Social movement in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
The 19th century entered the history of Russia as a period of socio-economic changes. The feudal system was replaced by the capitalist system and was firmly established; the agrarian economic system was replaced by an industrial one. Fundamental changes in the economy entailed changes in society - new layers of society appeared, such as the bourgeoisie, intelligentsia, and proletariat. These layers of society increasingly asserted their rights to the social and economic life of the country, and a search was underway for ways to organize themselves. The traditional hegemon of social and economic life- the nobility could not help but realize the need for changes in the economy, and as a consequence - in the social and socio-political life of the country.
At the beginning of the century, it was the nobility, as the most enlightened layer of society, that played the leading role in the process of realizing the need for changes in the socio-economic structure of Russia. It was representatives of the nobility who created the first organizations whose goal was not simply to replace one monarch with another, but to change the political and economic system of the country. The activities of these organizations went down in history as the Decembrist movement.
Decembrists.
"Union of Salvation" is the first secret organization created by young officers in February 1816 in St. Petersburg. It consisted of no more than 30 people, and was not so much an organization as a club that united people who wanted to destroy serfdom and fight against autocracy. This club had no clear goals, much less methods for achieving them. Having existed until the autumn of 1817, the Union of Salvation was dissolved. But at the beginning of 1818, its members created the “Union of Welfare”. It has already included about 200 military and civilian officials. The goals of this “Union” did not differ from the goals of its predecessor - the liberation of the peasants and the implementation of political reforms. There was an understanding of the methods for achieving them - propaganda of these ideas among the nobility and support for the liberal intentions of the government.
But in 1821, the tactics of the organization changed - citing the fact that the autocracy was not capable of reforms; at the Moscow congress of the “Union” it was decided to overthrow the autocracy by armed means. Not only the tactics changed, but also the structure of the organization itself - instead of a club of interests, clandestine, clearly structured organizations were created - the Southern (in Kyiv) and Northern (in St. Petersburg) societies. But, despite the unity of goals - the overthrow of the autocracy and the abolition of serfdom - there was no unity between these organizations in the future political structure of the country. These contradictions were reflected in the program documents of the two societies - “Russian Truth” proposed by P.I. Pestel (Southern Society) and “Constitutions” by Nikita Muravyov (Northern Society).
P. Pestel saw the future of Russia as a bourgeois republic, led by a president and a bicameral parliament. Northern society, led by N. Muravyov, proposed a constitutional monarchy as a state structure. With this option, the emperor, as a government official, exercised executive power, while legislative power was vested in a bicameral parliament.
On the issue of serfdom, both leaders agreed that the peasants needed to be freed. But whether to give them land or not was a matter of debate. Pestel believed that it was necessary to allocate by taking away the land and too large landowners. Muravyov believed that there was no need - vegetable gardens and two acres per yard would be enough.
The apotheosis of activity secret societies there was an uprising on December 14, 1825 in St. Petersburg. In essence, it was an attempt at a coup d'etat, the latest in a series of coups that replaced emperors on the Russian throne throughout the 18th century. On December 14, the day of the coronation of Nicholas I, the younger brother of Alexander I who died on November 19, the conspirators brought troops to the square in front of the Senate, a total of about 2,500 soldiers and 30 officers. But, for a number of reasons, they were unable to act decisively. The rebels remained standing in a “square” on Senate Square. After fruitless negotiations between the rebels and representatives of Nicholas I that lasted all day, the “square” was shot with grapeshot. Many rebels were injured or killed, all the organizers were arrested.
579 people were involved in the investigation. But only 287 were found guilty. On July 13, 1826, five leaders of the uprising were executed, another 120 were sentenced to hard labor or settlement. The rest escaped with fear.
This attempt at a coup d'état went down in history as the “Decembrist uprising.”
The significance of the Decembrist movement is that it gave impetus to the development of socio-political thought in Russia. Being not just conspirators, but having political program, the Decembrists gave the first experience of political “non-systemic” struggle. The ideas set out in the programs of Pestel and Muravyov found a response and development among subsequent generations of supporters of the reorganization of Russia.
Official nationality.
The Decembrist uprising had another significance - it gave rise to a response from the authorities. Nicholas I was seriously frightened by the coup attempt and during his thirty-year reign he did everything to prevent it from happening again. The authorities established strict control over public organizations and the mood in various circles of society. But punitive measures were not the only thing the authorities could take to prevent new conspiracies. She tried to offer her own social ideology designed to unite society. It was formulated by S. S. Uvarov in November 1833 when he took office as Minister of Public Education. In his report to Nicholas I, he quite succinctly presented the essence of this ideology: “Autocracy. Orthodoxy. Nationality."
The author interpreted the essence of this formulation as follows: Autocracy is a historically established and established form of government that has grown into the way of life of the Russian people; The Orthodox faith is the guardian of morality, the basis of the traditions of the Russian people; Nationality is the unity of the king and the people, acting as a guarantor against social upheaval.
This conservative ideology was adopted as a state ideology and the authorities successfully adhered to it throughout the reign of Nicholas I. And until the beginning of the next century, this theory continued to successfully exist in Russian society. The ideology of the official nationality laid the foundation for Russian conservatism as part of socio-political thought. West and East.
