Forest-steppe and steppe climatic features. Fauna and flora of the forest-steppe - characteristics, list, names and photos
International geographical division of labor is the specialization of the economy of individual countries in production certain types products or services and their subsequent exchange.
As a rule, in most studies devoted to the problems of MRI, three types of MRI are historically and logically distinguished:
- 1. General MRI - division of labor between large spheres of material and non-material production (industry, transport, communications, etc.). (i.e. industry specialization). The general MRI is associated with the division of countries into industrial, raw materials, and agricultural ones.
- 2. Private MRT - division of labor within large spheres by industries and sub-sectors, for example, heavy and light industry, cattle breeding and agriculture, etc. (i.e. production for export of certain types of finished products and services). It is related to subject specialization.
- 3. Single MRT - division of labor within one enterprise, while the enterprise is interpreted broadly as a cycle for creating a finished product. (Specialization in the manufacture of individual units, parts, components).
Single and private MRI is largely carried out within single corporations (multinational corporations) that operate simultaneously in different countries.
The result of the geographical division of labor is the international specialization of individual countries. Certain conditions are necessary for it to occur:
- 1) the country must have certain advantages, for example, resource ones, and maintain them for a long time;
- 2) there must be countries that have a need for these products;
- 3) the costs of production and delivery of products to the consumer should be lower than in other countries;
- 4) the country must produce more of this product than it needs. Examples of international specialization are: Japan - cars; Saudi Arabia- oil; Canada - forest.
The international geographical division of labor is currently not so much expanding as deepening, acquiring new forms. The deepening of international specialization and exchange led to the merging of individual national economies. Stand out: regional economic integration and industry.
The main motivation for MRI for all countries of the world, regardless of their social and economic differences, is their desire to obtain economic benefits from participation in MRI. Since the process of formation of the value of any product does not depend on socio-economic conditions, and it is formed from the costs of means of production, payment of necessary labor and surplus value, then all goods entering the market, regardless of their origin, participate in the formation of international value, world prices As you know, goods are exchanged in proportions that obey the laws of the world market, including the law of value. Realizing the benefits of MRI in the course of international exchange of goods and services ensures that any country, under favorable conditions, receives the difference between the international and national costs of exported goods and services, as well as saving domestic costs by abandoning the national production of goods and services through cheaper imports. However, this is not the only incentive to participate in MRI, since, in addition to the above, the use of MRI makes it possible to seek solutions to global problems of mankind through the joint efforts of all countries of the world. The range of such problems is very wide: from environmental protection and solving the food problem in planetary scale before space exploration.
Under the influence of MRI trade relations between countries become more complex and enriched, developing into complex system world economic relations, in which trade in its traditional sense, although it continues to occupy leading place, but gradually loses its significance. The foreign economic sphere of the world economy has in our time complex structure, which includes international trade, international specialization and production cooperation, scientific and technical cooperation (STC), joint construction of enterprises and their subsequent operation in international conditions, international economic organizations, various kinds services and much more. What makes the productive forces global is international specialization and cooperation of production, manifested on a planetary scale. Under the influence of specialization and cooperation, an “additional” force is born, which is, as it were, free and acts simultaneously with the material and personal factors of social production. The results of the activities of each of the links in the emerging production system are actively used by an ever-increasing number of cooperation participants, which ultimately leads to strengthening the integrity of this system.
Today, the modern world in economic terms represents a certain expedient system, united by international socialized production, the achievement of relatively high level development. MRI is the “integrator” that formed from individual elements worldwide economic system- world economy. As a function of the development of productive forces and production relations, MRI has created objective conditions for the growing interconnection and interdependence of the reproductive processes of all countries, and expanded the limits of internationalization to global ones.
Some examples of the global division of labor are presented below.
Natural gas is the cheapest and most environmentally friendly fuel. Unlike oil-producing countries, the main gas-producing countries are the developed countries of Europe and North America. The leader in global gas production is Russia, where the largest basin is located - Western Siberia, followed in terms of production by the USA, Canada, Iran and Norway.
Electric power industry is one of the leading industries of the scientific and technological revolution era. Its development largely determines the level of development of the economy as a whole.
Electricity is produced in all countries of the world, but only 11 countries have an annual production of more than 200 billion kWh: the USA, China, Japan, Russia, India, Germany, Canada, France, the Republic of Korea, the UK and Brazil.
