place 1.2-1.5 Tree trunks, communication poles, people (in the form of a point), carts on the road 1.5 Movement of the legs of a walking person (horse) 0. 7 Movement of hands, a person’s head stands out 0.4 Color and parts of clothing, oval of the face 0.25-0.3 Tiles on roofs, tree leaves, wire on stakes 0.2 Buttons and buckles, details of a soldier’s weapons 0.15-0, 17 Facial features, hands, details of small arms 0.1 Human eyes in the form of a point 0.07 Whites of the eyes 0.02
Orientation by sounds
At night and in fog, when observation is limited or impossible at all (and in very rough terrain and in the forest both at night and during the day), hearing comes to the aid of vision. Scouts must learn to determine the nature of sounds (that is, what they mean), the distance to the sources of sounds and the direction from which they come. If different sounds are heard, the scout must be able to distinguish them from one another. The development of such an ability is achieved through long-term training (in the same way a professional musician distinguishes the voices of instruments in an orchestra).
On a quiet summer night, even an ordinary human voice in an open space can be heard far away, sometimes half a kilometer. On a frosty autumn or winter night, all kinds of sounds and noises can be heard very far away. This applies to speech, steps, and the clinking of dishes or weapons. In foggy weather, sounds can also be heard far away, but their direction is difficult to determine. On the surface of calm water and in the forest, when there is no wind, sounds travel a very long distance. But the rain greatly muffles the sounds. The wind blowing towards the scout brings sounds closer and away from him. It also carries sound away, creating a distorted idea of the location of its source. Mountains, forests, buildings, ravines, gorges and deep hollows change the direction of sound, creating an echo. They also generate echoes and water spaces, facilitating its spread over long distances.
The sound changes when its source moves on soft, wet or hard soil, along the street, along a country or field road, on pavement or soil covered with leaves. It must be taken into account that dry soil transmits sounds better than air. Therefore, they listen by putting their ear to the ground or to tree trunks. Average range of audibility of various sounds during the day on flat terrain, km (summer).
Source of sound Audibility of sound Characteristic sound features Noise of a moving train 10 Locomotive or steamship whistle, factory siren 7-10 Firing in bursts from rifles and 5 machine guns Shot from a hunting rifle 3.0 Car horn 2-3 The tramp of horses at a trot on soft ground 0.6 along the highway 1.0 Screaming of a person 1-1.5 Neighing of horses, barking of dogs 2-3 Colloquial speech 0.1-0.2 Splash of water from oars 0.25-0.5 Clinking of pots, spoons 0.5 Crawling 0, 02 Steps 0.03 Cough 0.04-0.05 Sharp voice command 0.5-1 Movement of infantry in formation: on the ground 0.3 Even dull noise on the highway 0.6 Clatter of oars on the side of the boat 1-1.5 Excerpts trenches manually 0.5-1 Shovel hits on stones Driving wooden spears: A dull sound evenly manually 0.3-0.6 alternating blows mechanically 0.8 Chopping and felling trees: Sharp knock of an ax, manually (with an ax) 0.3 -0.4 screech of a saw, intermittent chainsaw 0.7-0.9 knock of a gasoline engine, dull thud of a tree falling 0.8-1.0 a cut tree on the ground Vehicle movement: Even noise on a dirt road 0.5 engines on highway 1 -1.5 Sharp noise Movement of tanks, self-propelled guns, infantry fighting vehicles: engines on the ground 2-3 simultaneously with a sharp metallic clang of tracks on the highway 3-4 Noise of the engine of a standing tank, infantry fighting vehicles 1-1.5 Movement of towed artillery: Sharp jerky on the ground highway 1-2 the rumble of metal and 2-3 the noise of engines Firing from an artillery battery 10-15 (division) Shot from a gun 6 Firing from mortars 3-5 Firing from large-caliber machine guns 3 Firing from machine guns 2 Single shot from a rifle 1.2
At night, sounds are well transmitted through the ground. There are certain ways to help you listen at night:
- lying down: put your ear to the ground;
- standing: lean one end of the stick against your ear, rest the other end on the ground;
- stand, slightly leaning forward, shifting the center of gravity of the body to one leg, with a half-open mouth - teeth are a conductor of sound.
A trained scout, when sneaking up, if only his life is dear to him, lies on his stomach and listens while lying down, trying to determine the direction of the sounds. This is easier to do by turning one ear in the direction from which the suspicious noise is coming. To improve hearing, it is recommended to apply bent palms, a bowler hat, or a piece of pipe to the auricle. To better listen to sounds, a scout can put his ear to a dry board placed on the ground, which acts as a sound collector, or to a dry log dug into the ground. If necessary, you can make a homemade water stethoscope. To do this, use a glass bottle (or metal flask), filled with water up to the neck, which is buried in the ground until the water level in it. A tube (plastic) is tightly inserted into the cork, onto which a rubber tube is placed. The other end of the rubber tube, equipped with a tip, is inserted into the ear. To check the sensitivity of the device, hit the ground with your finger at a distance of 4 m from it (the sound of the impact is clearly audible through the rubber tube).
Location orientation
To navigate the area means to find the directions to the cardinal directions (north, south, east and west) and determine your location. To find the direction according to the cardinal points, first determine the north-south direction; after which, facing north, the determiner will have to the right - east, to the left - west. The cardinal directions are usually found using a compass, and in the absence of one, using the Sun, Moon, stars and some signs of local objects.
By compass
Using a compass, you can most conveniently and quickly determine north, east, south, west. To do this, you need to give the compass a horizontal position, release the arrow from the clamp, and let it calm down. Then its dark end will be directed to the north.
To determine the accuracy of the deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of terrain points in relation to the direction to the north and counting them, divisions are marked on the compass, of which the lower divisions are indicated in degrees (the smallest division is 3 o), and the upper divisions of the protractor in tens of thousands. Degrees are counted clockwise from O to 360 o, and protractor divisions are counted counterclockwise from 0 to 600 o. The zero division is located at the letter “C” (north), and there is also a triangle glowing in the dark, which replaces the letter “C” in some compasses. Under the letters “B” (east), “Y” (south), “3” (west) there are luminous dots.
On the movable cover of the compass there is a sighting device (sight and front sight), against which luminous indicators are mounted, which serve to indicate the direction of movement at night.
The most common compass in the army is the Andrianov system and the artillery compass. Andrianov's compass allows you to make readings in degrees and thousandths. The inscriptions on the fixed scale of degree divisions (division value 3 o) are given clockwise through 15 o, and thousandths - in the opposite direction through 500 thousandths (5-00). The sighting device is movable.
The artillery compass is graduated only in thousandths with a division value of 100 thousandths (1-00) clockwise. The sighting device is stationary, and the scale (dial) rotates, which allows, without changing the position of the compass, to quickly align the zero division of the dial with the northern end of the magnetic needle. The mirror on the hinged lid allows you to control the orientation of the compass and count along the dial when sighting on an object.
A sports compass is very convenient for use by scouts, the needle of which is placed in a special liquid, so it quickly calms down and almost does not fluctuate when moving.
By the Sun
The places of sunrise and sunset differ according to the seasons: in winter the Sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest; in summer the Sun rises in the northeast and sets in the northwest; In spring and autumn, the Sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
At noon the Sun is always in the south direction. The shortest shadow from local objects occurs at 13 o'clock, and the direction of the shadow from vertically located local objects at this time will point to the north. If you don’t have a watch, determine the shortest shadow by making marks on the ground every 15-20 minutes.
According to the Sun and the clock
It is necessary to point the hour hand towards the Sun, and divide the angle formed between the direction of the hour hand and the number 1 (13 o'clock) of the dial by an imaginary line in half. The line dividing this angle will indicate the direction: in front - south, behind - north. At the same time, we must remember that before 13 o’clock you need to divide the left corner, and in the second half of the day - the right corner. A very convenient reference point in practice.
By the North Star
The North Star is always in the north. To find the North Star, you must first find the constellation Ursa Major, which resembles a bucket made up of seven fairly bright stars, then mentally draw a line through the two rightmost stars of Ursa Major a and b, on which to plot five times the distance between these extreme stars, and then at the end of this line we find the North Star, which, in turn, is located in the tail of another constellation called Ursa Minor. Facing the North Star, we will receive a direction to the north. A very difficult guideline in practice.
In large tracts of cultivated forest The sides of the horizon can be determined by the clearings, which, as a rule, are cut strictly along the lines north-south and east-west, as well as by the inscriptions of block numbers on poles installed at the intersections of the clearings. On each such pillar, in its upper part and on each of the four faces, numbers are affixed - the numbering of the opposite forest blocks; the edge between the two edges with the smallest numbers shows the direction to the north (the numbering of forest blocks in the CIS goes from west to east and further to the south).
Orientation
Studying the terrain in the area of upcoming actions should be done using large-scale maps. Particular attention should be paid to the following:
- relief in the area;
- density of settlements, locations of cities, towns, administrative centers;
- the density of railways and highways, in what directions they run, what settlements they connect;
- basic elements of hydrography - the presence of lakes, rivers, streams, conditions for overcoming them, direction of flow;
- the presence of forests, bushes, the nature of vegetation cover and general camouflage conditions.