No matter how hard the authorities tried to develop a national idea, setting a rigid ideological framework of “Autocracy, Orthodoxy and Nationality,” it was during the reign of Nicholas I that Russian liberalism was born and formed as an ideology. Its first representatives were interest clubs among the nascent Russian intelligentsia, called “Westerners” and “Slavophiles.” These were not political organizations, but ideological movements of like-minded people who, in disputes, created an ideological platform, later on which full-fledged political organizations and parties would emerge.
Writers and publicists I. Kireevsky, A. Khomyakov, Yu. Samarin, K. Aksakov and others considered themselves Slavophiles. Most prominent representatives the camps of the Westerners were P. Annenkov, V. Botkin, A. Goncharov, I. Turgenev, P. Chaadaev. A. Herzen and V. Belinsky were in solidarity with the Westerners.
Both of these ideological movements were united by criticism of the existing political system and serfdom. But, being unanimous in recognizing the need for change, Westerners and Slavophiles assessed the history and future structure of Russia differently.
Slavophiles:
- Europe has exhausted its potential, and it has no future.
- Russia is separate world, due to its special story, religiosity, mentality.
- Orthodoxy is the greatest value of the Russian people, opposing rationalistic Catholicism.
- The village community is the basis of morality, not spoiled by civilization. The community is the support of traditional values, justice and conscience.
- Special relationship between the Russian people and the authorities. The people and the government lived according to an unwritten agreement: there are us and them, the community and the government, each with their own life.
- Criticism of the reforms of Peter I - the reform of Russia under him led to a disruption of the natural course of its history, disrupted the social balance (agreement).
Westerners:
- Europe is the world civilization.
- There is no originality of the Russian people, there is their backwardness from civilization. For a long time Russia was “outside history” and “outside civilization.”
- had a positive attitude towards the personality and reforms of Peter I; they considered his main merit to be Russia’s entry into the fold of world civilization.
- Russia is following in the footsteps of Europe, so it must not repeat its mistakes and adopt positive experience.
- The engine of progress in Russia was considered not the peasant community, but the “educated minority” (intelligentsia).
- The priority of individual freedom over the interests of government and the community.
What Slavophiles and Westerners have in common:
- Abolition of serfdom. Liberation of peasants with land.
- Political freedoms.
- Rejection of the revolution. Only the path of reforms and transformations.
Discussions between Westerners and Slavophiles had great value for the formation of socio-political thought and liberal-bourgeois ideology.
A. Herzen. N. Chernyshevsky. Populism.
Even greater critics of the official ideologist of conservatism than liberal Slavophiles and Westerners were representatives of the revolutionary democratic ideological movement. The most prominent representatives of this camp were A. Herzen, N. Ogarev, V. Belinsky and N. Chernyshevsky. The theory of communal socialism they proposed in 1840–1850 was that:
- Russia is going its own way historical path, different from Europe.
- capitalism is not a characteristic, and therefore not acceptable, phenomenon for Russia.
- autocracy does not fit into the social structure of Russian society.
- Russia will inevitably come to socialism, bypassing the stage of capitalism.
- the peasant community is the prototype of a socialist society, which means that Russia is ready for socialism.
The method of social transformation is revolution.
The ideas of “community socialism” found a response among the various intelligentsia, who from the middle of the 19th century began to play an increasingly prominent role in the social movement. It is with the ideas of A. Herzen and N. Chernyshevsky that the movement that came to the forefront of Russian socio-political life in 1860–1870 is associated. It will be known as "Populism".
The goal of this movement was a radical reorganization of Russia on the basis of socialist principles. But there was no unity among the populists on how to achieve this goal. Three main directions were identified:
Propagandists. P. Lavrov and N. Mikhailovsky. In their opinion, the social revolution should be prepared by the propaganda of the intelligentsia among the people. They rejected the violent path of restructuring society.
Anarchists. Chief ideologist M. Bakunin. Denial of the state and its replacement by autonomous societies. Achieving goals through revolution and uprisings. Continuous small riots and uprisings are preparing a big revolutionary explosion.
Conspirators. Leader - P. Tkachev. Representatives of this part of the populists believed that it is not education and propaganda that prepares the revolution, but the revolution will give enlightenment to the people. Therefore, without wasting time on enlightenment, it is necessary, having created secret organization professional revolutionaries to seize power. P. Tkachev believed that a strong state is necessary - only it can turn the country into a large commune.
The heyday of populist organizations occurred in the 1870s. The most massive of them was “Land and Freedom”, created in 1876, it united up to 10 thousand people. In 1879, this organization split; the stumbling block was the question of methods of fighting. A group led by G. Plekhpnov, V. Zasulich and L. Deych, who opposed terror as a way of fighting, created the organization “Black Redistribution”. Their opponents, Zhelyabov, Mikhailov, Perovskaya, Figner, advocated terror and the physical elimination of government officials, primarily the tsar. Supporters of terror organized " People's will" It was the members of Narodnaya Volya who, since 1879, made five attempts on the life of Alexander II, but only on March 1, 1881 they managed to achieve their goal. This was the end both for Narodnaya Volya itself and for other populist organizations. The entire leadership of Narodnaya Volya was arrested and executed by court order. More than 10 thousand people were brought to trial for the murder of the emperor. Populism never recovered from such a defeat. In addition, peasant socialism as an ideology had exhausted itself by the beginning of the 20th century - the peasant community ceased to exist. It was replaced by commodity-money relations. Capitalism developed rapidly in Russia, penetrating ever deeper into all spheres of social life. And just as capitalism replaced the peasant community, so social democracy replaced populism.
