The main subjects of modern international relations. Concept and classification of subjects of international relations
International relations are a set of economic, political, ideological, legal, diplomatic and other connections and relationships between states and systems of states, between the main classes, main social, economic, political forces, organizations and social movements, acting on the world stage, i.e. between peoples in in a broad sense this word.
International relations are characterized by a number of features that distinguish them from other types of relations in society. Such characteristic features the following can be mentioned:
- - Spontaneous character international political process, which is characterized by the presence of many trends and opinions, which is due to the presence of many subjects international relations.
- - The increasing importance of the subjective factor, which expresses the increasing role of outstanding political leaders.
- - Coverage of all spheres of society and inclusion of a variety of political subjects in them.
- - The absence of a single center of power and the presence of many equal and sovereign centers for making political decisions.
The main importance for regulating international relations is not laws, but agreements and cooperation agreements.
Subjects of international relations are social communities that, with their practical actions solve issues that affect the destinies of all humanity. The following are considered as subjects of international relations:
- -national states
- -international governmental and non-governmental (non-governmental) organizations;
- -transnational corporations;
- -religious associations;
- -socio-political movements.
International relations between their subjects are built on a bilateral or multilateral basis and are global or regional in nature.
Among the subjects of international relations, a special place belongs to the state, since it is the state that presents international arena society as a whole, rather than individual social groups or organizations. The state is considered as the only national institution that has the legitimate authority to implement policies in the international arena: declare war, conclude cooperation agreements, etc. Therefore, the most important component of international relations is interstate relations, which are influenced by the global economic situation. The influence of individual states on international relations is different; it is associated with determining the power of the state, its international competitiveness, which is determined by economic military potential, natural and labor resources, the level of development of science and culture, achievements in the field of high technology, and the level of social stability. The power of a state is an indicator of what forces a state has at its disposal and the extent to which it can use them in relations with other states or non-states; relations are the so-called superpowers, which received such status due to the ability to influence the conditions of existence of all humanity; great powers that can exert significant influence on world development; middle powers that have a serious influence on their immediate environment, but such influence does not extend beyond the region; small powers that have enough strength to ensure their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence, but their influence on the immediate environment is weak; micropowers that are unable to defend their sovereignty on their own.
At the heart of such a subject of international relations as international governmental organizations are the coinciding interests and goals of the participating states, the desire to use their combined force to achieve their goals. The most important universal organization is the UN, which is designed to help stabilize international relations, resolve conflicts and reduce confrontation between states. Among the interstate regional associations that play a certain role in world politics, we should highlight the Organization of African Unity, the Organization of American States, the Council of Europe, European Union, Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Association of Countries South-East Asia(ASEAN), League of Arab States (LAS), etc. Non-governmental organizations, bring people together good will different states in achieving some common goals, the most common are various human rights organizations like the Helsinki groups in the territory of the former Soviet Union. Among non-governmental associations, it is worth highlighting international organizations of scientists, public figures, politicians: the Club of Rome, which united representatives of various countries in considering the problems of effective environmental management and prospects for global development; The Olav Palme Commission also pursues similar goals.
Transnational corporations began to be considered as subjects of international relations in the twentieth century, which is associated with their influence and enormous economic opportunities, when, in fact, their activities are often global in nature.
Today, the defining trends in the development of international relations are humanization and democratization. Humanization means a transition to a type of international relations that to the greatest extent serve the interests of the individual, contribute to the creation maximum opportunities for her further development and improvement, to improve the quality of her life itself. Democratization of international relations acts as a means of building a humane world order.
Understanding the system of international relations only as a “natural”, “pre-civil” state does not take into account the tendency towards their socialization and ignores the growing evidence of overcoming this state and the emergence of a new world order. On the other hand, if we proceed only from this trend, we can also come to an erroneous conclusion that does not take into account that, despite the growing integrity and interdependence of the world, the intensifying processes international integration and cooperation of various states and peoples in the economic, political, social and other fields, international relations today largely remain a sphere of divergent interests, rivalry and even confrontation and violence. This is no longer a “jungle”, not a “war of all against all”, but also not a single community living according to common laws and in accordance with common values and norms shared by all its members. This is, rather, a transitional state, when the growing trend towards the formation of a world community has not become irreversible, when elements of regulation and “pluralism of sovereignties”, expansion of cooperation based on mutual interests and improvement of means of violence coexist with each other, then mutually balancing, then again entering into confrontation
All this suggests that the above criteria are at least not enough to determine the specifics of international relations, that they should be, if not replaced, then supplemented by another criterion. The famous French researcher M. Merle, who proposed such a criterion, called it the “localization criterion.” According to this criterion, the specificity of international relations is defined as “a set of agreements or flows that cross borders, or tend to cross borders.” Based on the fact that the world is divided into states that retain sovereignty over their territorial borders, such an understanding allows us to both take into account the characteristics of each stage in the development of international relations and not reduce them to interstate interactions. The most diverse classifications of international relations fit well into it. Summarizing what has been said in this regard in scientific literature positions, we can talk about various types, types, levels and states of international relations
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International relations: subjects and forms of interaction
International relationships
Content1. International relations: subjects and forms of interaction..........2
2. Basic theories of international politics...................................................7
3. Current trends in the development of international relations............9
4. Russia in the system of international relations...................................14
5. Literature................................................... ...............................17
1. International relations: subjects and forms of interaction
Independent states do not develop in a vacuum; they interact with each other and act as subjects of politics more high level- world politics. That is, states act in the sphere of international relations.