Metallurgy is one of the basic industries and provides humanity with structural materials, ferrous and non-ferrous metals. This industry includes all processes - from ore mining to rolled metal production. It consists of two industries: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy.
The geography of ferrous metallurgy is influenced by fuel and resource factors - coal and iron ore basins. The richest countries in iron ore are China, Brazil, Australia, Ukraine, India, USA, Russia, Canada, and North African countries. In recent decades, production iron ore in developed countries of Europe and the USA has stabilized or even decreased due to the depletion of a number of deposits. Currently, the main countries exporting iron ore are Brazil, Australia, India, Canada, and South Africa.
In the era of scientific and technological revolution, ferrous metallurgy is focused on cargo flows of iron ore and coking coal. As a result, in developed countries there was a shift in the industry towards seaports - in the USA, Japan, Western Europe.
The concept of international geographical division of labor
This concept has attracted and is attracting the attention of many geographers - N. N. Baransky, I. A. Vitver, N. N. Kolosovsky, Yu. G. Saushkin, I. M. Maergoiz, P. M. Alampiev, B. N. Semevsky , E.B. Alaev, etc. But N.N. Baransky can rightfully be considered its founder.
Firstly, N.N. Baransky defined the essence of the geographical (territorial) division of labor as a spatial form of social division of labor. Secondly, he divided it into inter-district and international. Thirdly, he expanded the understanding of the two main factors underlying the geographical division of labor - natural and socio-economic. Fourthly, he specifically traced the historical process of development of the international geographical division of labor. Fifthly, he identified the main consequences of the geographical division of labor - increasing labor productivity, the formation and specialization of economic regions. Sixth, he clearly described the meaning of this concept, calling it the basic concept of economic geography. Seventh, he fundamentally correlated the concept of the international geographical division of labor with the concept of the world economy, calling it driving force, "soul" of the world economy.
N.N. Baransky specifically emphasized that a particular country can produce rye and flax or rice and cotton, but this only indicates the diversity of their products, and not their participation in the international geographical division of labor. The latter arises only when different countries work for each other, when the result of labor is transported from one country to another. The external expression of such work is the growth of world trade, the number and capacity of cargo flows.
Further, N.N. Baransky formulated the following general premise for the geographical division of labor: it can only be carried out if the price of the product at the place of its sale exceeds its price at the place of production, added to the transport costs of its transportation. He expressed this rule in the form of a formula Cv> Wed + t, Where Cv– price of the goods at the point of sale, Wed is the price of the product at the place of production, and t is transport costs.
I. A. Vitver wrote about three conditions necessary for the formation of an international geographical division of labor. Firstly, the producing country must have certain advantages in the development of this industry over other countries. Secondly, there must be countries outside the manufacturing country where demand for its products arises at a higher price. high price. Thirdly, the cost of transporting products from the place of production to the place of consumption should not “eat up” the difference between the production price and the selling price. I. A. Vitver in his works also considered the development of the geographical division of labor “in breadth,” that is, by involving new territories in these processes, and “in depth,” that is, by increasing the intensity of the division of labor.
Yu. G. Saushkin in his main monograph devoted an entire chapter to the problems of geographical division of labor (unlike N. N. Baransky, I. A. Vitver and most other geographers, he calls it territorial division of labor). In it he described the meaning of this concept for geographical science, examined its connections with transport, natural resources, concentration of production, environment. But perhaps greatest interest presents his proposed identification of the following six levels of division of labor: global, international, interdistrict, intradistrict, intraregional and local. The first two of these levels are also directly related to the world economy.
E. B. Alaev made an attempt to reconcile two points of view on terminology, proposing to call only the intra-country and intra-district division of labor the territorial division of labor, thereby, as it were, separating it from international division labor, but this proposal did not receive much support.
Subsequently, Academician O. T. Bogomolov dealt a lot with issues of the international geographical division of labor. According to his definition, the international geographical division of labor (IGLD) is a process of sustainable concentration in individual countries of the production of material goods and services in excess of domestic needs, i.e. for external exchange and at the same time... the process of development of consumption in excess production capabilities based on the acquisition of products from outside. He also more clearly defined the groups of factors underlying the international geographical division of labor: 1) natural-geographical; 2) economic and geographical; 3) socio-political; 4) socio-economic; 5) factors of scientific and technological progress.