Social Democrats. Marxists.
With the defeat of the populist organizations and the collapse of their ideology, the revolutionary field of socio-political thought was not left empty. In the 1880s, Russia became acquainted with the teachings of K. Marx and the ideas of the Social Democrats. The first Russian social democratic organization was the Liberation of Labor group. It was created in 1883 in Geneva by members of the Black Redistribution organization who emigrated there. The Liberation of Labor group is credited with translating the works of K. Marx and F. Engels into Russian, which allowed their teaching to quickly spread in Russia. The basis of the ideology of Marxism was outlined back in 1848 in the “Manifesto communist party"and by the end of the century it had not changed: a new class came to the forefront of the struggle for the reconstruction of society - hired workers industrial enterprises– proletariat. It is the proletariat that will carry out the socialist revolution as an inevitable condition for the transition to socialism. Unlike the populists, Marxists understood socialism not as a prototype of a peasant community, but as a natural stage in the development of society following capitalism. Socialism is equal rights to the means of production, democracy and social justice.
Since the beginning of the 1890s, Social Democratic circles have emerged one after another in Russia; Marxism was their ideology. One of these organizations was the Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class, created in St. Petersburg in 1895. Its founders were the future leaders of the RSDLP - V. Lenin and Yu. Martov. The purpose of this organization was to promote Marxism and promote the workers' strike movement. At the beginning of 1897, the organization was liquidated by the authorities. But already in the next year, 1898, at the congress of representatives of social democratic organizations in Minsk, the foundation of the future party was laid, which finally took shape in 1903 at the congress in London in the RSDLP.
In the 19th century In Russia, the socio-political struggle is intensifying.
After 1815, the Decembrist movement emerged, which was associated with internal processes events taking place in Russia at this time. The main reasons for the emergence of revolutionary ideology and secret revolutionary organizations were the understanding that the preservation of autocracy and serfdom was disastrous for further development Russia, effective public activity for the benefit of the country is impossible, Arakcheev’s reaction was not satisfactory. The ideology of European revolutionaries and Decembrists, their strategy and tactics largely coincided. The speech of the Decembrists in 1825 is on a par with European revolutionary processes. The nature of their movement can be defined as bourgeois.
The social movement in Russia had its own specifics. There was virtually no bourgeoisie in the country capable of fighting for the implementation of democratic changes. The people were uneducated, most of them retained monarchical illusions. His political inertia left its mark on the entire political history of Russia until the end. XIX century
Revolutionary ideology, the demand for deeper modernization of the country in the beginning. XIX century belonged exclusively to the advanced part of the nobility, which essentially opposed the interests of its class. The circle of revolutionaries was extremely limited: mainly representatives of the highest nobility and the officer corps. Isolated from all classes and estates of Russia, they were forced to adhere to narrowly conspiratorial tactics, which led to the weakness of the noble revolutionaries and their defeat.
The first political organization in Russia is considered to be the “Union of Salvation”, which arose in 1816. It first appeared revolutionary program and a charter, collectively known as the “Statute.” The size of the society did not exceed 30 people, which made the goal unattainable: to force the new tsar to give Russia a constitution when changing emperors. In January 1818, the “Union of Welfare” was created, numbering about 200 people. Soon after the dissolution of the “Union” in 1821, new Decembrist organizations were created - Northern and Southern Society. Both societies were going to act together. These were quite large revolutionary political organizations. Their leaders created several well-theoretically developed projects for the future structure of Russia. The main documents of the Decembrists were the “Constitution” of N.M. Muravyov (1795–1843) and “Russian Truth” by P.I. Pestel (1793–1826). The “Constitution” reflected the views of the moderate part of the revolutionaries, “Russkaya Pravda” - the radical ones.
After the death of Alexander I in November 1825, the leaders of the Northern Society, deciding to take advantage of the interregnum situation, developed a plan for an uprising in St. Petersburg. It was scheduled for December 14 - the day the Senate took the oath to Nicholas (1796 - 1855). But the Decembrists chose the senseless tactics of waiting, which led them to defeat. Despite the defeat, the Decembrist movement and their performance were significant phenomena in the history of Russia. For the first time, an attempt was made to change the social and political system, programs for revolutionary transformation and plans for the future structure of the country were developed. The ideas and activities of the Decembrists had significant influence for the entire further course of Russian history.
Ser. 20s XIX century was a milestone in the history of the Russian social movement, in which 3 main directions stood out: conservative, liberal and revolutionary.
The conservative (protective) direction sought to preserve the existing system and its “unshakable foundations” - autocracy and serfdom. “Theory of the official nationality” put forward by S.S. Uvarov (1786–1855), contrasted government ideology with the ideas and programs of the Decembrists.
Representatives of the liberal trend preached the need for moderate transformations in an evolutionary way, i.e. through reform and education. Rejecting revolution, liberals fought for deepening reforms, expanding rights local government, compliance with the law, convening an all-Russian representative office. Prominent theorists of liberalism were legal scholars K.D. Kavelin and B.N. Chicherin. Liberal demands in Russia were made mainly not by the bourgeoisie, but by deputies of noble assemblies and zemstvos, representatives of higher education, the bar and the press. Despite all the differences in the views of conservatives and liberals, both directions were united by one thing: a decisive rejection of the revolution.