International relations are a set of economic, political, legal, ideological, diplomatic, military, cultural and other connections and relationships between entities operating on the world stage.
The main feature of international relations is the absence of a single central core of power and control. They are built on the principle of polycentrism and polyhierarchy. Therefore, in international relations big role spontaneous processes and subjective factors play a role.
International relations are the space in which they collide and interact at different levels(global, regional, multilateral and bilateral) various forces: state, military, economic, political, social and intellectual.
All international relations can be divided into two main types: relations of rivalry and relations of cooperation.
International or world politics is the core of international relations.
World politics refers to the processes of development, adoption and implementation of decisions affecting the life of the world community.
In modern world politics there is great amount various participants. But the prevailing view still remains that the main subjects of world politics are states and groups (unions) of states.
However, today an objective tendency has emerged to expand the number of participants in international relations. International organizations are becoming increasingly important actors in international relations. They are usually divided into intergovernmental or intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations.
Interstate organizations are stable associations of states based on treaties, have certain agreed upon competence and permanent bodies.
The complexity of interstate relations in political sphere, the need to regulate international life led to the creation of non-governmental organizations. Non-governmental organizations have a more complex structure than interstate ones. They can be purely non-governmental, or they can be of a mixed nature, that is, include government structures, public organizations, and even individual members.
As subjects of international relations, international organizations can enter into interstate relations from their own own name and at the same time on behalf of all the states included in them. The number of international organizations is constantly growing.
International organizations cover a wide variety of aspects of international relations. They are created in the economic, political, cultural, national areas and have certain characteristics and specifics. Examples of various international organizations include:
Regional organizations such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the European Economic Community(EEC, Common Market), League of Arab States (LAS), etc.;
Organizations of an economic nature, covering the field of finance, trade, and so on, for example: the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), the International Monetary Fund(IMF), International Bank Reconstruction and Development (IBRD);
Organizations in the field of certain sectors of the world economy, for example: International Energy Agency (IEA), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), etc.;
Political-economic organizations, for example: Organization of African Unity (OAU);
Professional organizations: International Organization of Journalists (IOJ); International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL);
Demographic organizations: International Democratic Federation Women (WWF), World Youth Association (WYA);
Organizations in the field of culture and sports: International Olympic Committee (IOC), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO);
Military organizations: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Pacific Security Pact (PSA);
Trade union organizations: International Confederation Free Trade Unions (ICTU), World Confederation of Labor (CGT);
Various organizations in support of peace and solidarity: World Peace Council (WPC), Pagoush Movement, International Institute of Peace;
Religious organizations: World Council of Churches (WCC), Christian Peace Conference(KhMK);
The International Red Cross (IRC) is an organization whose purpose is to help prisoners of war and other victims of war, disasters and natural disasters;
Environmental organizations: Greenpeace and others.
The most significant role in the system of international relations is played by the United Nations (UN). It became practically the first mechanism in history for broad, multifaceted interaction between different states in order to maintain peace and security and promote the economic and social progress of all peoples.
Created in 1945, the UN has become an integral part international structure. Its members are 185 states, which indicates that it has achieved almost complete universality. Not a single major event in the world remains outside the purview of the United Nations.
Within the framework of the UN, a number of organizations have emerged that have organically entered the system of international relations both as UN structures and as independent organizations. These include:
WHO ( World Organization Healthcare);
ILO (International Labor Association);
IMF (International Monetary Fund);
UNESCO (Cultural and Scientific Organization);
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Organization);
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development);
International Court.
International government organizations have more leverage over international politics and individual states than public organizations that influence mainly through the formation of international public opinion.
International monopolies or transnational corporations (TNCs) enjoy enormous influence on the world stage. These include enterprises, institutions and organizations whose goal is to make a profit and which operate through their branches simultaneously in several states. The largest TNCs have huge economic resources, giving them advantages in this regard not only over small, but even large powers.
Religious organizations are important subjects of world politics.
An extremely influential subject in the formation and functioning of world politics are the people themselves, who should rightfully have a decisive role in developing the basic principles of the foreign policy strategy of both their countries and the world as a whole.
But still, the role of all the above-mentioned subjects remains incommensurate with the role of states, which have the authority to represent society as a whole in world politics, and not any particular social group or political organization. Issues related to the national tasks of ensuring sovereignty, security, and territorial integrity are under the jurisdiction of the state. Political scientists emphasize that the state is the only national institution that has the legitimate authority to participate in relations with other states, conclude treaties, and declare war. States continue to remain the main subjects of world politics and international relations.
The influence and power of a state on the world stage can be represented as its ability, while protecting its own interests, to influence other states and the course of events in the world.
The strength of a state and its position in the system of international relations is determined by a number of factors. Until recently, it was believed that the main thing for this was military power. Of course, a country’s military potential largely determines its power and corresponding position in the international arena.
The real position of a state on the world stage is determined by broader indicators. These include the size of the territory, natural and human resources, the structure of the national economy, the volume and quality of industrial and agricultural production, the ability to ensure the progressive development of the country, to guarantee economic security societies, as well as the country's ability to exert a progressive influence on international development.
International relations as a system cannot be understood without interrelation with such a category as “ foreign policy" Ultimately, international relations consist, first of all, of the totality of foreign policy activities of states, which are the main participants in international relations both as independent entities and as members of any organizations.
Foreign policy regulates the relations of a given state with other states, ensures the implementation of its needs and interests in the international arena.
Foreign policy is the activity and interaction of official subjects who have or have acquired the right to speak on behalf of society, express the interests of society, and elect certain methods and ways to implement them.