As a result, we can say that the international geographical division of labor is accompanied by two complementary processes. Firstly, this international specialization of production, which can be both inter-industry and intra-industry. At intersectoral specialization the country usually produces and exports relatively few types of products, primarily from the mining and fuel industries, as well as agriculture, which become branches of its international specialization. For intra-industry specialization Characterized by specialization in the production of finished products (subject), as well as parts and assemblies (detailed). There is also stage-by-stage (technological) specialization. Secondly, this international production cooperation, forming production connections between individual countries and national economies. Such specialization and cooperation determine the “face” of each country in the international geographical division of labor. They also lead to the fact that MGRT usually results in territorial gap between areas of production and consumption of products.
As scientific and technological progress develops, the international geographical division of labor gradually becomes more complex. For example, it increasingly goes beyond production sector. In the territorial aspect, this complication leads to the formation of separate zones international economic integration.
The international geographical division of labor (IGLD) is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products and services intended for export to the world market. It originated in ancient times, developing and becoming more complex with the development of productive forces, but it covered the whole world only with the emergence of the world economy.
The international division of labor is integral part territorial division of labor, and its development is determined by a number of factors:
- 1) differences in the geographical location of countries, forms geographical location: central, peripheral, neighboring, coastal - provide significant influence on the specialization of individual countries, promoting or inhibiting the development of certain types of production and services;
- 2) the characteristics of natural conditions and the provision of natural resources. This is one of the most powerful factors in the specialization of countries in the world at various stages of their development. As a rule, countries that are sufficiently wealthy various types natural resources, specialize in material-intensive types of production. And, conversely, countries with a low level of security are forced to give preference to non-material-intensive industries, focusing more on energy- and material-saving technologies. At the same time, exceptions to these patterns are not uncommon, which is determined by the influence of other factors;
- 3) a strong factor in the international division of labor is the differences in the supply of labor resources. Countries well supplied with them have the necessary prerequisites for the development of labor-intensive sectors of the economy and vice versa. True, in the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, the most significant thing is not the absolute indicators of security, but the quality of labor resources - educational and qualification level. Exclusively big role historically formed labor skills play a role in the specialization of individual countries and regions;
- 4) very great influence The international division of labor is influenced by differences in the level of socio-economic development of countries around the world, in particular, the state of science and the research base, technical and technological equipment previously created material base, infrastructure, etc. It is quite natural that underdeveloped countries do not have the necessary financial, scientific, labor and material prerequisites for the independent development of modern high-tech sectors of the national economy, much less for specialization in them.
Absolutely all countries of the world must participate in the international division of labor. None of them can afford to be isolated in their domestic market, even such economic giants as the USA, Russia, China, which are well provided with their own natural and labor resources, have a complex sectoral economic structure and a capacious domestic market for the sale of their products. This would be irrational and economically unjustified, as it would lead to significant economic losses. After all, participation in the international division of labor provides a direct economic effect resulting from the difference in production costs individual species products and when providing services in various countries peace.
In addition, participation in the international geographical division of labor is dictated not only by the economic benefits received, but also by the need to strengthen political ties between countries, saturate the domestic market with certain goods and services, etc.
The degree of participation of individual countries in the international division of labor is ambiguous, which is determined by differences in the provision of their own natural resources, the level of economic development, the capacity of the domestic market and other factors. The countries with the largest economic potential, while standing out sharply in general for the scale of their participation in the international division of labor, are, as a rule, characterized by a lower degree of involvement in MGRT compared to small countries.
Very significant differences are observed between individual countries and their groups in the current international specialization of the economy (see Appendix 3). Thus, if economically developed countries specialize mainly in the manufacturing industry, primarily in its high-tech industries that determine modern scientific and technological progress, then developing countries specialize mainly in the mining industry, the agricultural sector or old, traditional branches of the manufacturing industry. There are also exceptions. Thus, certain highly developed countries, such as Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, are widely known on the world market for their products from the mining industry or the agricultural sector. At the same time, NIS stand out in the international division of labor in a number of modern sectors of the national economy, in particular production and export electronic products, semiconductors, etc.