You need to choose a clearly visible landmark in the direction of movement to the collection point. Movement along the route must be made from landmark to landmark. The distance is counted either in pairs of steps, or in time, with subsequent conversion to kilometers. It is especially necessary to prepare carefully for driving at night. First of all, you should study the area before dark and pick up landmarks. Pipes, towers, detached houses and trees, settlements, lakes, rivers, streams, roads, and power lines are selected as landmarks. Before you start driving, you should study the upcoming route on the map. The study is considered complete when the scout can draw up a diagram of his route from memory.
Drawing up a route
To draw up a route outline, first, using a map, a skeleton outline is drawn, that is, the most important main contours, roads, settlements, rivers of individual points of the terrain of the desired section of the route are transferred from the map to paper. The procedure for constructing the skeleton is as follows:
- set the map scale and the required magnification of the skeleton;
- divide the route on the map into a network of squares so that the network covers a strip of terrain up to 500 meters in both directions; then build a corresponding network of enlarged squares on a sheet of paper;
- transfer from the map in squares onto paper the road (route) and all roads departing from it with inscriptions where they are from and where they go, as well as villages and other important local objects;
The following should be marked in particular detail on the route outlines:
- crossings, bridges, fords;
- inconvenient places for movement and ways to get around them; dangerous places;
- landmark objects that are important when moving through closed areas, so as not to lose your way.
Features of observation at night.
At night, the light of a burning fire is visible up to 8 km, a burning match is visible at a distance of 1-1.5 km, and the light of a cigarette is visible at a distance of up to 500 meters. However, you shouldn’t really count on such a hint; as for the observation itself, it has a number of features.
The human eye is not capable of immediately adapting to a sharp transition from light to darkness and clearly distinguishing objects. Therefore, at night you should not look directly at the light source. When observing, you should always remember that if you only look at the light for a short time, the adaptation of the eyes will be lost and it will take at least 20 minutes to restore it.
You should also not peer closely and for a long time into the darkness, so as not to tire your eyesight, it is recommended to periodically close your eyes for 5-10 seconds. Such a short rest allows you to get rid of fatigue. Under artificial lighting (flares, spotlights), you should not look at the light source; it is recommended to cover your eyes from it with your palm and observe only the illuminated area and the enemy.
When determining distances by eye in an area illuminated by artificial light sources, it should be borne in mind that objects located in illuminated areas appear closer than in reality, and dark, unlit objects appear smaller in size and more distant.
In the dark, the attention of the observer is important, therefore at night one should not be distracted by any extraneous thoughts, conversations, actions, but it is necessary to direct attention exclusively to observation - this increases the sensitivity of vision by 1.5 times.
To increase attention and sensitivity of vision, it is recommended to observe in a sitting position. Deep breathing (full inhalation and exhalation eight to ten times per minute), wiping the forehead, eyelids, temples, neck, and back of the head with cold water causes a significant increase in visual sensitivity and reduces the time for complete adaptation to darkness from 20-30 to 10 minutes. Pharmacological agents temporarily increase visual acuity, relieve drowsiness and fatigue: caffeine, glucose, etc. For example, one caffeine tablet (0.1 g) increases visual sensitivity by an average of 30%, and its effect reaches its greatest effectiveness usually half an hour after administration and lasts 1.5-2 hours.
Map and terrain
The area must be read like a book - thoughtfully, intelligently. Entire books, entire volumes about the terrain were written by specialists specially involved in this matter - military topographers. Every section of the terrain was recorded and reproduced in special map printing factories in hundreds of thousands of copies, and as a result, commanders receive maps of the terrain in which their troops will operate. Such a card is always given to scouts before they are assigned a combat mission. Going to the specified area, they already familiarize themselves with the area on the map.
However, it is impossible to depict on a map the details of all the folds, streams, hollows, meanders, tubercles, and bushes. There would not be enough space for this and it would require a lot of symbols, since the largest scale maps reduce the depicted area by 25, 50 and 100 thousand times. Therefore, only the most important folds of the terrain and the most necessary local objects are shown on the maps. And everything else should be considered by the intelligence officer himself.
And now a living book of the actual terrain is revealed to the observer. Where should you start exploring the area? First of all, it is necessary to compare local objects and landmarks located on the ground with the map. This must be done so that the observer accurately studies the strip that was assigned by the commander who assigned the observation task. Otherwise, an error may occur and the observer's data will be misleading.
After checking the map with the terrain and fully understanding the task, it is recommended first of all to inspect the area with the naked eye and draw up a schematic observation plan or a diagram of landmarks. The observer puts on the landmark diagram:
- location of the OP (observation point);
- sector (angle) of observation;
- surveillance zones;
- landmarks (numbered in the direction of inspection of the area);
- fields of invisibility.
Leonid Sobolev’s story “The Green Ray” (by the way, the site owner considers this work extremely instructive and interesting, so he advises everyone to read it for general development) describes an episode concerning the training of a reconnaissance group commander:
Voronin held a large-scale map in his hands, and the major, raising his eyes to the ceiling, slowly and thoroughly described the terrain through which the group would have to make its way at night. It was as if there was a copy of the map on the ceiling - with such precision he listed noticeable places that could serve as a landmark in the dark: sharp turns of the gorge along which you would have to leave the landing site, an alley leading to the burnt out houses of the state farm, from where it is better to take straight north to cross the highway in the most deserted place. He had already reached the vineyard, which marked the place of safe ascent to the mountains...
Are you done? - asked the major. - It was you and me who were still walking around without an enemy, like at the cross-country in Solidopia... And if near the highway - remember, the high-rise there is a convenient one - the Germans thought of setting up an outpost? Look, lieutenant, where should you go then... No, no,” he stopped his movement, “don’t bother getting the map, you’ve already seen enough of it.” Remember without a map...
It’s a bit difficult, Comrade Major...
What if you have to remember on the shore? It’s easier here, no one is shooting, no one is rushing... Remember, lieutenant, while there is time. The commander’s map should be all in his brain, who knows? What if you lose her?
“I gave the second one to Sergeant Major Zhukov,” Voronin said offendedly.
Just think, they found the safe... What if your Zhukov steps on a mine? No, let's go without the map...
Basics of topography (terrain orientation).
Table of contents:Typical landforms and their characteristics
All the variety of irregularities that form the earth's surface can be divided
into different forms, which are usually called basic
typical landforms. These include landforms.
1. Mountain.
- a hill that is usually domed or conicalform. The top part of a mountain, called the summit, may look like a dome
(dome-shaped mountain) or flat level area (plateau), or ends
tip (peak). The lower part of the mountain (base) is called the sole, and the slopes from
tops to bottom - slopes. The shape of the slope can be smooth, convex,
concave and wavy. Flat and concave slopes visible from the top
hills to the sole. Convexities and slopes are characterized by the presence of an inflection, which
covers part of the terrain, thereby creating blind areas when
view of the slope from the top of the hill. A slope is called wavy if it is
along its course it moves from flat to convex, then to concave, again to
flat, etc.; it is a combination of different stingrays. Wavy ramp
creates unfavorable conditions for viewing the area, since the presence of
kinks do not allow viewing the entire slope. At the same time, such slope kinks
often create favorable conditions for covert movement and approach to
the intended object.
Depending on the steepness, slopes are divided into flat (up to 10°), medium
steepness (10-20°), steep (20-30°), very steep (30-60°) and steep (over
60°).
Slope steepness (KS) refers to the angle formed by an inclined surface
slope and horizontal plane (Fig. 1). The magnitude of this angle is usually expressed in
degrees, but can be expressed in any other angular measures, for example in
thousandths The steepness of the slope can be determined both directly on the ground and
and on the map. A mountain of small height, with a clearly defined base, slopes and
the top is called a hill. The height of hills above the surrounding area is usually
does not exceed 200 m. Artificially created hills are called mounds.
2. Ridge.
- a combination of several hills stretched in one direction,
or one such hill. A line that connects the highest points along
ridge (or any other hill) and from which in opposite directions
slopes diverge, called a watershed or topographic ridge.
3. Basin.
- a depression clearly visible on the ground, having the shape
closed cup-shaped depression. The place where the decline begins is called
the edge of the basin, and the lowest part of the basin is the bottom. Small basin
called a pit.
4. Hollow.
- an elongated and descending terrain depression in one direction.
The line connecting the lowest points along the bottom of the ravine is called a weir. hollows,
located on a plain or on a gentle slope of a mountain and having sharply defined
the boundaries from which steep steep slopes go to the bottom of the ravine are called
ravines.
5. Saddle.
- the lower part of the ridge located between two neighboring
peaks. A saddle is almost always the starting point of two valleys that diverge into
opposite directions. In mountainous areas, communication routes through ridges, like
usually go through saddles. Such saddles are called passes. Mountain, ridge,
basin, ravine and saddle are typical landforms; top, bottom
basins are characteristic points, and the spillway and watershed are characteristic lines
relief. These points and lines constitute, as it were, the skeleton (skeleton) of the relief, defining
the general nature and relative position of the irregularities of a given area.