The goal of the revolutionary trend in the social movement was a qualitative leap, a violent transformation of the foundations of the social order. The social base of the revolutionary movement was the common intelligentsia (people from the impoverished nobility, clergy, and philistines), whose numbers and social role grew significantly as a result of the reforms of the 1860s and 1870s. The foundations of “Russian socialism” were developed by A.I. Herzen. The peasant community was to become the support of the new social system. Left-wing radical figures: A.I. Herzen (1812–1870), V.G. Belinsky (1811–1848), N.P. Ogarev (1813–1877) were inclined towards revolutionary methods of struggle. Members of the circle V.M. had similar views. Butashevich-Petrashevsky (1821–1866) and the Cyril and Methodius Society.
In its development, the revolutionary movement of the 2nd half. XIX century went through a number of stages. 1860s marked by the activities of disparate intellectual circles (the largest group is “Land and Freedom”), who tried to conduct revolutionary propaganda and in some cases resorted to political terror (Fig. 72). At the turn of the 1860s–1870s. The ideology of populism is emerging, in which “rebellious” (M.A. Bakunin), “propaganda” (P.L. Lavrov) and “conspiratorial” (P.N. Tkachev) directions are distinguished. Having failed during the “going to the people”, revolutionary populism moves on to terror (the “Narodnaya Volya” group) and to the middle. 1880s dies under police attacks. The group “Black Redistribution” tried to continue traditional propaganda tactics, and was also crushed by the police. In the 1880s - early. 90s populism is dominated by the liberal wing, which sought to realize socialist ideals peacefully. In those same years, the spread of Marxism began in Russia (the Emancipation of Labor group), which considered the industrial proletariat as main force socialist revolution.
A special position in the social movement was occupied by conservatives (journalists M.N. Katkov and V.P. Meshchersky, publicist K.N. Leontyev, legal scholar and statesman K.P. Pobedonostsev), who opposed both revolutionaries and liberals. According to conservatives, the principles of all-class rule and political democracy weakened state power and undermined social stability in Russia. The conservatives were often joined by supporters of the original development of Russia - the late Slavophiles (Yu.F. Samarin, I.S. Aksakov) and soil scientists (F.M. Dostoevsky, N.N. Strakhov).
Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they said then) economy. Health care was practically absent from the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants didn't know elementary rules hygiene. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. No one cared about the country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was depleted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal community halfway, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government. On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to manage economic affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, to organize food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.
The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were the provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were the district and provincial zemstvo councils. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.
Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each district, three electoral congresses were created for the election of members of the district zemstvo assembly.
As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liberal landowners, the autocracy considered the landed nobility its main support.
On similar grounds, a reform of city government was carried out in 1870. Issues of improvement, as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs were subject to the trusteeship of city councils and councils. Elections to the City Duma were held in three electoral congresses (small, medium and large taxpayers). Workers who did not pay taxes did not participate in the elections. The mayor and council were elected by the Duma. The mayor headed both the duma and the council, coordinating their activities.
Simultaneously with the zemstvo reform, in 1864, judicial reform was carried out. Russia received a new court: classless, public, adversarial, independent of the administration. Court hearings became open to the public.
« Conservative modernization» Alexander III.
Protectionist policies tightened in the late 1980s, and especially after 1892, when he became Minister of Finance Sergei Yulievich Witte. With his arrival, the state began to participate more actively in the creation of Russian industry and transport. So, in the 80s. the state itself began to build railways. In 1880-1890 The output of large-scale industry in Russia increased by 36%. In the 80s, the industry created by last word Western technology. Thus, Western capitalism was able to arm the tsarist autocracy with tools and means sufficient to modernize the country. But it was worth refraining from undue idealization of the accomplished renewal. Capitalist production turned out to be unable to embrace, and most importantly, transform the social economy in its entirety, and it was not possible to introduce culture.
Formation of the Marxist movement in the Russian social movement.
The Marxist movement took shape from the moment Plekhanov created the group " Liberation of labor"(1883), which began to promote and disseminate Marxism, to develop program provisions for Russian Social Democracy.
The establishment of militant Marxism in Russia, which was started by Plekhanov, was continued by V.I. Lenin. Having become a Marxist, Lenin played a huge role in the spread of Marxism. As a result of his purposeful work to unite disparate social democratic circles and groups, the Russian social democratic workers' party - RSDLP (the process of party formation, which covered 1898-1903, ended at the II Congress of the RSDLP). Your nearest target this party saw in the overthrow of tsarism and the establishment democratic republic; the final goal is to establish the dictatorship of the proletariat and build a socialist society.
However, from the very beginning, two factions arose in the RSDLP - the extreme left radicals ( Bolsheviks), initially aimed at seizing power, and moderate Marxists ( Mensheviks), guided by the experience of Western socialist parties.
The development of capitalism in Russia accelerated the formation of the working class, ruining the peasants. The situation of the Russian worker during this period was characterized by complete legal lack of rights, extremely long working hours, constant fines, and injuries at work (associated with a lack of safety precautions). In case of illness, accidents and old age, workers did not have any social guarantees; the situation with housing was poor. All this affected the activity of workers, which already in the 60-70s began to manifest itself in the form of spontaneous protests. In the 60s, there were unrest in the factories of the Urals and in the central provinces. Growing labor activity, and then the emergence of Russian social democracy, became important phenomenon in the Russian social movement of post-reform Russia.