Foreign policy activities to achieve set goals are implemented through various means: political, economic, military, information and propaganda.
Political means include, first of all, diplomacy. Diplomacy is the official activity of the state represented by special institutions and with the help of special events, techniques, methods acceptable from the standpoint international law and having constitutional and legal status. Diplomacy is carried out in the form of negotiations, visits, special conferences and meetings, meetings, preparation and conclusion of bilateral and multilateral agreements, diplomatic correspondence, participation in the work of international organizations.
Economic means of foreign policy involve the use economic potential of a given country to achieve external political goals. A state with a strong economy and financial power also occupies a strong position in the international arena. Even small states that are not rich in material and human resources can play a prominent role on the world stage if they have a strong economy that is based on advanced technologies and is capable of spreading its achievements far beyond its borders. Effective economic means are embargoes, or vice versa, most favored nation treatment in trade, the provision of investments, credits and loans, etc. economic assistance or refusal to provide it.
The military means of foreign policy usually include the military power of the state, which includes the army, its size and quality of weapons, morale, availability
military bases, possession of nuclear weapons. Military means can be used both as a means of direct influence and indirect. The first include wars, interventions, blockades. Thus, over the past 55 centuries, humanity has lived in peace for only 300 years. Over the course of these centuries, 14.5 thousand wars occurred, in which 3.6 billion people died. Most people on Earth agree with the words of J. Bernal that “war is always a crime against humanity, but now it is also madness.” However, awareness of the destructiveness of wars, and especially nuclear ones, does not mean the absence of other points of view. For example, Hegel believed that war is the engine of progress. And according to Malthus: “War is a natural scientific law of the struggle against surplus population.” In modern social science and journalism, a current that still considers war, including nuclear war, as an acceptable means of politics remains influential.
Indirect military means include the arms race, which includes testing new types of weapons, exercises, maneuvers, and the threat of using force. For example, military spending throughout the world has recently amounted to 1000 billion dollars a year, more than half of the world's scientists have been working on the creation of new types of weapons of mass destruction.
Military means of foreign policy include intelligence and espionage. Today, the latest achievements of science and technology are used here, from multi-ton spaceships to microdevices. Industrial espionage has received particular development in recent decades.
Propaganda means include the entire arsenal of modern media, propaganda and agitation, which are used to strengthen the authority of the state in the international arena and help ensure trust on the part of allies and possible partners. With the help of the media, a positive image of one’s state is formed, a feeling of sympathy for it, and, if necessary, antipathy and condemnation towards other states. Propaganda means are often used to disguise certain interests and intentions.
2. Basic theories of international politics
The path of scientific substantiation of international relations is associated with the creation of general methodological theories designed to formulate key principles and techniques for the scientific analysis of these relations. The main such theories include: the Marxist theory of the world revolutionary process, the theory of pragmatism and political realism, modernist theories of international relations and geopolitical theory.
A prominent place among the theories of international politics is occupied by the concept of revolutionary transformation of the world order, developed by K. Marx, F. Engels and V. I. Lenin. It is characterized by: a class approach to the analysis of world problems, the study of the state’s foreign policy in connection with the domestic one, the consideration of international relations in each historical era in accordance with the patterns of development of specific socio-economic formations, the study of objective and subjective factors of the balance of power.
Considering the era after 1917 to be transitional from capitalism to socialism, Marxists-Leninists put forward the position of a world revolutionary process, of an anti-imperialist struggle.
According to V.I. Lenin, the content of the foreign policy of imperialism is world domination; under capitalism, no other basis, no other principle of division, other than force is possible.
The theory of political realism and pragmatism in foreign policy was developed in the middle of the 20th century. J. Kennan, Z. Brzezinski, W. Rostow, G. Kissinger and other scientists and politicians. Recognized authority this direction is G. Morgenthau.
Considering the imperfection of the world situation as a result of the forces inherent in human nature, the “realists” called for not resisting these forces. According to G. Morgenthau, “ moral principles can never be fully realized and must in any case roughly correspond to each other through an invariably temporary balance of interests and an always precarious settlement of conflicts.” International politics is understood by "realists" as a struggle for power initiated by sovereign states in pursuit of superiority. The “political determinism” of world processes is derived from the struggle for power.
“Realists” paid considerable attention to defining the goals and objectives of international politics: what drives the activities of states in the international arena, in the name of which they enter into relationships with each other. Realists believe that if in politics generally valid or group interests are always expressed, then in international politics - predominantly national interests. Therefore, in their works the concept was thoroughly developed national interests. National interest is the awareness and reflection in the activities of its leaders of the fundamental needs of the national state. Permanent interests include " National security"(protection from external danger), "economic interests" (preserving ties with partners, increasing export potential and foreign investment, protecting the domestic market), "interests of maintaining world order." There are interests that play a subordinate role or arise simultaneously.
Emphasizing the importance of the concepts of “national” and “state” interests, it should be noted that there are certain differences between them. Under some circumstances, national and state interests may not coincide.
The struggle for the realization of interests allows a power to occupy a position in the world that corresponds to its strength. “International politics, like any other,” emphasizes G. Morgenthau, “is a struggle for power. Whatever may be the absolute goals of international politics, force is always the immediate goal."
“Modernist” theories, created in opposition to the traditional theory of realism, declared their intention to connect the processes and achievements of scientific and technological revolution with models of international relations. The formation of these theories took place under strong influence quantitative research methods. Representatives of this movement concentrated their efforts on collecting factual data and creating models that could be analyzed using a computer.