Local items and their characteristics
It was previously stated that local items include everything created interrain by nature and human labor. Therefore, even comparatively
a small area of the earth's surface can observe a large number
a variety of local items. All local items are accepted in practice
divided into the following main groups.
1. Settlements.
- cities, urban and country-type settlements, rural settlementstype (villages, hamlets), separate residential buildings (yards). Number of inhabitants
points, their type and dispersion determine the degree of habitability of a given
terrain. Settlements, being a place of residence and work
people, are at the same time a place of concentration of production enterprises,
socio-cultural objects and other material and cultural values. In
In many cases, populated areas are hubs of communication routes.
2. Road network.
—- railways, highways, highways, unpaved and improvedcountry, field and forest roads, trails. The degree of development of the road network and
The quality of roads determines the passability conditions of a given area and
possibilities for efficient use of vehicles. Main
technical characteristics of roads are the width of the carriageway, material
coatings, quality of road structures over obstacles. Most
common width of roads for two-way traffic (except
highways) 6.5-7.5 m. Based on the nature of the surface, highways are divided into
paved roads (highways, improved dirt roads) and roads
natural soil (country roads, fields, forests), Railways
characterized by gauge, number of tracks, number and type of stations. These
the data determines the railway capacity.
3. Communication lines and structures.
- telegraph and telephone lines, radio stations,telephone exchanges, telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments. Availability
means of communication allows you to quickly establish and constantly maintain relationships
between settlements, organizations, institutions over long distances.
The transfer of various types of information through communication provides the opportunity
timely navigate the situation and events, give orders,
submit reports, provide leadership and management.
4 Waters and structures with them.
- rivers, canals, lakes, dams, piers, bridges,ferries, leading signs, etc. Water bodies, their presence and characteristics, with one
on the other hand, determine the degree of ruggedness of the terrain with obstacles, and on the other hand,
create good conditions for water supply and transportation by water
ways. The main indicators characterizing the river are the width of the river,
current speed, bottom soil, depth, as well as approaches to the river. Along the width of the river bed
often divided into narrow (up to 60 m), medium (60-300 m) and wide (more than 300 m).
The average flow speed of calm, relatively small rivers flowing through
flat terrain, about 0.5-0.6 m/sec, large plain rivers - up to 1 m/sec, mountain
rivers - up to 3-6 m/sec, and sometimes more.
5 Soil and vegetation cover.
- forests, shrubs, gardens, meadows, vegetable gardens, swamps,sands, etc. The main characteristics of the forest are determined by the species of trees, their
age, thickness, height and density of the planting.
According to the age of the forest, the height and thickness of the trees, the forest is usually divided into:
- for a young forest - tree height 4-6 m, thickness 5-15 cm,
- in the middle-aged - the height of the trees is 6-10 m, the thickness is about 20 cm;
- for a mature forest - tree height more than 10 m, thickness more than 20-25 cm.
Based on density, the forest is divided into dense forest - the distance between trees is less than 10
m, medium-density forest—10–15 m, sparse forest—15–30 m.
When characterizing soils in practice, they are divided into rocky and loose.
Loose soils cover the vast majority of land. Rocky soils are most often
common in mountainous areas.
Swamps include heavily moist areas covered with a layer of viscous
soil, most often peat. Based on passability, swamps are divided into passable,
difficult to pass and impassable. Information on the passability of swamps can be obtained
according to the topographic map.
Sandy soils are common everywhere. There are especially many of them in deserts. In dry
in a state without turf cover, sands significantly impede the movement of wheeled
cars When moistened, after heavy rainfall, the sands become compacted and
their permeability increases.
From the given brief characteristics of the main topographic elements
terrain, one can see with what variety of relief elements and local objects
can be encountered when studying and assessing the terrain during combat missions.
However, due to geographical and natural conditions, topographic elements
localities, being in relationship with each other, form comparatively,
monotonous varieties of terrain, occupying quite vast
territory, which allows us to determine more or less general properties characteristic
for this type of terrain.
Main types of terrain.
Depending on the nature of the relief, the terrain is divided into flat,hilly and mountainous. According to the nature of the soil and vegetation cover, the area
can be wooded, swampy, desert, steppe. The combination of relief and
local objects creates other types of terrain: mountain-wooded, if
the mountainous area is covered with forest; wooded-swampy, if the forest is located on
swampy areas, etc.
Towards flat terrain include areas whose surface is within
visible horizon appears flat or slightly hilly, with
In most cases, the general slope (decrease) is in some direction. On small
In areas of flat terrain, this slope may not be noticeable. For flat
The terrain is characterized by a slight steepness of the slopes (1-2°) and the absence of sharp
pronounced surface irregularities.
Flat terrain may be open if there are no locals in the area
objects that limit visibility and observation, or closed if the area
is covered with forest, bushes or has many settlements.
In the presence of a large number of rivers, lakes and swamps, flat terrain becomes
properties of rough terrain.
The presence of even a small number of rivers, swamps, and ravines on flat terrain
limits the ability of vehicles to move off roads. Covering the plain
clayey, loamy, sandy loam, peat soils allow unhindered
driving in dry weather in summer and in frosty weather in winter. In a state of strength
moisture, such soils make movement difficult and often become
practically impassable.
Hilly terrain differs from the plain in the presence of hills and
recesses, which in most cases have gentle ascents and descents with
the prevailing steepness of the slopes is within 2-3°.
Highlands has pronounced elevations and depressions.
The predominant landforms are mountains, ridges, ravines, and gorges. Stingrays
These landforms are usually steep, rocky, often turning into cliffs.
Mountain ranges are usually separated by gorges and large, deep valleys.
Orientation in the mountains is difficult, since many hills have similar
outline with each other, and when observing mountain peaks from the other side of them
the configuration often changes beyond recognition.
Towards a wooded area include areas where over 50% of the area is covered
forest. A forest is classified as dense when the tree crowns converge or when
the distance between the crowns does not exceed their diameter, and it is rare when trees are in the forest
stand at a considerable distance from one another. Depending on the tree species
the forest is divided into coniferous (spruce, pine, fir, cedar, larch) and deciduous (birch,
aspen, linden, oak, beech, etc.). A forest in which different types of trees are mixed,
called mixed. The formation of rubble sharply reduces the permeability of the forest. Forest
fires pose a great threat to humans. Temperature in the fire zone
can reach 400-900° C, and the speed of fire spread in strong winds
can reach up to 20-25 km/h.
swampy area restricts human movement. This property
swampy area mainly depends on the nature and type of swamps, as well as
time of year and weather. So, for example, in the summer after heavy rains, the cross-country ability
swamps are decreasing sharply. In spring, the swamps are most difficult to pass; in winter they can
serve as convenient routes for movement.
According to the conditions of passability, swamps are divided into passable, impassable and impassable.
Passable moss swamps are usually covered with a continuous layer of old
(dead) moss or a layer of peat.
The presence of birch and aspen in the swamp indicates the weakness of the upper
soil-vegetative layer.
Impenetrable swamps are identified by soil and vegetation floating on the water.
cover (swamps), as well as the presence of reeds (reeds) or cotton grass in the swamp.
When moving in swampy areas, it is necessary to organize thorough reconnaissance
swamps and especially the bridges (passages) between them. Practice has shown that
difficult swampy terrain often has narrow strips that allow
movement. Such places in a swamp can be identified by the presence of molehills,
thick grass interspersed with sedge and in areas where there is pine forest growth.
Wooded and swampy The area is characterized by the predominance of large
forest areas located on loose soil and a large number of swamps,
streams, rivers and lakes.
desert area- a large area of the earth's surface covered with
usually sandy or, less commonly, having rocky or clayey soil.
Desert terrain is usually flat or somewhat hilly
surface.
Deserts are characterized by an arid climate, hot summers and cold winters.
There is almost no vegetation in the desert, and the grasses growing in places are rare and
clear. There are few bodies of water, and the wells that are found often contain salty or
bitter salt water.
In desert areas there are few populated areas, a poorly developed network of ground and
highways. The main obstacle to movement in deserts is loose
sands and especially dunes.
Orientation in deserts due to the monotony of relief forms, lack
vegetation and low habitability of the area is difficult. That's why
navigate in the desert most often using a compass, as well as celestial
luminaries and artificial landmarks.
Distances to local objects always seem shorter in deserts
valid, therefore, with insufficient experience in determining distances
in the simplest ways you can make an error of up to 50% downwards.
Steppe terrain is a large plain,
usually covered with herbaceous vegetation. In most cases this
The terrain has the properties of open and flat terrain. Sometimes the steppe
sometimes cut by deep ravines and gullies; then it belongs to the crossed
terrain.
TOPOGRAPHY
Topographical preparation is a specific section of theoretical training, withoutmastery of which is out of the question for solving such problems as developing
route and confidently completing it.
Map and diagram.
Directory of topographic signs.The basis of topographic preparation is working with cartographic
material, as well as visual surveying of the route and the study of cartography theory.