With the increase in the number and concentration of the proletariat, the first workers' organizations began to be created: in May 1875, " South Russian Union workers" led by E.O. Zaslavsky. The main goal is to overthrow the existing political system in the country through a violent coup. December 1878 in St. Petersburg the "Northern Union of Russian Workers" was formed (led by V.P. Obnorsky and S.N. Khalturin). The organization issued a program document - an appeal “To the Russian workers”, which clearly indicated the need political struggle. The appeal spoke of the need to abolish private ownership of land and establish communal land ownership, creating workers' associations to organize production. Already in January of the following year, the government arrested members of the organization. S.N. Khalturin managed to avoid arrest and subsequently took up terrorism (organizing an explosion in Winter Palace). In 1880, members of the organization published the first issue workers' newspaper(“Working Dawn”), however, the printing house was destroyed and the newspaper was confiscated, which actually meant the cessation of the organization’s activities.
It was in the 80s in Russia that there was a transition from isolated actions of the proletariat to a mass labor movement. Among the protests of the early 80s, strikes at the Yartsevo manufactory of Khludov in the Smolensk province, tobacco factories in Baku (1881), strikes at the Krenholm manufactory (1882), Zharardov manufactory in the Kingdom of Poland (1883), etc. should be highlighted.
The largest action of the workers of Russia in the mid-80s was the Morozov strike (1885), which was distinguished not only by its scope, but also by its organization and stamina. The workers, driven to despair by difficult working conditions, presented demands to the Vladimir governor, which included the establishment of state legislation regulating the relationship between the manufacturer and the workers, which gave the strike a political overtones. The leaders of the strike (P. Moiseenko, L. Abramenkov and others) were participants in the labor movement of the 70s. Through numerous arrests and expulsions of workers, the government managed to restore work at the factory. The subsequent trial forced the whole of Russia to talk about the strike. The government was forced to issue a new factory law in 1886, which somewhat limited the arbitrariness of entrepreneurs regarding hiring, firing and fines. At the same time, criminal penalties were established for the participants and especially the leaders of the strikes.
The 80-90s are a transition period from the revolutionary democratic to the proletarian stage of the liberation movement in Russia. New ideas have emerged that are reflected in software and tactical installations. During these years, Marxism spread and the first Russian Social Democratic groups and circles were created.
An important role was played by the first Marxist organization - the Liberation of Labor group, created by G.V. Plekhanov in Geneva in 1883. The group translated and distributed the works of K. Marx and F. Engels.
In the fight against populist ideology, the views of the “Emancipation of Labor” group gradually won supporters in Russia and contributed to the development of the social democratic movement in the country. Almost at the same time as Plekhanov’s group, the first Marxist circles arose in Russia. Their activities were aimed at disseminating social democratic ideas among the most advanced workers and intelligentsia. It was not closely connected with the labor movement and was closed in nature, with a rather limited number of participants. Among these circles and groups was a group led by a Bulgarian student at St. Petersburg University, Dimitar Blagoev ("Party of Russian Social Democrats").
In St. Petersburg in 1885-1886. there was a group, P.V. Tochissky ("Association of St. Petersburg Craftsmen"). In the late 80s - early 90s, the group M.I. carried out propaganda. Brusneva. In addition to St. Petersburg, Marxist circles existed in Moscow, Kyiv, Odessa, Vilna and other cities. In Kazan with a circle headed by N.E. Fedoseev in 1888-1889, was associated with V.I. Lenin.
Hayakawa (Japan), 705
Japanese hotel (onsen) near a hot spring. Engraving by Toyohara Chikanobu. 1890sThe Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
General view of the Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan Hotel today© pop-picture.blogspot.com
Private bath under open air hotel "Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan" today© Keiunkan Inn
One of the hot spring baths at the Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan Hotel today© pop-picture.blogspot.com
Until 2011, the oldest hotel in the world (and oldest company in general) was considered a Japanese traditional hotel-ryokan Ryokan- a type of inn, and later a hotel, which is distinguished by simple rooms with tatami instead of beds and the presence of a hot spring, which has a bathhouse for guests."Hoshi." It was opened in the city of Ko-matsu in 717 and for 13 centuries it offered visitors accommodation next to hot springs. The title of oldest was awarded to him in 1994 by the Guinness Book of Records, after which “Hoshi” even joined the so-called “Enoch” club. Club "Enoch" is an unofficial organization that arose in France in 1981 and received its name in honor of the Old Testament patriarch Enoch, who, according to the Bible, lived 365 years., uniting companies that are more than 200 years old. However, in 2011, representatives of the Gin-ne-ssa Book of Records reconsidered their decision and gave the title of oldest hotel to the ryokan Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan (“Ni-shiyama onsen keiunkan”) in the village of Haya-kawa in the central part of Japan. Owned by the same family for 53 generations since its founding in 705, the hotel remains a classic ryokan offering traditional service and furnishings, as well as hot spring baths.