The pioneers of “modernism” were K. Wright, K. Deutsch, M. Kaplan. In line with this direction, schools of structural-functional and system analysis foreign policy. Modernists analyze government policy differently than realists. If realists viewed states as integral units that determined their course on the basis of national interests, then modernists viewed states as systems subject to influence from without and from within. G. ALLISON and J. Rosenau described the social and political-psychological factors acting on the formation and implementation of the foreign policy process. This made it possible to distinguish three areas in foreign policy: the bureaucratic sphere with its attention to the peculiarities of the functioning of organizations operating in this area; the specifics of decision-making on foreign policy issues by government leadership; the role of elites and pressure groups in the formation of foreign policy. All of them were initially united by the concept of the domestic political origins of foreign policy.
Modernists pay increased attention to international organizations, transnational corporations and other subjects of international relations that influence the formation of world politics.
If, from the traditional point of view, the threat of force is most effective remedy foreign policy, modernists focus on stimulating or hindering the development of processes of mutual dependence.
The introduction of the term “geopolitics” into scientific circulation is associated with the name of the Swedish researcher and political figure R. Kjellen (1846-1922). He characterized geopolitics as “a science that views the state as geographical organism or a phenomenon in space."
The founding fathers and main adherents of geopolitics are considered to be the American historian A. T. Mahan, the British geographer and politician H. Mackinder, the British geographer J. Fairgrieve, the American researcher of international relations N. Spykman, and the German researcher K. Haushofer.
In the interpretation of the founding fathers of geopolitics, a central place in determining the international policy of a particular state was given to its geographical location. The meaning of geopolitics was seen in bringing to the fore the spatial, territorial principle.
According to G. Mackinder: “He who controls Eastern Europe, governs the Heartland (middle land) of Eurasia; whoever rules the Heartland rules the world island of Europe, Asia, Africa, and whoever rules the world island rules the world.” The Heartland is opposed by the “island complex” (America, Australia, Oceania, Great Britain), the birthplace of liberalism.
The idea of the importance of geographical factors for the position of states, their policies and historical fate can be considered fruitful. All these aspects are of significant importance in the distribution of resources of powers and in their planning of foreign policy.
The main drawback of this model of international relations, as well as many others, is the absolutization of one of the various components of the equation of world politics.
These are the basic theories of foreign policy that underlie the political science of international relations and foreign policy. Many of them, to one degree or another, are adopted by politicians and influence the formation of the foreign policy course of the states of our planet. Of course, none of these theories is exhaustive and does not have a monopoly on the ultimate truth. However, taken together, they are different sides and shed light on the complex and contradictory world of foreign policy in different ways.
3. Current trends in the development of international relations
The modern stage of international relations is characterized by the rapidity of change and new forms of distribution of power.
The confrontation between the two superpowers - the USSR and the USA - is a thing of the past. Collapsed old system international relations, which is called bipolar - bipolar.
In the motley picture of breaking old and building new international relations, several clearly visible development trends can still be identified.
The first trend in the development of modern international relations is the dispersion of power. The process of becoming a multipolar (multipolar) world is underway. Today, an increasingly important role in international life acquire new centers. On world stage Japan, which is already an “economic superpower” today, is becoming more and more active. They're coming integration processes in Europe. In Southeast Asia, new post-industrial states emerged - the so-called " Asian tigers" There is reason to think that in the foreseeable future China will make a strong statement in world politics.
There is still no consensus among political scientists about the future of the system of international relations. Some are inclined to believe that a system of collective leadership in the United States, Western Europe and Japan is currently being formed. Other researchers believe that the United States should be recognized as the sole world leader. Still others do not rule out the revival of a bipolar system, in which China will take the place of the USSR in the ideological and military-political confrontation with the United States.
The second trend in the development of modern international relations has become their globalization (C1obe - globe), which consists in the internationalization of the economy, the development of a unified system of world communications, the change and weakening of the functions of national states, and the intensification of the activities of transnational non-state entities. On this basis, an increasingly interdependent and whole world; interactions in it have taken on a systemic character, when more or less serious changes in one part of the world inevitably have an echo in other parts of it, regardless of the will and intentions of the participants in such processes.
Internationally, this trend is rapidly realizing itself in the form of explosive growth. international cooperation, the influence of international institutions - political, economic, humanitarian - as well as the creation of essentially supranational bodies.
The third trend in the development of international relations was the increase global problems, and, accordingly, the desire of the world's states to jointly solve them.
The scientific and technological revolution (STR), which originated in the middle of the 20th century, over the course of several decades produced such radical changes in the development of productive forces that the thousand-year achievements of our predecessors pale in comparison. It contributed to a sharp increase in labor productivity and led to a huge increase in the products needed by people. But there is another side to this revolution: many extraordinary, so-called global problems arose, which confronted humanity in full force and showed that our restless and full of contradictions the world is at the same time an interconnected, interdependent and largely integral world. A world that imperatively, imperatively requires not disunity and confrontation, but the unification of the efforts of all countries and peoples in the name of preserving civilization, its enhancement and the well-being of both the current and future generations of people.
All global problems facing humanity can be divided into four main groups: political, economic, environmental, social.
The most important of them, the first to make humanity first feel and then understand the impending threat, is the emergence, rapid accumulation and improvement of weapons of mass destruction, which radically changed the situation in the world. The nature of nuclear weapons does not allow any state to ensure the reliability of its defense by military means. In other words, security in the world can only be achieved through joint efforts. It can either be common to all countries, or it cannot exist at all.
Positive changes in relations between the leading countries of the world, which have the greatest scientific, economic and military-technical potential and have taken a significant step towards realizing the danger of the arms race, have relieved former tensions in international relations.
