Competitive relationships between animals. The most striking examples of competition in nature
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY. PLAN 1. Social consciousness and its structure. 2. Political consciousness: levels, functions, forms of Z. Political ideology And political psychology as levels of political consciousness. 4. The main ideological and political trends of our time.
Consciousness is a necessary attribute of human life, and therefore its manifestations in society are universal. The consciousness of society functions in the most various forms, types, states, levels. At a certain stage of development of society, it is institutionalized as spiritual production and acquires relative independence.
The cognitive (GNOSEOLOGICAL) aspect of social consciousness is based on the assessment of social consciousness and its elements as an ideal reflection of the objective world, social existence. All levels, types of social consciousness are integrated here, differentiated according to whether they reflect objective truth or not, and if they do, then with what depth, in what forms.
The epistemological aspect allows us to distinguish two unique poles in public consciousness: science and religion, which differ fundamentally opposite attitude to objective truth, theoretical and empirical consciousness, differing in levels of reflection of reality.
The sociological aspect of social consciousness involves the assessment of social consciousness and its elements from the standpoint of their role and significance for activity public subject. The main thing here is not objective truth as such, but the expression of the interests of a certain social subject, the role in the justification and development of its activities.
Highlighting the sociological aspect of social consciousness made it possible to offer a deeper interpretation of ideology as a way of human spiritual activity, to explain the vitality of all kinds of fetishistic forms of social consciousness, to distinguish between goal setting and motivation of human activity at the theoretical and everyday practical levels, and to solve a number of other problems.
The disclosure of the multi-quality nature of social consciousness also focuses on the multifaceted identification of the place and role of each of its fragments, primarily such as ordinary consciousness, social psychology and ideology.
Ordinary consciousness is everyday, practical consciousness; it is a function of direct practical activities people and most often reflects the world at the level of phenomena, rather than essential connections. e Everyday consciousness undergoes changes in the process of development human society and is influenced by such levels of reflection as science, ideology; by assimilating certain of their achievements, it at the same time actively influences them.
It is suggested that in the future, ordinary consciousness will disappear due to its rise to the level of more complex forms of reflection. But the everyday life of society does not require servicing it by a consciousness that is at the level of science. For example, acts of purchase and sale can be carried out without recourse to economic categories, and the use of electricity, technology, computers in everyday life - without knowledge of the laws that underlie them.
The world of everyday phenomena, reflected by everyday consciousness, is inextricably linked with the essence public life, therefore, at the level of ordinary consciousness, knowledge of objective truth is in principle possible. As for the question of at what level - everyday or theoretical - the truth is more fully reflected, here everything depends on specific conditions. It happens that everyday consciousness is closer to the truth than theoretical consciousness.
For example, during the years of stagnation, ordinary consciousness assessed the ill-being in society much more accurately than official theological and documents. It also happens, on the contrary, when ordinary consciousness contains erroneous assessments, such as, for example, the active rejection of forms of individual labor activity by some strata of our society.
Social psychology just like ordinary consciousness, it belongs to the group of genetically primary forms reflections of reality. It represents a set of social feelings, emotions, attitudes, experiences, expressions of will, etc.
Social psychology develops as a result of direct and indirect influences of social life. On the one hand, social psychology directly depends on the real state of affairs in society. On the other hand, it significantly depends on theoretical consciousness and ideological influence.
Social psychology can both accelerate and slow down the course of social transformations. Thus, not in the recent past, we lacked a sense of shame, in the words of K. Marx, anger turned inward, for the state in which society found itself. if it were - maybe the transformations would have started earlier
And today we are greatly hindered by social apathy, an impatient desire to immediately enjoy success, and a tendency to disappointment at the first difficulties and failures. All these are modern realities of social psychology.
Ideology This is a theoretically systematized consciousness that expresses the interests of a certain class, social group, community in general. As long as a group, community, humanity has some interests, there is a need to realize them - and this always exists - until then ideology will exist.
Ideology can also exist at the everyday, socio-psychological level. For example, class instinct, psychological attitudes that determine the attitude of one national ethnic community to the other, no less ideological than the programs political parties, for they express nature social interest and serve its implementation.
The main divide that makes it possible to identify the qualitative specificity of ideology is its relationship with science and knowledge in general. If for scientific knowledge the main thing is the reflection of objective laws, objective truth with a certain abstraction from the interests of people, then for ideology, on the contrary, it is this interest, its expression, implementation that is the main thing.
To absolutize this difference, to deprive ideology of the cognitive moment, and cognition - of the ideological moment, would be wrong, but still the nature of ideology as a phenomenon of social consciousness is determined by the area of public interest.
The role of ideology in public life It is very great. IN currently in our society it is very important to ideologically ensure the reform of social relations. To do this, it is necessary to realize and express the interests of the people, correctly formulate the main goals, ways to achieve them, and identify driving forces transformations and possible inhibitory forces, to make this knowledge the property of the whole society. The success of reforms largely depends on the success of ideological work.
Forms of social consciousness Social consciousness reflects the richness of social life, social existence in various forms. The forms of social consciousness include: political, legal, moral, aesthetic, religious, philosophical and scientific consciousness.
They differ from each other in the subject of reflection. Thus, if science and philosophy are interested in both nature and society, then political consciousness is the relationship between classes, nations, social strata and the relationship of each of these formations to state power.