Oldest bank
Siena (Italy), 1477
Municipal finances in peace and war. Painting by Benvenuto di Giovanni. 1468Archivio di Stato di Siena, Museo delle tavolette di Biccherna / Wikimedia Commons
The main entrance of Palazzo Salimbeni, where the Monte dei Paschi di Siena bank is located. 2006© Vyacheslav Argenberg / CC BY 2.0
The Monte dei Paschi di Siena bank was founded in 1477. This is almost 120 years earlier than its closest neighbor on the list of the oldest banks in the world - the German Berenberg. The bank was founded in the Siena Republic, an Italian city-state that existed in the 12th-16th centuries and was considered one of the largest financial centers of the Italian lands. Banking there developed rapidly from the 12th century, and the city's banking houses operated throughout the entire territory. Western Europe, crediting the Vatican, the Holy Roman Emperors and the royal court of France. The Bank of Monte dei Paschi di Siena was created already at the end of the Siena Republic and at first functioned as Monte di Pieta- this is how in medieval Italy they called a special “charitable” pawnshop, where a person could take money, leaving as collateral property that covered a third of the loan. If the borrower did not repay the funds on time, only this part of his property was sold at auction and no other measures were applied. For a long time The church supported such monte di pieta: it did not approve of usury and encouraged financial assistance to the poor. However, by the 17th century, Monte dei Paschi di Siena had become a full-fledged bank, after which it was reorganized many times. It now has branches in 20 cities in Italy and is known, among other things, for its extensive collection of Italian paintings, which have been amassed throughout the bank's history.
Oldest pharmacy
Tallinn (Estonia), approx. 1420
Town Hall Pharmacy. Tallinn, 1966© Roman Valdre / Kultuurimälestiste riiklik register
Interior of the Town Hall Pharmacy. Tallinn, 2011© Tom Wright / CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
Medicines at the Town Hall Pharmacy. Tallinn, 2013 Wikimedia Commons
Town Hall Pharmacy. Tallinn, 2008 Wikimedia Commons
The Town Hall Pharmacy (Estonian: Raeapteek) has been located on Tallinn Town Hall Square since at least 1422. Over the six centuries of its existence, it has changed dozens of owners, the most famous among whom was a native of the Hungarian lands, Johann Burkhart Belavari de Sekawa. Being a chemist and doctor, he moved to Tallinn in the 1580s, and in 1583 the city council appointed Burkhart as chief pharmacist of Tallinn, renting out the Town Hall Pharmacy to him. For more than a hundred years, his descendants rented the pharmacy from the city, and only in 1688 Johann Burchart IV managed to buy it from the city. Subsequently, the enterprise was passed down by inheritance until the mid-19th century, but in the 1890s, Johann Burchard X died without leaving a male heir, and his sisters were forced to sell the business in 1911. After this, the pharmacy changed several owners, was owned by the state, and in 2003, after a lengthy reconstruction, it reopened in its original location.
Oldest watchmakers
Geneva (Switzerland), 1466
Halle watch factory. Switzerland. 1900s galletwatch.com
Watchmakers of La Chaux-de-Fonds at work. Late 19th century Wikimedia Commons
Little is known about Humbertus Gallet, considered the founder of Gallet & Co. In 1466, he received the right to live in Geneva, where he took up the watchmaking trade, which he later inherited from his son. Several generations of the Galle family were engaged in the manufacture of watches, and in 1826, a direct descendant of Humbertus Galle, Julien Galle, officially registered the trademark and moved the enterprise from Geneva to the Swiss city of La Chaux-de- Von, known today as a factory town for the production of watches, where about a third of the working population is employed in the watch industry. Thanks to this circumstance, La Chaux-de-Fonds even ended up in Marx’s Capital, where he analyzed the division of labor in the city’s watch factories. WITH late XIX century Gallet & Co. began to consider the United States as the main market for its products. The most famous model factory - Flying Officer Chronograph - was created in 1939 by order of Harry Truman (at that time - senator from Missouri) for combat pilots: one of its features was a rotating dial with names cities, which allowed pilots to easily calculate time zone changes. Truman himself, who became US President in 1945, also wore this watch; they are now in his museum.
Oldest newspaper
Stockholm (Sweden), 1645
Issue of the newspaper “Regular Post News”, No. 15, April 9, 1645flickr.com/elcromaticom/CC BY 2.0
Two issues of the newspaper Post- och Inrikes Tidningar - 1835 and 2006Centro de Documentación Publicitaria
The newspaper Ordinari Post Tijdender (that is, "Regular Postal News") was founded by order of Queen Christina of Sweden in 1645 - nine years after the creation of the Royal Post Office, which also exists to this day. At first, the newspaper was the main supplier of news in Sweden, and the collection of this news was largely entrusted to local postmasters, who were instructed to collect all the news that came to their attention and transmit it to editor. The distribution of the newspaper was carried out by the same post offices: they were obliged to post the latest issues in public places. In 1821, the newspaper was merged with the Swedish Inrikes Tidningar (“Local News”), giving a new publication - Postoch Inrikes Tidningar (“Post and Local News”). After this, the newspaper experienced two more important events: in 1922, unable to withstand competition from commercial newspapers, it began to publish only government decrees and court decisions, and since 2007 it has been published only in in electronic format.
Oldest shipbuilders
Heraklion (Greece), 1438
Boat parking in Chioggia near the fish market. Venice, 1890–1900s Library of Congress
Building a Camuffo boat today bisiacivan.blogspot.com
Camuffo, the oldest existing shipbuilding company, was founded in 1438 on the island of Crete, which then belonged to the Venetian Republic. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the strengthening of the Ottoman Empire in the Aegean Sea, the son of the founder moved the production of ships to Chioggia, Italy, near Venice. At that time, this city was the largest trading port in the Adriatic Sea, and Camuffo craftsmen provided themselves with orders for several hundred years to build fishing boats, barges, pleasure, trading and transport boats in the Venetian style. IN currently the company, which has been owned by 18 generations of the same family, produces only three models motor yachts from 18 to 20 meters long. A lot of materials are still used in their production. valuable species wood, for which in the second half of the 20th century Camuffo received from specialized magazines the nickname “Stradivarius at Sea,” which it uses in its advertising materials.