An important problem that worries all of humanity is international terrorism, among the various forms of which the most dangerous is state terrorism.
Another, no less important, but much more difficult to solve group of environmental problems includes problems of conservation environment. The danger of disturbing the ecological balance did not arise immediately. It was approaching gradually, sometimes as a result of ignorance, and most often because of people’s disregard for the possible harmful and even disastrous consequences of their practical activities.
The problem of environmental conservation is organically connected with a sharp increase in human economic activity, caused by natural trends in social development: an increase in the population, its desire for progress, improvement of material well-being, etc.
Excessive, reckless exploitation of nature by man has led to massive deforestation, deterioration in the quality of fresh water resources, pollution of seas, lakes, rivers, and destruction of the ozone layer, which poses a danger to human life. The proportion of carbon dioxide in the air increases. Emissions of other chemical compounds (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides) are increasing, resulting in “ acid rain" The global climate is warming, leading to the so-called “greenhouse effect.” The Chernobyl disaster became a clear indicator of environmental pollution.
The ugly, uncontrolled economic activity of people is dangerous because of its consequences, which do not know state borders and do not recognize any barriers. This obliges all countries and peoples to join efforts aimed at protecting and improving the environment.
Environmental problems are closely interconnected with economic ones - with the problems of the growth of social production, and the resulting increase in the need for energy and raw materials. Natural resources are not limitless, and therefore a rational, scientifically based approach to their use is required. However, solving this problem is associated with considerable difficulties. One of them is due to the sharp lag behind developing countries in terms of energy consumption per capita from industrial developed countries. Another difficulty is caused by the technological imperfection of production in many countries, including Russia, as a result of which there is a large overconsumption of raw materials, energy, and fuel per unit of output.
Social problems are also diverse. Recent decades have been marked by growing concern for humanity caused by the flow of dangerous diseases and addictions that have befallen it. Cardiovascular and oncological diseases, AIDS, alcoholism, drug addiction have acquired an international character and have become one of the global problems.
The whole world cannot help but be alarmed by the widening difference in the living standards of the peoples of developed and developing countries. Underdeveloped countries are often visited by famine, which results in death. a large number of of people. These problems are also aggravated by the discrepancy in the relationship between demographic growth of the population and the dynamics of the productive forces.
People all over the world are concerned about the rise in crime and the growing influence of mafia structures, including the drug mafia.
Global problems have arisen at the intersection of the relationship between man, society and nature. All of them are organically interconnected, and therefore their solution requires an integrated approach.
The emergence of global problems has affected the entire system of international relations. Indeed, efforts to prevent environmental disaster, fight against hunger, deadly diseases, attempts to overcome backwardness cannot yield results if they are decided alone, on national level, without the participation of the world community. They require a planetary unification of intellectual, labor and material resources.
The fourth trend in modern international relations is the increasing division of the world into two poles - the poles of peace, prosperity and democracy and the poles of war, unrest and tyranny. The majority of humanity lives at the pole of ferment, where poverty, anarchy and tyranny prevail.
There are 25 countries at the pole of peace, prosperity and democracy: Western European countries, the USA, Canada, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. 15% of the population lives there globe, the so-called “golden billion”. These countries are dominated by wealthy democracies, in which the standard of living of the average citizen is very high by historical standards (from 10 to 30 thousand dollars in annual income), with a life expectancy of at least 74 years. The country can achieve such prosperity only thanks to the presence of a highly developed knowledge-intensive economy.
At the other pole are the states of Africa, Asia, Latin America, the republics of the former USSR and the countries of the East. In them, more than 80 million people live in conditions of absolute poverty, and of the 500 million starving people, about 50 million died annually from exhaustion. In the economy, these states supplied developed world energy and raw materials and acted as a dumping ground for toxic waste.
The fifth trend is that in general, both in domestic and international life, politics as a spontaneous clash of socio-historical forces is increasingly being squeezed by the principles of conscious, purposeful, rational regulation based on law, democratic principles and knowledge.
The sixth trend was the democratization of both international relations and domestic political processes. It is observed in all countries, regardless of the dominant type in them. political regime. With the end of the Cold War, even under the most authoritarian regimes, the opportunities to hide, and even more so to legitimize, state violations of the personal freedom of citizens, their natural and political rights, have significantly narrowed. The phenomenon of the progressive politicization of the masses, who everywhere demand access to information, participation in decision-making that affects them, and improvement of their material well-being and quality of life, is becoming widespread worldwide. Achievements of the post-industrial revolution - satellite communications and cable television, telefaxes and Email, the global Internet network, which makes it possible to almost instantly distribute and obtain the necessary information on almost all areas of interest modern man issues - have become signs of everyday life of people not only in the most economically developed countries, but are also receiving more and more wide use worldwide. The composition and diversity of political factors is sharply expanding. As a result, the development and implementation of foreign policy guidelines cease to be the province of a narrow group of people in a special government department, becoming the property of a collection of a wide variety of institutions, both governmental and non-political. In turn, this has profound consequences on political relations from the point of view of their direct participants.
4. Russia in the system of international relations
At the end of the 20th century, RUSSIA faced challenges related to finding and establishing the place and role of a new state in the world community. Russia did not inherit from the USSR either the status of a superpower or the role of one of the centers of world politics, equal to the United States and its allies. Its geopolitical space has sharply decreased. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia was pushed further into the eastern part of Europe, deprived of convenient access to the World Ocean, and its infrastructure was weakened, since together with Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states, the most developed regions in this regard also moved away from it. Russia is separated from Western and Central Europe by a belt of sovereign states and goes to Pacific Ocean its least developed part.