International relations are growing and expanding, contributing to the strengthening of peace and mutual understanding between peoples. MGRT has led to the need for countries to participate in international economic relations. The times of national isolation and economic isolation of states are a thing of the past.
Those countries that are highly dependent on world economic relations, deeply “rooted” in them, are called countries with open economies. The degree of openness is determined by the export quota - the share of exports in the creation of the country's GDP. This quota depends not only on the degree of economic development, but also on the size of the domestic market. Thus, in Singapore the export quota is 70%, in Belgium and the Netherlands - 55-60%, in the USA - 10%.
Geographical division of labor and economic integration
System of international division of labor. Integration processes V modern world
International geographic division of labor (IGD) is the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
The basis of MRI is competition between countries, which leads to the production of goods and services within the country in excess of domestic needs based on international market. MRI is influenced by the following factors:
Natural and climatic;
Natural-geographical;
Differences in the scale of production of national economies;
Possibilities of intra-country division of labor.
The degree of development of MRI is determined by the participation of the country and its subsystems in international exchange. Indicators of participation in MRI are:
Share of exports in GDP;
Volume ratio foreign trade to GDP;
The country's share in international trade;
Foreign trade turnover per capita.
Participation in MRT is a prerequisite for international cooperation in production. The process of cooperation led to internationalization industrial relations and the globalization of production, which caused the emergence of integration groups.
International economic integration is an objective process of developing deep and sustainable relationships separate groups countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
The largest integration association is the Asia-Pacific economic cooperation(APEC), which includes the USA, China, Russia, New Zealand, etc. The total area of the territories of these countries is 43.7 million km 2. Population more than 2.2 billion people. GDP is over 12 trillion. dollars. The share in world trade is 40%, in gold and foreign exchange reserves - 80%. The disadvantage of APEC is that its structure includes countries that differ in their level of socio-economic development and with diametrically opposed political orientations. APEC's objectives include:
Exchange information on policies and economic developments to achieve economic growth;
Developing strategies to shorten the route of movement of goods and services;
Cooperation in the fields of energy, fisheries, tourism, transport, telecommunications and environmental protection;
Promoting the development of regional trade, movement financial flows, technology transfer and labor supply.
The next major integration association is North American zone free trade, which includes the USA, Canada and Mexico. The combined GDP of these countries is 8 trillion. dollars, the territory occupies about 21 million km 2, the population is 400 million people.
The largest integration association in Western Europe is European Union(EU), which unites 15 countries. The territory of this association occupies 2.3 million km 2, the population is 380 million people, the GDP is 7 trillion. dollars. The EU's goals are:
Formation of a close union of the peoples of Europe;
Promoting balanced socio-economic progress;
Establishment of the EU in the international arena;
Development of cooperation in the field of justice and internal affairs;
Preservation and enhancement of common property.
The OPEC organization unites 12 oil exporting countries. The main goals of OPEC are:
Unification of oil policy;
Definition effective means protecting the interests of participating countries;
Using ways to ensure stability of participating countries in the global oil market;
Ensuring stable income;
Efficient, regular and cost-effective supply of oil to consumer countries;
Implementation of programs to stabilize the global oil market.
In recent years, a new integration association has been formed - the CIS - which unites 12 countries that were previously part of the USSR. The territory of this association covers an area of 22.1 million km 2, the population is 284 million people, the GDP is 1 trillion. dollars. The goals of this association include:
Phased creation of a common economic space;
Formation of conditions for stable development;
Joint implementation of large economic projects;
Solution environmental problems and liquidation of the consequences of natural disasters;
Making equals effective opportunities and guarantees to all economic entities.
To the big ones integration groups developing countries include:
Caribbean Community;
Association of Southeast Asian Nations;
Central American Common Market;
Latin American Integration Association;
YDEAC (central Africa);
ECOWAS (West Africa);
SADC (South Africa);
COMESA (states of Eastern and Southern Africa).
The economic division of labor, according to Adam Smith, famous author"Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of nations" (1776), is the main factor in the growth of productivity, a general form of economic cooperation of people in the interests of financial prosperity.