In practice, various cartographic materials are used: maps, plans,
special tourist cartographic publications.
Map (plan) - a reduced image of the earth's surface, made in
a certain scale.
Geographic maps are usually classified according to content and scale. By
In terms of content, they are divided into general geographical and thematic.
On general geographical maps depict settlements, communication routes,
hydrographic network, relief, vegetation, boundaries. These elements are selected
their relationships and significance for the national economy, science, and culture. Content
geographic maps are developed based on the coordination of map requirements
various organizations.
Thematic maps depict in detail the individual phenomena that make up
the theme of the map (for example, vegetation areas or minerals). Content
The card in this case is designed so that the elements that make up its theme
clearly stood out against the background of the image of general geographical elements of the area.
Geographic maps are divided into a number of types based on image scale.
Survey maps(scale smaller than 1:1000000) contain an image
significant parts of the earth's surface (regions, countries) and are used mainly
way when studying geography. Maps of this scale are convenient for general
familiarization with the area.
Survey-topographical(scale 1:200,000-1:500,000) and political
administrative(scale 1: 500,000-1: 750,000) maps are more detailed and accurate,
than survey-geographical ones, they are convenient for studying areas and for calculations that do not require
high precision.
Topographic maps, due to their large scales, are rich in
content and high geometric accuracy. Copies from
maps scale 1:100000.
Hypsometric maps- their main content is relief,
depicted by horizontals - curved closed lines. Each horizontal
denotes the horizontal contour of the corresponding unevenness, all points of which
located on the ground at the same altitude above sea level. Section heights for
relief images with horizontals depend on the scale at which it is compiled
map. The normal section height established for cards is considered to be 0.02
map scale values (5 m at a scale of 1:25000, 20 m at 1:100000, 40 m at
1:200000, 100 m - at 1:500000, 200 m - at 1: : 1000,000). For hypsometric maps
it is important that the position of objects in plan, as well as spatial forms and
the dimensions of the earth's surface were depicted with the greatest accuracy and detail,
allowed by the map scale.
Forest management and land management plans
compiled on territories included in the State Forest Fund. They come in two scales: black and white - 1:10000,
color - 1:25000. Forest plans show everything that relates to forest management
farms: clearings, contours of forests and clearings, main roads, streams, swamps
(generalized). The relief is not applied to the plans. The forest on the plan is depicted divided into
blocks with a system of clearings. Clearings are oriented geographically or
magnetic meridian, the side of the quarter is 1000 or 500 m. The quarters are numbered,
Moreover, in each forestry the numbering starts from the north-west with one. At first
The top row is numbered, then all the rest in turn. Numbers from the west are increasing
to the east. At the corners of blocks (crossing clearings) there are block posts. Their
the sides facing the inside of the blocks have notches on which numbers are written
corresponding quarters. On quarterly clearings, every 200 or 250 m they place
sighting posts numbered with Roman or Arabic numerals. From them they go into the forest
sighting clearings 0.5 m wide, marked on the ground by notches in trees and
milestones - sticks 1-1.5 m high, pointed at the top. Along clearings and sight lines
there are hundred-meter marks on tree branches or on pegs 50-70 cm high
distances. Every 90 horizontal chart means 100 m, and every inclined chart means 500
m. All poles installed in the forest are marked on the forest plan with bold dots. On
black and white forest plans display all the latest data on felling, planting and other
changes in the forest. Species are applied to colored forest plans using conventional colors.
trees.
Land management plans are drawn up for collective and state farm lands on a scale
1:5000, 1:10000 and 1:25000. Their boundaries exactly match the boundaries of the forest plans.
Navigation charts and manuals are used for navigation on navigable rivers,
open lakes and seas. Tourists traveling on them make voyages
kayaks under sails and collapsible sailing vessels. There are navigation maps
(seas, lakes, navigable rivers) - for laying and determining the position of the vessel during
navigation and reference - for additional information about zoning
swimming.
Navigation maps are divided into:
plans (1:1000-1:25000), giving the most detailed image of an important area;
private charts (1:50000-1:500000), used to ensure navigation on some
away from the coast. These maps show the depths and
coastal objects suitable for determining the location of the vessel; general maps for rivers
and some reservoirs (1: 10,000-1: 100,000), convenient for orientation when
visual pilotage of the vessel, the so-called pilotage. Put on the pilot chart
low-water fairway, depths, navigable floating and shore marks, large waterways
(catch), dump currents, coastal settlements. On separate sheets may
riffles and their elements are given, as well as recommendations for guiding ships through these riffles.
Maps for lakes and large reservoirs are compiled according to the same rules as
maps of the seas, but in a rectangular projection.
Tourist schemes and maps are issued for the areas through which they pass
routes for tourist groups, and introduce them to historical and cultural monuments, places
life and work of outstanding people, unique natural complexes. On
these diagrams and maps show hotels and campsites, vacation spots, network
roads and railways, large settlements, stations
maintenance, river network and forest boundaries. If the scheme is designed for
mountainous region (Caucasus, Tien Shan), it shows the most famous passes,
mountain ranges and flat parts, control stations,
rescue service.
Tourist schemes are issued in scales of 1:500-1:10000, and tourist maps - in
scales 1:200000, 1:250000 1:300,000 1:400000, 1:600000 and smaller. Sometimes on
Tourist schemes and maps do not indicate the scale. Then it can be determined by
pre-known distances for a given area using other maps,
for example, administrative, railway atlases, etc.
As a rule, on tourist diagrams and maps the direction of the magnetic meridian is given.
If such a direction is not indicated, it can be determined by a compass on the ground - by
characteristic linear landmarks (roads, rivers, canals) that have a given area
straight direction.
The concept of scale.
The degree to which lines and distances on a map are reduced from their actual valuedimensions on the ground is called the map scale. The fewer times
the terrain is reduced when depicting it on paper, the larger the scale
images and vice versa. For example, of two scales 1:25,000 and 1:50,000, the first
will be larger. The degree of detail of the map also depends on the scale. On a major map
more objects are drawn to scale. For example, a small town on map 1
: 25,000 can be depicted so that every block and street is visible, and on the map 1
:500,000 the same settlement will be designated only as a small one
polygon or circle.
The scale is applied to every topographic, geographic map or plan,
for example: 1:10000, 1:25,000. This scale is called numerical.
Numerical scale - an abstract number showing how many times it is reduced
the length of the terrain lines when depicting it on the map, regardless of in what
a map or plan is drawn up in metric units. Use a numerical scale
not difficult. Let's show this with an example. Suppose we need to determine
distance in meters between two points on a map of scale 1:50000. Let's measure it
distance in centimeters using a ruler. It turned out to be equal to 4.2 cm. But so
as on a map at a scale of 1:50,000, the image of the area is reduced by 50,000 times, then,
obviously, the actual distance on the ground will be 50,000 times greater, i.e. 4.2
cm X 50000 = 210000 cm. Let's convert the distance expressed in centimeters into meters: 1
m =100 cm; therefore 210000 cm = 210000: 100m = 2100m.
Linear scale. To avoid the calculations required when using
numerical scale, and obtain the desired distance value by working with the map,
construct a linear scale. To do this, you need to postpone several times on a straight line
identical segments called the base of a linear scale. Base
is selected in such a way that it corresponds to a round shape on the ground
number of hundreds or thousands of meters. So, if you need to construct a linear scale for
map or plan at a scale of 1:50000, then it is advisable to take the segment as the basis,
equal to 2 cm, then each such segment will correspond to a distance of 1000
m.
MEASUREMENTS AND CONSTRUCTIONS ON A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
§ 1. MEASUREMENT (DETERMINATION) OF DISTANCES ON THE MAP
a) Measuring distances with a measuring compass
When measuring straight lines, the compass needles are set to the end points, then notby changing the solution of the compass, remove on a linear or transverse scale
distance
Rice. Determining distances on a linear scale using a compass
In the case when the opening of the compass exceeds the length of the linear or transverse
scale, a certain integer number of kilometers is determined by the squares of the kilometer
grid, and the remainder - in the usual order on a linear or transverse scale.
It is convenient to measure broken lines by successively increasing the solution
compass in straight line segments.
Rice. Measuring distances by increasing the compass solution
The distance corresponding to the compass opening is determined by the procedure outlined
higher.
Distances are measured along curves using a compass step. Compass step length
depends on the degree of tortuosity of the line, but, as a rule, should not exceed (for
accurate measurements) 1 cm. To eliminate errors due to deformation of paper (card)
The step length of the compass is first checked along the kilometer grid line.
Rice. Measuring distances using compass steps
b) Measuring distances with a curvimeter
To measure distances on a map using a curvimeter, you must first
(by rotating the wheel) set the arrow to the zero (initial) division, then
roll the wheel with even pressure from the starting point to the ending point. Should
At the same time, pay attention to the fact that when moving the curvimeter, the readings
the accounts of the path increased, not decreased; otherwise, the curvimeter must be turned to
180°.