After dissolution Warsaw Pact the balance of forces in Europe has changed not in favor of Russia, the influence of NATO has increased, which will soon reach the Russian state border. Russia has lost its former allies and has not acquired any new ones.
The vastness of the geographical space and the uneven distribution of natural resources on the territory of the country, the ethno-civilizational diversity of its population, including more than 150 various peoples, large extent of land and sea state border, a large number of densely populated areas adjacent to them or located nearby and having limited natural resources foreign countries, many of whom are interested in dismembering Russia and including some of its rich natural resources regions into its territory - all this leaves an imprint on the formation of Russian foreign policy.
As a result of ill-conceived reforms, the country's economic and military potential has noticeably decreased. It is being pushed out to the periphery, to the margins of the world economy. By most parameters (except for the size of its territory and nuclear potential), Russia has moved into the category of middle powers. Decline in economic, technological and military power Russia has significantly reduced its international authority. When solving acute international problems opinion Russian state practically not taken into account.
A once truly great country, a world power, today has to look for a more or less convenient place and play a modest role in the context of the intensive build-up of the geopolitical potential of the United States, China, united Europe and a number of other countries.
The desire to return the geopolitical status of a superpower or even a first-class great power today is still untenable and, perhaps, even destructive.
In search of its place in international politics, which would correspond to its capabilities, its traditions, Russia will have to take into account both the realities of the current monocentrism under US hegemony, and the likely prospects for the formation of polycentrism in the global geopolitical space and changing international relations.
Modern Russia should avoid the negative aspects of the formation of a new world order and should learn to use favorable factors.
Today Russia has significant opportunities to conduct an active foreign policy. She retains her place permanent member UN Security Council, has powerful nuclear potential, has the most large territory with significant natural resources, educated population.
It should be noted that there is a peculiar geopolitical situation Russia. Our country occupies a central position on the world map. This region is sometimes called the core of the Earth. Western part The country is part of Europe, eastern Asia.
However, it should be emphasized that the development of national priorities in modern Russia is difficult and contradictory. It is clear that Russia's security interests require the creation of strong mutually beneficial ties with the immediate geographic environment and the active development of economic, social, and cultural cooperation with certain countries. But the national or state interests of the country have not yet been clearly formulated. We can say that Russian foreign policy is in its infancy.
But today we can identify the main features of this policy:
1. Russia rejects any war, the use of military force as a means of achieving political, economic and other external goals.
2. The cornerstone of our foreign policy has become the provision that Russia does not treat any state as its enemy.
3. It is stated that Russia will not defend ideology, but its vital interests.
4. Foreign policy should not be “costly”, but mutually beneficial.
More and more people in Russia are realizing that preserving the sovereignty, integrity and unity of Russia is its main national interest. And, based on this, the main directions of the foreign policy of the Russian state are being formed.
The primary task of Russia's foreign policy is to establish normal, trusting relations with Western countries.
Europe occupies an important place in solving the problems of consolidating the world community. For the countries of Western Europe, Russia will continue to supply oil, gas, chemical products, lumber and other raw materials.
But Russia is also the largest Asian power, and for the countries of the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, Russia can become a partner precisely as a strong industrial country, as a center of science, culture and education.
Unique geographical position Russia must also be used to its economic and political advantage. The most convenient routes connecting the countries of Western Europe and the Pacific region go through Russia. Therefore, Russia is called upon to play the role of a link between the West and the East.
In Russian foreign policy, there is gradually an awareness of an objective law - the law of regional community, indicating that nations living in one part of the world have common interests related to maintaining good neighborly relations and economic cooperation. Even if we ignore the fact of centuries of existence in a single state, geographical proximity and the unity of regional problems in themselves are a factor in establishing ever closer cooperation and integration with the countries formed on the territory of the former USSR and with the CIS countries.
The problem of protecting the rights of 25 million ethnic Russians who found themselves against their will as immigrants in new sovereign states became a foreign policy issue.
Foreign policy at present should be focused on avoiding isolation and joining global community as a sovereign, self-respecting power. Russia must take its rightful place in the system of international relations based on equality of parties, mutual respect, and mutually beneficial cooperation.
Along with protecting its purely national interests, Russia must take an active part in solving the global problems of our time.
However, the most important conditions for gaining a worthy status in international relations are strengthening the integrity Russian Federation, as well as the development of our own economic potential. Only if these conditions are met is it possible to solve the most difficult task - transforming Russia from a humiliated and envious observer into a self-sufficient and free subject of international relations.
LITERATURE
1. Alekseev S.V., Kalamanov V.A., Chernenko A.G. Ideological guidelines of Russia (Fundamentals of a new all-Russian ideology): in 2 vols. T. 1. - M., 1998. - P. 228-315
2. Brzezinski 3. The Great Chessboard. American dominance and its geostrategic imperatives. - M., 1998.
3. Muradyan A. A. The most noble science (On the basic concepts of international political theory). - M., 1990
4. Tsygankov P. A. International relations. - M., 1996.
Subject Description: “International Relations”
International relations is a constructive science. Unlike history, this branch of knowledge may never deal with a single element of a system; the theory of international relations is forced to describe the life of one state against the background of others with which it interacts. It is also absolutely true that there are studies of single nations. Sometimes the work of a scholar from State X on State Y is considered to be part of international relations theory. You can contribute to the development of political science and political sociology even simply by studying and describing things that are quite distant from them. When the international system or any subsystem of it is considered as such, the subject of the theory of international relations appears. Thus, we can say that the relationship between political science and international relations is the same as between psychology and sociology, it is a transition from a careful study of one element at certain periods of time to the study of the structure of interaction between elements, which characterizes the relationship of these pairs of sciences to each other.