Oldest carrier
Aberdeen (Scotland), 1498
St. Catherine's Dock. Illustration by Gustave Doré for Douglas Jerrold's book London. 1872 The Victorian Web
The Shore Porters Society car in the mid-20th century hiveminer.com
The Shore Porters Society from Aberdeen, Scotland, was founded six years after Columbus's first voyage to America - and has not changed its name since then. For a long time the company was a simple association of workers of Aberdeen harbor, but by 1666 it had grown so much that two divisions were created: the transportation department, which owned horses and carts, and the property and warehousing department. Until the mid-19th century, the Longshoremen's Society belonged to the Aberdeen City Council, but then the company became a private partnership, after which its profile changed somewhat. Now, in addition to UK removals, movers and home removal services, the company also specializes in the transport of antiques and art objects. Its services are used by both private buyers and auction houses.
Oldest gunsmiths
Gardone (Italy), 1526
Venetian arquebuser. Illustration from the book “Ancient and Modern Costumes from Around the World” by Cesare Vecellio. 16th century greatestbattles.iblogger.org
Beretta gunsmiths. 1880s© Beretta
On arms factory Beretta 1960s© Beretta
The history of the Beretta company began in 1526, when gunsmith Bartolomeo Beretta from Italian Gardone received an order from Venice for 185 barrels for arche-bouzes - matchlock smoothbore guns. From this he earned 296 gold Venetian ducats, and the agreement that sealed the deal is still kept in the company’s archives. Subsequently, in 1571, the gunsmiths again rendered a service to Venice by casting a cannon for the Venetian fleet, which took part in the famous Battle of Lepanto. Battle of the Ionian Sea between the Holy League Holy League- a coalition of Catholic states that was created in 1571 on the initiative of Pope Pius V to fight Ottoman Empire and lasted until 1573. and the Ottoman Empire ended in a crushing defeat of the Turks, and the Venetians showed themselves heroically in it. Over the next five centuries, the company, whose owners remained members of the Beret family, developed rapidly. Beretta's current CEO, Hugo Gussalli Beretta, is a direct descendant of founder Bartolomeo Beretta, and one of his two sons is believed to inherit control of the company in the future.
The oldest publishing house
Cambridge (England), 1534
The invention of printing. Engraving by Jan Collaert I. Late 16th centuryThe Metropolitan Museum of Art
Cambridge University Press. 1900–1916danielcaruanalupi2.blogspot.com
The Cambridge University Press was founded by order of the king Henry VIII in 1534: the monarch granted the university a patent for the right to “print all kinds of books.” However, the first printed books appeared half a century later - after Cambridge printer became scientist Thomas Thomas. In May 1582, he received a position, and his first book, “Dialectics” by the French philosopher Pierre de la Ramé, was published by him in 1585. In 1591, Thomas's follower, John Legate, printed the Cambridge Bible, which began a centuries-long tradition of university Bible publishing. Since then, Cambridge has annually published dozens and hundreds of books, among which were, for example, the works of John Milton and Isaac Newton, as well as scientific periodicals, monographs, reference books and textbooks of the English language, which are now distributed throughout to the world. However, it was only in 1992 that the University of Cambridge opened its own store in the historical center of the city, at 1 Trinity Street. It is known that in this very place various sellers have been selling books since 1581, which allows Some researchers consider this store to be the oldest bookstore in Great Britain.
Zil, meaning "cymbals", and the affix dji with the meaning “one who does”, to which the Sultan added the suffix “yan”, characteristic of Armenian surnames. Soon after Avedis began making cymbals, Osman II was killed by the rebellious Janissaries. After this, for more than two centuries, Zildjian’s descendants made various percussion musical instruments, including military cymbals, which were beaten to intimidate the enemy. Only in the 19th century did the company switch entirely to musical cymbals, and at the beginning of the 20th century, Avedis’s descendants moved to the USA. Here, in September 1929, the company was registered under its modern name - Avedis Zildjian Company, or simply Zildjian. Since then she has acquired world fame, and in the USA has become a prominent part musical culture. During World War II, when copper was considered an important strategic resource and its purchase by companies was limited, the US government granted Zildjian special permission to purchase the raw material.
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Images: Pharmacy. Illustration from the manuscript of Mattaeus Platearius. Amiens, 1300–1325. British Library
The 19th century in Russia is remarkable because in a hundred years public thought has gone from a complete understanding of the divinity and infallibility of royal power to an equally complete understanding of the need for fundamental changes in the state structure. From the first small groups conspirators who did not clearly understand the goals and ways to achieve them (Decembrists), to the creation of massive, well-organized parties with specific tasks and plans for achieving them (RSDLP). How did this happen?
Prerequisites
By the beginning of the 19th century, the main irritant of public thought was serfdom. Progressive thinking people of that time, starting with the landowners themselves and ending with the members royal family, it became clear that serfdom urgently needed to be abolished. Of course, the majority of landowners did not want to change the existing state of affairs. A new socio-political movement has emerged in Russia - the movement for the abolition of serfdom.