The division of labor arose in ancient times. Historically, its first forms, which to this day are found among tribes living in humid equatorial forests Amazons, Congo Basin, Indochina, were: gender and age - between men and women and between members of the tribe different ages, as well as between communities engaged in different types of economic activity due to differences in natural conditions. Relics of the frozen division of labor still exist in some areas of India, where the caste system based on Hinduism preserves the economic life of society, and rather contributes not to increasing labor productivity, but to preserving backwardness.
In modern economics, the division of labor is directly related to specialization, i.e. concentration of production of homogeneous products in independent industries with special technological process, special equipment and personnel and subsequent exchange of products between them.
Economic and geographical division of labor: history and types. Interdistrict and international territorial division of labor
Territorial, or geographic, division of labor arose in ancient times and is associated with the specialization of territories in the production of types of products, the production of which is most profitable under given natural conditions and the level of socio-economic development.
Historically the first - inter-district territorial division of labor arose when people began to engage in cattle breeding and agriculture. The exchange of products between them gave impetus to the formation of an interconnected and interdependent economic space and state institutions for the purpose of its protection.
International division of labor arose as a result of a long process of specialization in the production of the most profitable products in countries where production costs are minimal compared to international ones.
Since the 70s XX century prices for most types of products are regulated by decisions international organizations, bringing together producing countries that enter into agreements on quality, production quotas and price. In this way, a price is established that allows everyone participating in the agreement to receive stable incomes that cover production costs without a quantitative increase in its volumes, which can lead to supply exceeding demand and a fall in prices on the world market. Such organizations exist for almost all raw materials - oil (OPEC, OAPEC), coffee, jute.
Features of countries' specialization in the production of certain types of goods influence the nature and level of their socio-economic development.
Narrow specialization in the production and export of one or two types of goods, with production costs less than the world average, on the one hand, is the most optimal and profitable, and on the other, makes the entire economy dependent on fluctuations in market conditions and prices on the world market for these goods, from weather conditions And natural disasters. For example, frosts in Brazil in the early 1980s. led to the death of coffee plantations and a sharp drop in coffee production - the main export product and source of foreign exchange earnings, and as a consequence of this - to crisis phenomena in the economy.
Mono-commodity specialization of the economy exclusively in the mining industry, typical for countries with low level socio-economic development, is very profitable, despite the global trend of decreasing prices for raw materials and increasing prices for finished products. This export brings in income that far exceeds production costs, since the free benefits of nature are actually sold. Specialization in the extractive industries contributes to the preservation of the low educational level of the population, since the requirements for the qualifications of workers are low. Enclaves of the extractive industry, which is typically oriented toward external markets, have little connection with the local economy. As a result, the results of trading on commodity exchanges in Europe or America can have a direct impact on life in the mining enclave of the African outback.
World trade is the basis of the international division of labor. The main trade routes of ancient and modern times. Countries are leaders in world trade. Features of specialization in the global economy of world regions.
Until the middle of the 16th century, until the Great Geographical Discoveries expanded the space of economic and political interests of the European powers, a limited number of countries participated in world trade. The main reasons for this are the lack reliable information peoples about each other, political instability, frequent wars and poor development vehicles.
International trade consisted of the transportation of expensive and rare goods - silk, gold and jewelry, spices. The main international trade routes were the Great Silk Road connecting Europe and Asia; the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" - trade between Northern and Southern Europe. The end points of the trans-Saharan trade, controlled by Arab merchants, were the richest cities on the coast of modern Morocco - Ceuta and Melilla, from where gold was transported to Europe.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. trade European countries with the East was the basis for the initial accumulation of capital for the nascent industry, which, as it developed, required new markets and cheap sources of raw materials. WITH early XVIII c., when improvements in transportation and geographical discoveries ensured the economic penetration of Europeans into the New World, world trade began to gain global character. Not only its geography has changed radically, but also the commodity structure of trade in large-weight cargo - raw materials, agricultural products.
For the 18th century the volume of world trade increased 5 times, and during the 19th century. - almost 10 times. TO end of the 19th century V. England, the “workshop of the world” and “mistress of the seas”, the leader in world trade, had serious competitors - Germany, France, and the USA. Colonies - India, Brazil, Argentina, and China - began to play a significant role in world trade. By the beginning of the 20th century. Europe accounted for 50% of world trade, North America 20%, and the rest of the world 15%.