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International relations are a more complex phenomenon than foreign policy. This is a set of economic, political, ideological, legal, military, informational, diplomatic and other connections and relationships between states and systems of states, between the main social, economic and political forces, organizations and movements on the world stage.
Subjects of international relations are social communities that, through their practical actions, resolve issues that affect the destinies of all humanity. Usually, two groups of social communities are distinguished: national, that is, nations, ethnic groups, classes, professional, women's, youth, scientific and other associations, and international, that is, groups of countries, peoples, international systems, movements (environmental Greenpeace, Non-Aligned, etc.). The results of interaction between subjects of international relations are all political, economic, ideological, cultural, military processes and events on the world stage that exist and develop outside the territory, competence and jurisdiction of individual states, and may affect the interests of two, several or all states of the world, international and intergovernmental organizations. Therefore, international relations between their subjects are built on a bilateral or multilateral basis and are global or regional in nature.
Generally accepted classification international relations was proposed by the Yugoslav scientist R. Vukadinovic, who distinguishes four types among them: 1. The classical type, based on the “balance of power” of states with approximately equal military and economic power. This type of international relations is unstable, since war is the main means of destroying the balance or establishing a new balance of power, taking into account the changes that have taken place in the world. 2. “Cold War”, brought to life after the Second World War by the confrontation between two antagonistic world socio-political systems: capitalist and socialist. The dynamics of relations between other states were determined primarily by the relations between the two superpowers: the USSR and the USA. Under these conditions, the role of neutral, medium-sized and small countries in international relations decreased. 3. “Peaceful coexistence”, which replaced the “Cold War”. This type is characterized by the establishment of parity in the military sphere, an intensification of the struggle for a nuclear-free world and security throughout the world, an increased role of international organizations in solving global problems, and a gradual reduction in the level of weapons, first nuclear missiles and then conventional ones. 4. Non-alignment and preservation of freedom of choice of decisions and actions in international relations, the desire for normal economic cooperation with all states, regardless of the political regimes established in them.
In principle, the first three types of international relations have already become a thing of history, and the fourth type is playing an increasingly important role, since it better meets the interests of all mankind.
Types of international relations are divided into political, economic, ideological, social, cultural, scientific-technical, military-strategic, etc. The forms of international relations include political-legal, diplomatic, protocol, organizational, trade-economic, financial, cooperative, informational, military-strategic (alliances, blocs, associations). A special role belongs social forms international relations: a) international contacts, starting with the simplest international connections of subjects to meet their social needs - scientific conferences, symposiums, theater tours, individual actors, performances by writers, musicians, singers, etc.; b) international action– a set of acts of one subject for the sake of changing or supporting the views, will, behavior of another international subject, that is we're talking about about rallies and demonstrations at foreign embassies and missions, about resolutions and petitions regarding another state, etc.; V) international interaction– social relationship between two international entities, when the actions of one of them cause response actions of the other; d) international dependence - a form of communication between subjects of international relations, which can be objective dependence as a part of the whole and as a result of the deliberate action of one international subject on another through the use of certain means and methods of coercion and pressure.
International relations have various levels: global– United Nations, interregional– Non-Aligned Movement, Greenpeace, regional– Europe, Middle East, Pacific zone, etc., local– Russia-Germany, Estonia-Finland, France-England, etc. In this regard, the concepts of regionalism and globalism are of particular importance in the modern world.
The basic principles of international relations are enshrined in the UN Charter and in other documents signed and ratified by most countries of the world. This is first of all non-intervention, according to which no state or group of states has the right to directly or indirectly interfere in the internal and external affairs of another state. The principle of non-interference also prohibits the organization, encouragement, assistance in armed subversive or terrorist activities aimed at changing the socio-political system of another state through violence or aggression.
Among other important principles of international relations, one can highlight the principle peaceful resolution international disputes and conflicts, that is, any disagreements arising between subjects of international relations must be resolved through negotiations, mediation, judicial proceedings, and international arbitration, so as not to jeopardize the peace and security of peoples. Principle peaceful coexistence states with different social systems, that is, recognition of the inviolability of borders, territorial integrity, full cooperation, refusal to use force to violate political independence of one state or another. Principle equality and self-determination of peoples, principle sovereign equality of states, excluding any foreign power on the territory of another state. Sovereignty is always a complete, exclusive, inalienable property of the state. Principle full respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, which is understood as a complex of socio-economic, civil, political, cultural rights and freedoms that characterize the status of an individual in a given state. In addition to the UN Charter, this principle is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, in the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples of 1960, in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination of 1966, in the Human Rights Covenants of 1966, V The final act Conferences on Security and Cooperation in Europe 1975 and others international documents. This principle also condemns any form of racial discrimination based on skin color, ethnic origin, religion, language, or gender as an attack on personal dignity. IN modern conditions rapid development and spread electronic means mass media, the principle of unconditional abstinence from propaganda of violence, terror and war as instruments of depriving peoples - large or small - of the form of their national existence. And finally, the principle conscientious fulfillment states of the obligations undertaken by them in accordance with the UN Charter.
Today, the defining trends in the development of international relations are humanization And democratization. Humanization means a transition to a type of international relations that best serve the interests of the individual, contribute to the creation of maximum opportunities for its further development and improvement, to improve the quality of its very life. Democratization of international relations acts as a means of building a humane world order.