Thus, the basis for the organizational design of conservatism and liberalism began to appear. Liberals advocated changes that were to be initiated by the government. Conservatives sought to maintain the status quo. Against the backdrop of the struggle between these two directions, a certain part of society began to have thoughts about the revolutionary reorganization of Russia.
Social and political movements in Russia began to manifest themselves more actively after the Russian army marched into Europe. Comparison of European realities with life at home was clearly not in favor of Russia. The first to act were revolutionary-minded officers who returned from Paris.
Decembrists
Already in 1816 in St. Petersburg, these officers formed the first socio-political movement. It was the “Union of Salvation” of 30 people. They clearly saw the goal (the elimination of serfdom and the introduction of a constitutional monarchy) and had no idea how this could be achieved. The consequence of this was the collapse of the “Union of Salvation” and the creation in 1818 of a new “Union of Welfare”, which already included 200 people.
But due to different views on the future fate of the autocracy, this union lasted only three years and dissolved itself in January 1821. Its former members organized two societies in 1821-1822: “Southern” in Little Russia and “Northern” in St. Petersburg. It was their joint performance on Senate Square on December 14, 1825 that later became known as the Decembrist uprising.
Finding ways
The next 10 years in Russia were marked by the harsh reactionism of the regime of Nicholas I, which sought to suppress all dissent. There was no talk of creating any serious movements or unions. Everything remained at the circle level. Groups of like-minded people gathered around the publishers of magazines, the capital’s salons, at universities, among officers and officials, discussing a common sore point for everyone: “What to do?” But the circles were also persecuted quite harshly, which led to the extinction of their activities already in 1835.
Nevertheless, during this period, three main socio-political movements were quite clearly defined in their relation to the existing regime in Russia. These are conservatives, liberals and revolutionaries. The liberals, in turn, were divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. The latter believed that Russia needed to catch up with Europe in its development. Slavophiles, on the contrary, idealized pre-Petrine Rus' and called for a return to the state structure of those times.
Abolition of serfdom
By the 1940s, hopes for reform from the authorities began to fade. This caused the activation of revolutionary-minded sections of society. The ideas of socialism began to penetrate into Russia from Europe. But the followers of these ideas were arrested, tried and sent into exile and hard labor. By the mid-50s, there was no one to take any active action, or simply talk about the reorganization of Russia. The most active public figures lived in exile or served hard labor. Those who managed to emigrate to Europe.
But socio-political movements in Russia in the first half of the 19th century still played their role. Alexander II, who ascended the throne in 1856, spoke from the first days about the need to abolish serfdom, took concrete steps to formalize it legally, and in 1861 signed the historical Manifesto.
Activation of revolutionaries
However, the half-heartedness of the reforms, which did not meet the expectations of not only the peasants, but also Russian public in general, caused a new surge of revolutionary sentiment. Proclamations from various authors began to circulate in the country, of a very diverse nature: from moderate appeals to the authorities and society about the need for deeper reforms, to calls for the overthrow of the monarchy and revolutionary dictatorship.
The second half of the 19th century in Russia was marked by the formation of revolutionary organizations that not only had goals, but also developed plans for their implementation, although not always realistic. The first such organization was the “Land and Freedom” union in 1861. The organization planned to implement its reforms with the help of a peasant uprising. But when it became clear that there would be no revolution, Land and Freedom dissolved itself at the beginning of 1864.
In the 70-80s, the so-called populism developed. Representatives of Russia's nascent intelligentsia believed that in order to accelerate change, it was necessary to appeal directly to the people. But there was no unity among them either. Some believed that it was necessary to limit ourselves to educating the people and explaining the need for change and only then talk about revolution. Others called for the abolition of the centralized state and the anarchic federalization of peasant communities as the basis of the country's social order. Still others planned the seizure of power by a well-organized party through a conspiracy. But the peasants did not follow them, and the riot did not happen.
Then, in 1876, the populists created the first truly large, well-conspiracy revolutionary organization entitled "Land and Freedom". But here, too, internal disagreements led to a split. Supporters of terrorism organized the “People's Will”, and those who hoped to achieve changes through propaganda gathered in the “Black Redistribution”. But these socio-political movements achieved nothing.
In 1881, the Narodnaya Volya killed Alexander II. However, the revolutionary explosion they expected did not happen. Neither the peasants nor the workers rebelled. Moreover, most of The conspirators were arrested and executed. And after the assassination attempt on Alexander III in 1887, Narodnaya Volya was completely defeated.
Most active
During these years, the penetration of Marxist ideas into Russia began. In 1883, the organization “Emancipation of Labor” was formed in Switzerland under the leadership of G. Plekhanov, who substantiated the inability of the peasantry to change through revolution and placed hope in the working class. Basically, the socio-political movements of the 19th century by the end of the century in Russia were under strong influence ideas of Marx. Propaganda was carried out among the workers, they were called upon to strike and go on strike. In 1895, V. Lenin and Yu. Martov organized the “Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class,” which became the basis for the further development of various social democratic trends in Russia.
The liberal opposition, meanwhile, continued to advocate for the peaceful implementation of reforms “from above,” trying to prevent a revolutionary solution to the problems facing Russian society. Thus, the active role of socio-political movements of a Marxist orientation had a decisive influence on the fate of Russia in the 20th century.