If the curvimeter scale is written in kilometers, the resulting distance is read
directly from the scale. If the scale divisions are given in centimeters of wheel path per
map, then the resulting number of divisions must be multiplied by the division price. To avoid
errors, it is recommended to determine the division price by control measurement along the line
kilometer grid.
c) The coefficient of increase in the length of the route measured on the map
When measuring the length of a route along a road on a map, the distance turns out to be somewhatless than actual, since the outline of winding roads on maps is somewhat
generalized (leveled), in addition, the decrease in length is caused by relief and
because curves on the road are measured along chords. Therefore, the measurement result
it is necessary to introduce a special amendment (see table).
AMENDMENT TO INCREASE THE LENGTH OF THE ROUTE MEASURED BY THE MAP
Correction factor for map scale
MEASUREMENTS AND CONSTRUCTIONS ON A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
DETERMINATION OF POINT HEIGHT, DIRECTION AND SLOPE BY MAP
SLOPE
a) Determination of absolute heights and relative elevations of pointsThe absolute height H of a point on the earth's surface on a map is determined by horizontal lines
and marks. If a point is located horizontally, then its height is equal to the mark
horizontal (in Fig.). If a point is located between horizontal lines, then its height
equal to the lower horizontal mark plus the elevation of the point (determined
interpolation) above this horizontal line. In Fig. N(b)=110+5=115 m.
The relative elevation of two points is equal to the difference in the absolute heights of these points.
b) Determining the direction of the slope
The direction of the slope decline is determined by the following criteria:
- along reservoirs (rivers, lakes) - lowering the slope towards the reservoir;
- according to the direction indicators of the slope - the stroke is directed towards the downward direction;
- according to the position of the horizontal signatures - the numbers are signed with the base to the side
demotions;
- according to point marks - decrease towards a lower mark.
c) Determination of slope steepness
The basic formula for determining the steepness of a slope:
tg a = h: d
where a is the steepness of the slope
H - slope height (relative elevation of the upper and lower bends of the slope);
d - slope position (distance in plan between the upper and lower bends of the slope).
The steepness of the slope, not exceeding 20-25°, can be determined approximately using the formula
a = 60h:d
To quickly (by eye) determine the steepness, it is estimated in millimeters
the gap d between the main horizontal lines (laying) and according to the formula
a = 12:d(mm)
calculate the steepness of the slope in degrees. This method is only applicable at heights
relief sections:
1:25000-5 m,
1:50000-10 m,
1: 100,000 - 20 m.
To determine the steepness of a slope on a scale, you need to take a compass or
using a strip of paper the distance between two adjacent main or
thickened horizontal lines, apply a compass, without changing its solution, to the scale and
read the number of degrees at the bottom of the scale.
The steepness of the slope between adjacent thickened horizontal lines is determined by
scale corresponding to a five-fold section.
BUILDING A PROFILE BY MAP
It is most convenient to build a profile on graph paper, and if it is not available, on
regular checkered.
A profile line is drawn on the map, then installed and signed
heights of horizontal lines and inflection points of slopes along the profile line. Signatures at
this can only be done at points of inflection and on some horizontal lines - for
making it easier to determine heights. Having determined the height difference, choose a vertical
profile scale. The vertical scale is usually taken larger than the horizontal one in
10 times. A base line is drawn on graph paper and in accordance with
using the accepted vertical scale, draw a series of parallel lines above it
horizontal lines corresponding to the height of the horizontals (every other, every other).
Subsequently, by attaching the paper to the profile line AB on the map, as shown in Fig. ,
project (transfer along perpendiculars) the starting and ending points onto it, and
also all horizontal lines and inflection points of slopes in accordance with their value
height. The resulting points are connected by a smooth curve.
To solve problems of determining visibility, a so-called shortened
profile. In this case, only the inflection points of the slopes are strictly transferred to the profile.
To determine visibility, all local objects are transferred to the profile (taking into account their
heights) limiting visibility (forests, buildings, etc.).
DETERMINATION OF RECTANGULAR COORDINATES OF A POINT BY MAP
a) Determination of rectangular coordinates using a compass (ruler)
To determine the coordinate along the X axis (abscissa), measure with a compass or ruler along
perpendicular is a segment from a given point (target) to the kilometer line below.
To the resulting value, expressed in meters, a digitization is added on the left
kilometer line. A similar technique is used to determine the coordinate along the Y axis
(ordinate), i.e. measure a perpendicular segment from the target to the one passing on the left
kilometer line and to the resulting value (in meters) a digitization is added on the left
this kilometer line (Fig.).
b). Determining rectangular coordinates using a coordinate meter
A coordinateometer is placed on the square in which the target is located so that
one of its scales coincides with the bottom side of the square (Fig.), and move
coordinateometer along this line until the second scale coincides with the target. At the same time
readings are taken from the coordinateometer position. Counting on a vertical scale
corresponds to a segment along the X axis, a reading on a horizontal scale corresponds to a segment along the Y axis.
DETERMINING THE SIDES OF THE HORIZON ON THE TERRAIN
a) Determination of the sides of the horizon by the Sun
An approximate (eye-based) determination of the sides of the horizon based on the Sun is carried out
Based on the fact that the Sun is approximately located in the northern hemisphere:
- at 7 o'clock - in the east;
- at 13 o'clock - in the south;
- at 19 o'clock - in the west;
- at 1 o'clock - in the north.
The average movement of the Sun during 1 hour is 15°. Time difference at a given time
moment and at 13 o'clock (at noon), multiplied by 15, will give the angle at which the Sun is at
is currently deviated from heading south.
Determining the sides of the horizon by the Sun using a watch is performed as follows:
way. Holding the watch horizontally, turn it so that
The tip of the hour hand was directed towards the Sun. Straight dividing
the angle between the hour hand and the direction from the center of the clock to the number “1” of the dial,
will indicate the direction to the south (Fig. 1).
To increase the accuracy of determining the sides of the horizon using this method in southern
areas, you can use a slightly modified method (Fig. 2):
The watch is given not a horizontal, but an inclined position (for a latitude of 50-40° - under
an angle of 40-50° to the horizon), while holding the watch with the number “1” away from you;
- finding the middle of the arc on the dial between the hour hand and the number “1”,
apply a match here, as shown in the figure, i.e. perpendicular to the dial;
- without changing the position of the clock, they rotate with it in relation to the Sun
so that the shadow of the match passes through the center of the dial.
At this moment, the number "1" will be in the direction of the south.
You can approximately determine the direction of the sides of the horizon by moving
the tops of the shadow. To do this, place a stick on a flat area and mark
(with a peg, stone) the top of her shadow. After 10-20 minutes, mark the second position
the tops of the shadow. A straight line from the first mark to the second will indicate approximately the direction
west - east, and perpendicular to it - north-south (see figure).
The convenience of this method is that it can be used when time
unknown.
b ) Determining the sides of the horizon by the North Star
In practice, for the simplest definitions it is assumed that the North Star is located
in the north direction (deviation -* about 1°).
The location of the North Star is determined by the constellation Ursa Major:
mentally continue the straight line passing through the two extreme stars of the “bucket” (a and p), and
put on it a distance equal to five times the visible distance between
these two stars. Here is the North Star, which is identified by
brightness; it is brighter than all the stars surrounding it and is approximately equal in brightness to the stars
constellation Ursa Major. In addition, Polaris is the terminal star
"bucket handles" of the constellation Ursa Minor (see figure).
c) Determining the sides of the horizon based on signs of local objects
Signs determined by the location of objects in relation to the Sun:
- the bark of most trees is rougher on the northern side, thinner, more elastic (birch has
lighter) - in the south;
- pine has a secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side that rises
higher up the trunk;
- on the north side there are trees, stones, wooden, tile and slate roofs before
and are more abundantly covered with lichens and fungi;
- on coniferous trees, resin accumulates more abundantly on the south side;
- anthills are located on the south side of trees, stumps and bushes; Besides,
the southern slope of the anthills is gentle, and the northern slope is steep;
- in spring, the grass cover is more developed on the northern edges of the warmed meadows
sun rays; in the hot period of summer - on the southern, shaded ones;
- berries and fruits acquire the color of maturity earlier (turn red, turn yellow) with
south side;
- in summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier in the south
sides, which can be determined by touch;
- snow melts faster on southern slopes; as a result of melting in the snow
notches are formed - “spikes” directed to the south;
- in the mountains, oak often grows on the southern slopes. Other signs:
- the altars of Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran kirks face east, and
the main entrances are located on the west side;
- the altars of Catholic churches (cathedrals) face west;
- the raised end of the lower crossbar of the church cross faces north;
- shrines (pagan chapels with idols) facing south;
- clearings in large forests are usually oriented in the north direction -
south and west - east; the numbering of forest blocks in the USSR goes from west to
east and further south.