During the 20th century they established typical features participation in the international division of labor and world trade of countries of various socio-economic types. On the one hand, they are predetermined by the specialization of countries in the production of certain types of goods, and on the other, they themselves influence the nature of socio-economic development.
Modern world trade (for most countries this is the main form of foreign economic relations) is concentrated in the hands of a narrow number of countries; Thus, the 10 leading countries account for 3/4 of the total trade turnover (USA, Germany, Japan, France, Great Britain, Italy, Canada, CIS, Netherlands, Belgium.
In the 80-90s. The USA significantly exceeded all countries in the world in terms of volume foreign trade turnover(share in world exports on average - 13%, in imports - 11%) and the export of capital. Germany took second place. By the beginning of the 90s. Japan has taken third place in the world in terms of foreign trade volume, doubling its share in the exports of all countries of the world.
Significant changes in the balance of economic forces in the world have been made by the newly industrialized countries. Over the past decade, the foreign trade volume of Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Taiwan, as well as China, has tripled on average. Hong Kong has become one of the world's leading exporters of clothing and textiles. It is expected that by the mid-90s. China will become one of the ten leading trading powers (in 1980 it was 20th on the list of leaders), and its share in world trade will increase to 2.5%.
In an interconnected and interdependent world, the geography of foreign trade is highly dependent on political orientation. Trade sanctions and economic blockade states violating norms international law, have become an effective weapon in the modern world (for example, bans on trade with South Africa, Iraq, Serbia).
Geography of foreign trade of countries Eastern Europe changed significantly after the Second World War, which was a consequence of the reorientation of their foreign policy to the USSR. Structural restructuring of the economy that occurred in the 50-80s. within the framework of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), led to a change in the structure, location and specialization of all industries.
The transition to market relations in the 90s. and political orientation towards connections with Western European countries caused changes in both the structure of production and the geography of foreign trade.
Statistical indicators for analyzing foreign trade
The most important indicators used in analyzing the geography of foreign trade include the following:
1) Volumes of exports, imports, foreign trade turnover (the sum of the value of exports and imports.
2) Volume of exports, imports, foreign trade turnover per capita, 1 sq. km of national territory.
3) Indices of export, import, foreign trade turnover, calculated as the ratio of volumes previous year to the present.
4) The share of exports, imports, foreign trade turnover in the corresponding world indicators.
5) Foreign trade balance - the difference between exports and imports.
6) Structure of imports (exports) - the ratio of the cost of product groups to the total cost of imports (exports).
7) The share of imports in consumption shows the dependence national economy from international trade.
K1 - specialization coefficient
Tc - the country's share in world exports of this product
Тм - country's share in world exports
K2 - specialization coefficient
DS - the share of this product in the country’s exports
Dm - share of goods in world exports
Foreign trade of developed and developing countries (geographical and commodity structure of exports (imports)
Specialization in the international division of labor in the production and export of manufactured products, typical of economically developed countries, requires significant investment in the economy and the presence of a highly qualified workforce. For example, such small countries as Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, which do not have their own significant natural resources, are among the leading countries in world trade. They import raw materials and semi-finished products, export finished products, providing high profits to the economy and income to the population.
The structure of exports and imports of economically developed countries is dominated by manufacturing products, primarily machinery and equipment. Imports include a significant share of raw materials and fuel. This structure of foreign trade is explained by its geography (economically developed countries trade primarily among themselves), as well as the developed detailed specialization of their industry.
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN WORLD TRADE. The structure and geography of foreign trade of developing countries was laid down during the colonial period. Economic and political connections with the former metropolises, the same type of economic structure (the main export items are fuel and raw materials, tropical crops that are not in demand in domestic markets) hindered the development of interregional trade.
The global trend of declining prices for raw materials (the main export item of developing countries) and rising prices for manufactured products (the main export item of industrialized countries) puts the former in conditions of unequal exchange: they must sell more and more in order to buy the necessary for the modernization of the economy machines and equipment.
The share of developing countries in world trade has been steadily declining in recent decades, mainly due to a decline in the share of exports. Its structure is dominated by the products of the mining industry and tropical agriculture, and in a number of countries the share of the main export item is more than 90% (for example, in Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, oil and petroleum products are the main and only item of foreign exchange earnings).
The structure of imports is dominated by machinery and equipment necessary for economic development, as well as food. Regions deprived of energy resources East Africa, Central Asia- are forced to purchase them in ever-increasing volumes.