International relations are a specific type public relations. International relationshipsis a set of political, economic, legal, military, cultural and other connections and relationships between entities operating on the world stage
The formation and development of international relations occurs under the influence of a number of factors:
the emerging global economic and political situation;
balance of military-strategic forces;
activities of international organizations;
the influence of individual states on the course of events in the world;
state of the natural environment, etc.
The main feature of international relations is the absence of a single central core of power and control. They are built on the principle of polycentrism and polyhierarchy. Therefore, spontaneous processes and subjective factors play a big role in international relations.
Interstate relations play a dominant role in international relations. But the subjects of international relations, along with the state, also include intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, political parties and movements, social groups and individuals (see Diagram 15.1).
SUBJECTS OF INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL RELATIONS |
|||
Nation states | |||
Organizations of a regional, interregional, interstate nature, for example, the EU | |||
International bodies and their bodies, such as the UN | |||
Non-state socio-political, public organizations and movements |
Figure 15.1. Subjects of international political relations
In recent decades, an objective tendency has emerged to expand the number of participants in international relations. International organizations are becoming increasingly important subjects. They are usually divided into interstate or intergovernmental and non-governmental.
Interstate organizations are stable associations of states based on treaties, have certain competences and permanent bodies.
The complexity of interstate relations in the political sphere and the need to regulate international life led to the creation of non-governmental organizations. They have a more complex structure than interstate ones. Such organizations may be purely non-governmental, or they may be of a mixed nature; the network may include government structures, public organizations, and even individual members.
As subjects of international relations, international organizations can enter into interstate relations on their own behalf and at the same time on behalf of all states included in them. The number of international organizations is constantly growing.
International organizations cover a wide variety of aspects of international relations. They are created in the economic, political, cultural, national areas and have certain characteristics and specifics.
The most significant role in the system of international relations is played by the United Nations (UN). It became practically the first mechanism in history for broad, multifaceted interaction between different states in order to maintain peace and security and promote the economic and social progress of all peoples.
Created in 1945, the UN has become an integral part of the international structure. Its members are about 200 states, which indicates that it has achieved almost complete universality. Not a single major event in the world remains outside the attention of the UN.
The structure of the UN consists of a Secretariat headed by the Secretary General, who is elected every 5 years, the Security Council, which has 15 countries, and the General Assembly, which includes all member countries of the organization.
Within the framework of the UN, a number of organizations have emerged that have organically entered the system of international relations both as UN structures and as independent organizations. These include:
– WHO (World Health Organization);
– ILO (International Labor Association);
– IMF (International Monetary Fund);
– UNESCO (Cultural and Scientific Organization);
– IAEA (International Atomic Energy Organization);
– UNCTAD (UN Conference on Trade and Development);
- International Court.
International governmental organizations have more leverage over international politics and individual states than public organizations, which influence mainly through the formation of international public opinion.
International relations are the space in which they collide and interact at different levels: global, interregional, regional And bilateral various forces (state, economic, political, social, intellectual, etc.).
On global level, problems affecting all humanity are solved. And one of the main mechanisms by which such problems are solved is the activities of the UN.
Interregional level is international relations between representatives of different regions with common interests. The mechanism for their implementation is various international organizations in support of peace and solidarity: the World Peace Council (WPC), the Pagoush movement; religious organizations: World Council of Churches (WCC), Christian Peace Conference (CPC); professional organizations: International Organization of Journalists (IOJ), International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL); demographic organizations: International Democratic Federation of Women (IDFW), World Youth Association (WYA), etc.
Regional level is relations within one region - Europe, the Middle East, the Pacific zone, etc. The subjects of such relations, along with states, are also regional organizations, such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the European Community (EC), the League Arab States(LAG), etc.
Two-way (local) level is the relationship between two states, for example: Ukraine - Germany, Ukraine - India, etc.
Main forms of international relations cooperation, competition and conflict appear.
Cooperation is implemented through participation in the activities of various international organizational structures, the conclusion of bilateral and multilateral treaties of friendship and cooperation. The most promising cooperation, which adequately meets the geostrategic interests of subjects of international relations, is called a strategic partnership.
Strategic partnership involves large-scale and mutually beneficial ways of interaction in the most various fields public life. At the same time, a necessary condition for strategic partnership is a commonality of views and approaches to key problems of international politics, global and regional development.
Rivalry assumes the peaceful nature of the struggle between states for the profitable implementation of their national interests, ranging from the expansion of their capital and technology to the placement of military bases. Rivalry is inherent both in countries in a relationship of strategic partnership and in a relationship of confrontation.
Conflicts at the international level arise when it is not possible to resolve the incompatible interests of one or more states. They are reflected in the denunciation of treaties, severance of diplomatic relations, economic blockade, provoking internal destabilization through information sabotage, terrorist attacks, military coups, etc.
International relations are based on two principles: power and rights.
The principle of force means that a state or group of states is capable of imposing its interests on other states, expanding its influence, while using its advantages in military force, diplomacy, economic power, technological or intellectual development. This principle, regardless of changes in the ratio in its structure of certain elements, remains the most important factor in geopolitics. At the present stage of world development, the leading state is the one whose strength is mainly measured by economic, technological, information and intellectual potential.
Principle of law is that the nation state in international relations must rely not only on its own strength, but also adhere to the norms of the international order.
A stable international order presupposes an optimal combination of the principle of law and the principle of force, or balance of power. The balance of power is ensured by the ability of a state or group of states to resist its opponents and their aggressive intentions.