Due to the fact that under the influence of various reasons, in reality there are many
deviations from the listed rules, during orientation it is necessary to take into account
one, but several signs.
d) Determining the sides of the horizon using a map
To solve the problem it is necessary to orient the map along the terrain line or
landmarks; then notice a landmark along the eastern or western frame of the map at
north direction. The direction to the landmark will be north
DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC AZIMUTH DIRECTIONS IN THE TERRAIN
a) Determination of direction azimuth using the Adrianov system compass
Procedure:- face in a given direction;
- holding the compass in your left hand in a horizontal position in front of you and at a height of 10-12
cm below eye level, release the brake of the magnetic needle with your right hand;
- by turning the compass, bring the zero stroke of the dial under the northern end of the magnetic
arrows;
- holding the compass in the oriented position, turning the rotating cover
direct the sighting line (the line passing through the slot and the front sight) at a given
direction, with the front sight towards the landmark (away from you). Combination of hairline com
a pass aimed at a landmark is achieved by repeatedly moving the gaze from
hairline to a landmark and back; raise the compass to eye level for this purpose
not recommended, as this will interfere with compass orientation and accuracy
azimuth determination does not increase, but on the contrary, sharply decreases;
- hold the magnetic needle with the brake and take the angle reading opposite the pointer tip
counting at the front sight; this will be the magnetic direction azimuth.
FINDING DIRECTIONS ON THE TERRAIN ACCORDING TO A SPECIFIED AZIMUTH
Procedure for operating the Adrianov system compass:set the reference pointer on the dial near the front sight to the specified angle reference (magnetic
azimuth);
releasing the compass needle and roughly bringing the zero dial reading under its northern end,
approximately determine the given direction on the ground and face it;
holding the compass in your left hand in front of you at a height of 10-12 cm below eye level,
orient the compass (accurately bring the zero reading of the dial to the northern end
arrows);
notice a distant landmark on the ground in the direction of the compass sighting line.
The direction towards the landmark will be the desired direction.
ORIENTATION BY MAP (ON SITE)
Orientation using a map is the main way to navigate unfamiliar terrain.It is carried out in the following basic sequence:
1. The map is oriented;
2. Landmarks (local objects and relief elements) common to the map are identified and
terrain;
3. The standing point is determined;
4. Compare the map with the terrain.
The map is oriented using a compass or a linear object (road,
contour, etc.).
Identification of landmarks is the most important stage of map orientation, since
only having discovered images of local objects or relief elements on the map,
observed on the ground, it is possible to determine your standing point.
When inspecting the area, the largest, most prominent ones are noticed first.
terrain objects and those that are relatively common in a given area
rarely; At the same time, pay attention to their relative position and arrangement
relative to the sides of the horizon. For example, the lake is located west of the standing point,
the highway runs east of the lake from north to south, etc. Using these signs,
find the noticed terrain objects on the map, and the correctness of their identification
checked by surrounding local objects and terrain.
If landmarks could not be identified, then navigate using the map in
this place is impossible and should, if permissible under the conditions of the situation,
change the standing point so that other landmarks become visible, after which
try to identify these landmarks on the map. When detected on the ground and
on the map of the corresponding landmarks, the standing point is determined in one of the following ways:
set out in this chapter.
The final stage of orientation is understanding the surrounding situation; it
is carried out by the method of sequential comparison (comparison) of the map with
terrain.
To find on a map an image of an object observed on the ground, you must not
confusing the orientation of the map, stand facing the identified object, apply
ruler to the standing point and point it at the required object; then, browsing
map along the edge of the ruler and in accordance with the distance to the object, estimated at
eye, find the desired symbol, in order to more easily identify on the ground
object shown on the map, apply a ruler to the line point - object and in
direction of the ruler, taking into account the distance, find the desired object.
Orientation of the map, determination of the standing point
Terrain orientation includes determining one's locationrelative to the sides of the horizon and prominent terrain objects (landmarks),
maintaining a given or selected direction of movement and understanding the position
on the terrain of landmarks, boundaries, and other objects.
Using the map you can determine your location, choose a route taking into account
maintaining camouflage and overcoming possible obstacles, as well as in advance
measure azimuths for off-road driving and in conditions of limited visibility.
To navigate the terrain using a map, you must first of all orient
map and determine your standing point.
The following methods are used to orient the map:
1. By linear reference.
In this case, you need to go out onto the road (clearing,river bank or other line), find it on the map and then rotate the map until
until the direction of the road (line) on the map coincides with the direction of the road
(lines) on the ground, then check that the objects located to the right and
to the left of the road (line), on the ground were on the same sides as on the map.
2. By compass.
the map is oriented when one’s location on it is not determinedor no landmarks are visible from the standing point.
For approximate map orientation, the direction is first determined using a compass.
north, then turn the card so that the top of the frame is facing
towards the north.
When accurately orienting the map according to the compass, first the compass reference pointer
set against the scale division equal to the direction correction, if the compass
installed on the vertical line of the kilometer grid, or the magnitude of the magnetic
declination if the compass is installed on the west or east side of the frame
maps (Fig. 1). If the direction correction (magnetic declination) is positive
(eastern), the reference pointer is set to the right of the zero scale division, and
if negative (western) - to the left.
Orienting the map using a compass.
Then the compass is installed on the map so that the zero diameter of its dial (or
compass ruler AK) coincided with one of the vertical grid lines or with
one of the sides of the map frame (west or east), and the zero point was
directed toward the north side of the map frame. Without changing the position of the compass, map
rotated horizontally until the north end of the magnetic
the arrows will not be set against the reading that was previously set to
scale.
If the direction correction (or magnetic declination) is less than 3°, i.e. equal to
the price of the compass scale division; it is not taken into account when orienting the map.
It should be remembered that the compass should not be used near iron objects,
military equipment and power lines, as they cause magnetic field deviation
arrows.
3. In the direction of a landmark.
the map is oriented in the same way as along a linearlandmark. The only difference is that instead of a linear landmark they use
direction from the standing point to some distant local object (separate
tree, bridge, repeater, i.e. point landmark), reliably identified on
terrain and on the map.
When approximating the map using this method, it is rotated in
horizontal position so that the direction mentally drawn on the map from
the point of standing on the symbol of a local object approximately coincided with this
direction on the ground.
Orienting the map towards a landmark.
Accurate map orientation towards a distant local object
(landmark) is performed using a sight ruler or pencil. Ruler
place the side edge on the map to the standing point (separate stone) and
symbol of the object in the direction of which the map is oriented
(railway bridge). Then turn the card horizontally
so that the object on the ground is on the line of sight. In this position
the map will be oriented accurately.
It is easier to determine your standing point on the map when you are on the ground nearby
with a landmark (local object) shown on the map.
In this case, the location of the symbol will coincide with the standing point.
4. According to the North Star.
the map will be oriented if the top (north) sidethe frame will be facing the North Star, i.e. north.
If there are no such landmarks at the point on the ground, then it can be
determined in one of the following ways:
Determining your location using nearby landmarks by eye. This
the most common way. On an oriented map they recognize one or two
local objects visible on the ground, then visually determine their
location relative to these objects in directions and distances to them
and mark the point of their standing (see figure).
Determining the standing point using the nearest landmarks.
If the standing point on the ground is located next to any local objector its characteristic bend (turn) shown on the map, then the place
the location of the symbol (turning point) of this object will coincide with
the desired standing point.
In the direction to the landmark and the distance to it, the standing point can be
determined if only one landmark is identified on the ground and on the map. In this case
on an oriented map, apply to the symbol of an identified landmark
ruler, point it at a landmark on the ground, draw a straight line along the edge of the ruler
line and mark the distance from the landmark on it. Received on line
The point of sight will be the desired standing point.
Measuring distances. Moving along the road (along a clearing in the forest or another line on
area) indicated on the map, measure in pairs of steps (using the speedometer of the car)
distance traveled from the nearest landmark. To determine your point
standing, you just need to plot the measured (traveled) distance on a scale
on the map in the right direction.
On target. A target is a straight line passing through a standing point and two
other characteristic points of the area (landmarks).
If the vehicle is on the target line, its location on the map may be
defined in one of the following ways:
Determination of the standing point by alignment and linear landmark.
- along the target and linear reference. If we are on a linear landmark
(road) and in an area with two local objects, just draw it on the map
directly through the conventional signs of local objects (landmarks), in alignment with which
There is a standing point on the ground, before the intersection with the road. Intersection point
alignment line with the road and will be the desired standing point;
Along the target and lateral landmark. In the figure shown. example, the target is
direction of the street in the village. To determine the standing point, orient
map along the target line, and then, applying a ruler to the side landmark (separate
tree), sight on it and draw a straight line until it intersects with the target line. IN
intersection of the target line with the line of sight to the landmark and the point will be located
standing;
Determination of the standing point based on the alignment and lateral landmark.
- by measured distance. A target line is drawn on the map. Then
determine the distance to the nearest landmark located on the target line, and
lay this distance on a drawn straight line (from the reference point towards you).
The point obtained on the straight line will be the standing point.
The standing point is determined by notching, provided there is a good overview of the area and the presence of
on it there are local objects and relief forms that can serve as reliable
landmarks.
According to the lateral landmark, notching is usually done when driving along the road.
or along some linear landmark. While on the road, orientate the map,
identify on it the image of an object (landmark) clearly visible on the ground,
apply the sight line to the symbol of the landmark and sight it.