The food problem, which has worsened in recent decades, has led to a sharp increase.
Similar documents
International division of labor: the essence of the concept and theoretical foundations. World division of labor. Models of specialization of national economies - MRI participants. International cooperation and economic cooperation. Developing countries.
abstract, added 02/26/2003
The importance of the territorial division of labor for the location of productive forces and their territorial organization. System, types and scale of territorial division of labor. Forms of organization of production: concentration, specialization and cooperation.
abstract, added 06/03/2010
Territorial division of labor is a process of production specialization, isolation of economic regions, development of inter-district cooperation, exchange of products and services. Its types and levels. Consideration of the peculiarities of the division of labor in the Vologda region.
course work, added 10/12/2011
Concept, types and levels of territorial division of labor. Features of the territorial division of labor in Russian Federation and in the Chuvash Republic. Forecast of socio-economic development of Chuvashia for 2013 and for the planning period until 2015.
test, added 03/26/2015
The formation of the world economy and the international division of labor. A system of interconnected national economies. Economic growth and development of countries of the world. Scientific and technological revolution and the world economy. Impact of multinational companies.
abstract, added 02/16/2011
The existing set of national economies of countries, the connection between them worldwide economic relations. Geographical division of labor and industries of international specialization, international economic integration, factors of production location.
test, added 03/30/2010
Level of socio-economic development Kaliningrad region. Improving the territorial division of labor between regions and economic cooperation. Restoration and growth of production volumes to improve the well-being of people in Russia.
test, added 12/02/2010
The role of productive forces in economic development. Geography and basic concepts of the regional labor market. Contemporary issues labor market of the Republic of Tatarstan, labor market of small cities. Features of the Kukmor economy. Realities and prospects of the labor market.
thesis, added 01/10/2010
N.N. Baransky is the creator of the foundations of Soviet economic geography and cartography. Pages of the scientist's biography. Main directions scientific activity: impact human society on nature, the geographical form of social division of labor.
abstract, added 10/05/2016
Scientific methods territorial organization of the economy. Industry structure industry of the Russian Federation. Integration processes in the modern world and their geography.
Forest-steppe is a natural zone that is located between forests and steppe. The forest-steppe zone stretches continuously across the East European Plain and West Siberian Plain, and also through Southern Urals. Certain areas of forest-steppe are located within the Middle Danube Plain, Northern Kazakhstan, Mongolia, on Far East, and also occupy most of Songliao Plain, located in northeast China.
Characteristics of the forest-steppe natural zone.
Climate. Unlike the taiga, as well as coniferous-deciduous forests, the forest-steppe has a relatively warm and sometimes even dry climate. Summer temperatures and duration increase warm season. During the period with temperatures greater than 10°, the sum of average daily temperatures increased to 1800-2000° in the east of the zone and 2600-2800° in the southwest. The frost-free period, as a rule, lasts 105-120 days in the east and 165 days in the west. Absolute maximum in the forest-steppe depends on latitude and is usually around 40 °C in the shade. But heat in this natural zone occurs noticeably less frequently than extreme cold, which is the opposite in comparison with the steppe zone.
The dominant forest-forming species within the European forest-steppe is oak. And the greatest species diversity found in the western part of the forest-steppe, favored by warm and humid climate. On the territory of Western Siberia forested areas often found near the depressions of flat watersheds and are formed by birch groves - kolkas. Steppe zone It is dominated by colorful forbs, and most of them are rhizomatous (meadow bluegrass, reed grass, steppe timothy, etc.).
As for the fauna, within the forest-steppe there are no species of animals unique to it. As a rule, steppe species (marmot, gopher, bustard) are combined here with typical representatives forest zone (squirrel, elk, marten). Animal species change from the steppe to the forest zone when moving north.
Soils forest-steppe zone determined under conditions of variable moisture on forests and forest-like loams. Gray forest soils predominate on the East European Plain, while under the steppes there are podzolized, leached and ordinary chernozems.
- Anton Siluanov, Minister of Finance
- Protection of consumer rights: insurance contract - legal services of the Legas company Protection of rights under an insurance contract
- Consolidated register of the territorial body of the federal treasury
- Why are whales interesting? What do whales hear? The closest relatives of whales are hippos