Then, without changing the position of the ruler, draw a straight line on the map to
intersections with a conventional road sign. The intersection of the drawn line with
the conventional sign of the road will be the desired standing point.
Determination of the standing point by a notch based on a lateral landmark.
This is the most accurate way to determine your location on the map if
the direction towards the lateral landmark intersects with the direction of movement under the straight line
angle. This case is called perpendicular notching.
By two or three landmarks, notching is most often performed when your
The location is not indicated on the map. The map is oriented by compass and identified
there are two or three landmarks on the ground shown on the map. Then, as in the previous
case, sight one by one at the selected landmarks and draw along the ruler
directions from reference points to oneself. All these directions must intersect in one
point, which will be the standing point. This type of serif is often called a back serif.
Determination of the standing point by a notch using three landmarks (back notch).
Notching using measured (constructed) angles (Bolotov’s method) is performed infollowing sequence:
Determining the standing point using Bolotov's method.
- use a compass to measure horizontal angles between three landmarks,selected around the standing point and clearly depicted on the map;
- construct the measured angles on transparent paper with a randomly marked point,
taken as a standing point; these angles can be constructed directly
sighting with a ruler at selected landmarks on the ground;
- place paper on the map so that each direction drawn on it
passed through the conventional sign of the landmark to which it was drawn when sighting
or constructed from measured angles;
- combining all directions with their corresponding symbols of landmarks,
pin on the map the point marked on a sheet of paper at which they were built
directions. This point will be the standing point.
At reverse directional angles, notching is most often performed in situations where
when it is impossible to work with the map on the ground openly. In this case, measure
using a compass, return azimuths from the standing point to two or three point landmarks,
visible on the ground and identified on the map. Back azimuth values
counted on the compass scale against the pointer located at the rear sight.
The measured azimuths are converted to directional angles. Then, constructing these angles at
corresponding landmarks on the map, draw directions until they intersect each other
with a friend. The point of intersection of the directions will be the standing point.
Determination of the standing point by a notch using reverse directional angles.
When determining the standing point using any method of intersection, you should choose directionsso that they intersect at an angle of no less than 30 and no more than 150°. With all possible
In cases, check the position of the resulting standing point by sighting on
additional local item (landmark). If at the intersection of three directions
a triangle has been formed, the standing point is placed in its center. For large sizes
triangle, when its side is more than 2 mm, the notch must be repeated,
having previously checked the accuracy of the map orientation.
When driving off-road, when the standing point is not indicated on the map, it
can be determined by resection in two or three directions. To do this you need to
take 2-3 landmarks on the map and on the ground. Then orient the map using the compass
and similarly to the previous method, provision and draw directions along the ruler
for each of the selected landmarks. The intersection of the drawn lines will be
standing point.
Determination of distances on the ground.
Typically, a tourist has to determine the distance to an object approximately “by eye.”There are methods for fairly accurate calculation of distances, but all of them, to one degree or another, require
tools and arithmetic operations with two-three-digit numbers or with trigonometric
functions. The simplest method would be the object matching method.
If at a distance of 50 centimeters from the eyes the size of two centimeters (this is exactly half a match) enters
an object 20 meters high (the average size of a tree in a forest), then the distance to the object is 500 meters,
it is calculated by the ratio of triangles:
For faster measurements, it is convenient to use a homemade analogue of a rangefinder reticle:
A rectangular plate is made from sheet material (for example, cardboard)
with a slot in the shape of a right triangle with a base of 80 mm and a height of 17 mm.
Centimeter markings are made on the base and numbers are applied in order:
50, 58, 67, 80, 100, 133, 200 - this will be the distance to the object (to the person).
A string or cord 50 cm long with a knot at the end is tied to the plate.
By holding the knot in your teeth and extending your hand with the plate, you will receive a rangefinder,
located exactly 50 cm from the eyes. Such a rangefinder is often
used in devices such as scopes and binoculars. The same principle is used to measure
distance using an optical theodolite, but instead of using a simple object, a measuring stick is used.
The markings on our “device” are made from a simple calculation:
By recalculating the scale using a different standard instead of the average human height (170 cm), you can
make a range finder for any type of objects. For example:
When determining distances visually, subjective data are used, such as hearing and vision.
For example, you can determine the distance:
You should be aware of the horizon line, which is further away the higher the observation point.
For example: a person 170 cm tall will see the horizon line on level ground
at a distance of about 4.5 kilometers, and from a height of 5 meters - at a distance of 9 kilometers.
MOVEMENT IN AZIMUTHS
a) Preparation using a data map for movement in azimuths
Movement along azimuths is a method of maintaining the direction of a path (route) withusing a compass; used mainly in poor visibility (at night, in fog
etc.) and in areas poor in landmarks (in the forest, in the desert, etc.). Subject to availability
magnetic anomaly phenomena, orientation using a magnetic compass
excluded.
Movement along azimuths occurs from landmark to landmark. In advance, before
start of movement, the necessary data is prepared - azimuths and distances:
the route (path of movement) with landmarks at the turns is outlined on the map;
the directional angle and length of each section of the route are measured on the map;
directional angles are converted (taking into account the correction indicated on the map) into magnetic
azimuths; movement data is entered into a table or recorded
directly on a map or a specially designed diagram
b) Movement along azimuths
At each turning point, starting from the initial one, along a given azimuth usingcompasses find the direction of movement on the ground. In the direction of travel
It is advisable to select and remember the most distant landmark possible. On the move
count the distance (meters, pairs of steps, time).
If, after passing a given distance, there is no landmark, at the point
exit, a sign is placed or an object is left, and a landmark is looked for, walking around
an area around a point with a radius of about 0.1 of the path traveled from the previous landmark.
To maintain direction in motion, additional landmarks are used:
stars, wind direction, column alignment and other auxiliary signs.
c) Avoiding obstacles
Obstacle avoidance, depending on conditions, can be accomplished by one of the following:ways.
The first method used when there is visibility through an obstacle: notice
reference point in the direction of movement on the opposite side of the obstacle; get around
obstacle and continue moving from the noticed landmark; width of the obstacle
estimate by eye and add to the distance traveled.
The second method, used when there is no visibility through an obstacle,
is that the detour is made in straight directions, azimuth and length
which are strictly fixed to reach a given direction.
FEATURES OF ORIENTATION IN DIFFERENT TERRAIN CONDITIONS
a) Features of orientation in the forest
The main means of orientation relative to the sides of the horizon and maintainingThe direction of movement in the forest off roads is a compass. In auxiliary ways
orientation can be: orientation based on signs of local objects and
heavenly bodies.
In the forest, the following are used as landmarks:
- clearings, roads and their intersections (forks);
- rivers and streams (the direction of their flow, characteristic bends and
crossings).;
- pronounced forms of relief (cliffs, steep slopes, peaks, mounds, pits);
- clearings, clearings, boundaries of areas of open forest, bushes, burnt areas;
- wetlands, etc.
When moving in the forest along azimuths, it should be taken into account that a large error in
measuring distances. The thicker the forest and the more difficult it is, the greater the error will be.
we pass through (windbreaks, dense thickets and other obstacles). In a difficult forest
the error can reach a value equal to 50% of the distance traveled. The distance in this
case, it is advisable to determine by time, based on a predetermined average
movement speed.
b) Features of orientation in desert-steppe areas
The main way to maintain direction when moving off-road is to move alongazimuths
The main landmarks are outstanding elevations and rare local objects, including
including canals, wells, structures associated with religious cults.
The following local codes can be used to maintain direction:
signs:
- wind direction;
- direction of furrows in clays and limestones (towards the prevailing winds);
- direction of dunes, dunes and ripples in the sand (perpendicular to the direction of the winds);
- steepness of the slopes of dunes and dunes (windward - up to 15°, leeward - up to 40°);
- accumulation of snow in depressions and behind obstacles on the leeward side;
- snow caps on the leeward side of the snowdrifts;
- direction of snow waves and ripples (perpendicular to the direction of the winds).
In order to use very distant landmarks, it is advisable to have a map on
big area.
c) Features of orientation in large populated areas
For orientation it is necessary to use large scale maps (1:25,000 andlarger), plans and aerial photographs. Please note that on maps at a scale of 1:50,000 and
smaller blocks are generalized, streets and passages are drawn only the main ones, as far as
scale allows.
The main landmarks in cities can be:
- main (main) streets, squares;
- prominent industrial enterprises, towers, tall buildings;
- railways, rivers, canals and bridges (overpasses). For passage in columns
In large cities, it is necessary to organize a regulatory service.
d) Features of orienteering in the mountains
The most convenient way to navigate the mountains is to view the area from the heights,providing the best view. The following are usually used as guidelines:
- roads, houses, geodetic and astronomical signs;
- rivers, streams, especially their confluence;
- prominent mountain peaks, cliffs, rocks;
- gorges, steep slopes (rocky or with scree);
- contours of forests, meadows, glaciers.
The general direction of movement is maintained according to the compass. In addition to this
the most important feature for orientation is the profile of the route - climbs,
slopes and their steepness, road turns, their position relative to the slopes (for example,
descent to the left, ascent to the right), distances between turns.
It is also useful to know the following specific signs:
- in many areas the southern slopes of the mountains are flatter, the northern slopes are steeper;
- deciduous trees (primarily oak) grow mainly on
southern slopes, conifers - on the northern;
- grass cover predominates on the southern slopes, woody vegetation - on
northern;
- the snow zone on the northern slopes descends lower than on the southern ones;
- vineyards are planted, as a rule, on southern slopes.
When assessing distances by eye, it should be remembered that due to the high transparency
air, sharp bends and large landforms in the mountains distance to objects
seem much smaller than in reality.
Compass
Compass Basics
What is azimuth.
Azimuth is the angle between North and the object we need.How to determine azimuth knowing the location of an object:
. Point the pointer or sight at the object.
. Read the readings of the pointer or front sight on the compass scale.
This is the azimuth in numerical form.
How to determine the location of an object, knowing the azimuth:
. Level the compass needle with the S or N mark on the scale.
. Point the pointer or mouse at the indicated number.
. Determine the direction of an object using a pointer or front sight.
To determine the location of the desired object you need to know the distance
before him.
Determining time using a compass:
. Determine the azimuth to the sun.
. Divide the resulting number by fifteen (360:15=24), multiply the remainder by
four.
The first number is the hours, the second is the minutes.
Any compass should be checked periodically. To do this you need to put it
horizontally, let the arrow calm down and notice the division near which it
stopped. Then bring some metal object to the compass to
throw the arrow off balance and quickly remove it.
If, after a series of oscillations, the arrow stops near the previous division, then the compass
works correctly, if not, it is better to replace it with another one. On a hike, a compass, if you don’t have one
used, must always be on the brake. When they finish working with the compass,
then first you need to put the arrow on the brake, and only then somehow move it
(lower your hand, put it in your pocket, etc.).
Failure to comply with this rule leads to rapid wear of the compass and its failure.
building.
In Latin notation: S stands for South and N stands for North!
Accordingly, W stands for West and E stands for East.
Topographical orientation.
Topographical orientation should beunderstand terrain orientation, i.e., determining your location
relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding obvious objects and relief
terrain. Terrain orientation begins with determining the sides of the horizon
by compass. Of the numerous compass systems in tourist practice, I found the most
Widely used liquid compass. The advantage of this compass is
exceptionally quick readiness for work and ease of maintenance. Compass
equipped with a magnifying glass for reading maps and a pedometer, which are located on the main
appliance plate.
When using any compass, remember that in a freely suspended
In this state, the ends of the magnetic needle will be directed north and south. But
this is approximate. The arrow is not in the true direction
(geographical) meridian, but in the direction of the magnetic meridian. Angle between
true meridian and magnetic is called magnetic declination
(magnetic declination). It is different for each area and can be eastern
(with a + sign) or Western (with a - sign). Its value for most of Europe
and Asia does not exceed 5-7°, with the exception of areas of magnetic anomalies. Therefore in
In most cases, we can assume that the magnetic meridian practically coincides
with the true one, and the north end of the arrow shows the direction approximately north.
However, for more accurate orientation, especially when moving along azimuths, you need
take into account the declination value indicated on topographic maps.
(On military maps it is usually indicated at the bottom of the square sheet).
Do not rely too much on the magnetic pole if the area of travel
coincides with the occurrence of iron ores close to the surface. You should also consider
migration of the magnetic pole and corresponding, albeit small, changes
directions of magnetic declination.
To determine the sides of the horizon using a compass, release the brake
magnetic needle and set the compass horizontally. Then turn it like this
so that the northern end of the arrow is opposite the letter “C” (north). With this
position of the letters “B”, “3” and “Y” will indicate the direction to the east, west and south. In any of
these directions, you can select an object on the ground - a landmark,
which will be used in the future for orientation when moving along
route.
Military topography- a discipline of military affairs that studies methods and means of terrain assessment, terrain orientation and field measurements to ensure the combat activities of troops (forces), defining rules for maintaining commanders’ work cards and developing graphic combat documents.
Encyclopedic YouTube
1 / 5
✪ Topography introduction. For military personnel. Test classes (KPP).
✪ Topography. Determining the relative visibility of points on the map. Test classes. BULLPEN.
✪ Great program for learning topographical signs
✪ Infantry tactics - squad fire card
✪ Working with a topographic map (part 4 of 5)
Subtitles
Specifics of military topography
Military topography is a special section of topography adapted for the needs of the armed forces.
The differences between topography used in the civilian sphere and military topography lie primarily in a different approach to the principles of cartography.
Principles of cartography
If in topography used in the civil sphere, the construction of maps is based on the use of a system of geographic coordinates of the earth’s surface, then in military topography The system of rectangular coordinates is mainly used.
In military cartography, the entire earth's surface is conventionally divided into rectangles of certain sizes - the so-called rectangular coordinate system or Gauss-Kruger coordinate system. The location of a point on the earth's surface is measured in it as in the Cartesian coordinate system.
The reference point is the intersection of the selected axial meridian with the equator. To do this, the entire earth's surface is divided into zones bounded by meridians spaced 6° from each other, with serial numbering starting from the Greenwich meridian to the east. There are 60 zones in total. For example, the 8th zone is located between the meridians of 42° and 48° east longitude, and the 58th zone, respectively, is located between the meridians of 12° and 18° west longitude.
For example, the coordinates of a conditional point M (look at the illustrations) with coordinates 50°28"43"" N and 31°32"46"" E. located in the 6th zone (between 30° and 36° east longitude), approximately 500 meters north and 700 meters east from the intersection horizontal kilometer line 5594(north of the equator by 5594 kilometers) and vertical kilometer line 6396(east of the ordinate reference point of the 6th zone at 396 kilometers along the equator). Accordingly, writing in rectangular coordinates of the conditional point M will be as follows: x=6396700 and y=5594500.
This system, in contrast to a more accurate system of geographic coordinates, is more convenient for quickly drawing up maps and topographic calculations. The error inherent in rectangular coordinate system, which distorts the length and area, which arises due to the fact that the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken into account, is not significant, since it noticeably decreases with the scale of the map used. The larger the scale of the map in a rectangular coordinate system, the higher its accuracy.
Legend
- artillery battery or single gun;
- a tank company or a single tank at a guard post;
- fortification structures (trench, pillbox, anti-tank ditch, etc.);
- areas contaminated with weapons of mass destruction;
- and much more
Map as a management tool
The next feature of military topography is the need to display planned and unplanned actions carried out by troops and the state of units at different stages of military exercises or combat operations.
In this application, the map is a force control tool designed to solve the following tasks:
- clarification of the combat mission received from the command;
- means of conducting calculations;
- assessment of the tactical situation;
- assigning tasks to subordinates;
- organizing interaction with other formations;
- conducting target designation.
In military topography, methods have been developed for displaying on a map various activities carried out by troops.
- deployment of an artillery battery firing position;
- deployment of a motorized rifle battalion from marching formation to combat formation;
- tactical landing;
- machine gun fire sector;
- organization of a reserve line of defense by a tank battalion;
- route of movement of security patrols;
- and much more.
In addition, a topographic map in military affairs may contain time marks in the symbols that display the plan of military operations in stages.
Area diagram
In military topography, in addition to the use of maps, it is common to use area plans.
Area diagram is a hand-made drawing that shows an approximate plan of the area. It can be made by copying an existing topographic map onto translucent paper, or by sketching the area visually viewed by the observer. In the second case, errors are allowed in the scaling and proportions of the displayed terrain areas.
Based on terrain plans The unit commander draws up an official document on planning upcoming military operations.
Official documents compiled according to terrain plan, also called schemes. In some cases the term scheme falls. In the Soviet military school to designate on terrain plan actions in the defense of the squad the term was used fire card.
Examples of titles of official documents compiled according to terrain plan :
- Diagram of a motorized rifle company stronghold;
- Fire card of the grenade launcher compartment;
- Battalion defense in the city;
- Layout of the battalion (company) on site;
- Combat order and combat missions of a tank battalion when going on the offensive on the move;
- Crossing a water barrier with a motorized rifle battalion on the move.
Map and diagram of the area as a means of event analysis
In military affairs area map or map, is also used as a means of analyzing a current or past event.
For events that took place during hostilities, a detailed investigation of what happened is often required, which should clarify what happened.
In such cases, terrain diagrams (or maps) are created on which the following details are noted:
- the position of their troops and their movements (maneuvers) with a time stamp;
- position of enemy troops and their maneuvers with time stamps;
- actions of troops and places of clashes between the parties;
- numerical strength and weapons of the parties;
- notes on the losses of the parties, the destruction of military equipment, units, loss of positions;
- routes of advance, advance and retreat of formations.
If a map (diagram) displays current or past military operations over a large area of terrain, the term "map (scheme) of military operations".
The map on which the current situation is indicated is called the term "situation map"