Each form is characterized by a specific relationship between everyday consciousness, psychology, and the theoretical level of mastering reality. Some forms perform similar social functions, while for others they are fundamentally different. Philosophy and religion, for example, have an inherent ideological function.
An important distinctive feature of forms of social knowledge is the way they reflect reality. For science - these are theoretical and conceptual systems, for politics - political programs and declarations of radio, for morality - d moral principles, for aesthetic consciousness - artistic images, etc.
Nowadays, there is a further differentiation of social consciousness. Yes, on modern stage There are good reasons for highlighting the economic form of social consciousness associated with economic relations of people.
2. Political functions, consciousness: levels, forms One of the most important forms of social consciousness is political consciousness. Political consciousness is the awareness of the sphere of politics by social subjects (individuals, groups, communities, etc.). Political consciousness is one of the most general concepts, characterizing the subjective side
It is a combination of rational, value-based, normative, on the one hand, and subconscious, irrational, affective elements, on the other. On their basis, political orientations and behavior, the attitude of individuals and groups towards state institutions and power, participation in management, etc.
In order to navigate political events and relationships, it is necessary to understand what is happening in society. It is possible to achieve one’s goals in politics only if there is an appropriate structure of power and an adequate political form.
Consciousness in general is a specific ability of man and humanity to orient himself in environment so that one can exist or adapt in creative ways, interacting with the environment in a transformative way.
Politics deals with the affairs of people, not nature. Therefore, political consciousness directs its attention to society as a whole, and its immediate task is to understand how a community can be organized with maximum regard for the needs of people and a minimum level of violence.
Political consciousness is always situational; it is aware of society based on its real obsession here and now. This consciousness always has a party character, since there are no people in general, but there are specific people, expressing in consciousness not only objects but also their individual life among them. This circumstance makes political consciousness an ideology.
Political consciousness is always open in nature, since all people cannot have a common opinion on politics; it is always a struggle, dialogue, compromise, consensus for every taste.
Real political consciousness is looking for answers to the questions: what is politics, what are the interests of the main groups of the population, what are the socio-political needs, how to organize these groups of the population so that they fulfill their functions, what is the content of laws, how to ensure their implementation, how to combine status man and the need for his political restrictions, how to force the population to submit to the entire political organization and love their rulers, how to get rid of competitors and contenders for power, how to interact with other countries, with whom to fight and how to win, how to do without spies and etc.
Political consciousness expresses the interests that arise in real life. It allows us to formulate the values that people focus on when trying to realize their interests. Within the limits of political consciousness, norms are created that determine the conditions for sociopolitical interaction of people.
Political consciousness is distributed among all people living in a society. Such consciousness is mass political consciousness. There are also elite forms of political consciousness that arise in the minds of great thinkers and professionals involved in politics and ideology.
Levels of political consciousness 1. state, at which the development and justification of official policy is carried out. “State” consciousness regulates political relations through various bills, programs, constitutions, etc. At this level of political consciousness, existing political orders and principles of governance are most consistently defended;
2. Theoretical - represented by various kinds of concepts, ideas, views that are of a political nature. Awareness of politics at the theoretical level allows you to: set and solve the most important political goals and objectives, both fundamental (strategic) and current (tactical); determine the means and methods to achieve them; determine the directions and ways of organizational and political support for solving pressing problems; develop conceptual approaches to social control over the progress of implementation political decisions and targeted programs; adjust policies taking into account data from practical experience;
3. Empirical - based on direct practice, participation in the political process of various social communities. This level reflects political reality in the form of sensations, illusions, experiences, ideas;
4. Ordinary - characterizes the totality of ideas and views arising directly from everyday life social class, social layer or group of people. This level are characterized by pronounced social psychological traits: moods, feelings, emotions. This gives it special dynamism, the ability to react sensitively to changes in the political situation.
Forms of political consciousness A specialized PS is, as a rule, an ideologically homogeneous consciousness. The main thing in this form is the development, development and introduction into the consciousness of ordinary representatives of a social class, social group and other certain orientations and attitudes. The carriers of specialized consciousness are, first of all, political parties and other political organizations and associations.
Mass political consciousness indirectly expresses the level and content of the needs of society. It also reflects the nature of society's knowledge of political reality. Mass political consciousness is very dynamic. It is influenced by many factors: various social upheavals, the content of a specific historical situation, and much more.
Functions of political consciousness: 1. Cognitive - the need for knowledge in man various sides world politics; 2. ideological - the need to unite political parties, nations and states, to preserve the positions of power for the war; 3. communicative - ensuring interaction between political subjects and government institutions;
4 evaluative contributes to orientation in political life, assessment of political events; 5 regulatory political participation; gives guidelines regarding 6 integrating promotes unification social groups society on the basis of common values, ideas, attitudes; 7 prognostic creates the basis for predicting the content and nature of the political process; 8 normative creates a generally accepted image of the future.
Political ideology. The term “ideology” was introduced into scientific use in the 8th century by the French scientist X Antoine Destutt de Tracy. Marxists used the term “ideology” in three meanings: 1 consciousness of a certain class as a whole; 2 theoretical consciousness; 3 false, perverted consciousness caused by the contradictions of production relations.
D. Easton, M. Duverger defined ideology as systems and preferences. Thanks to values, the process of differentiation and hierarchization of objects according to the degree of their significance is carried out, which is necessary to stimulate human actions.
M. Weber attributed ideology, like other ideological and religious formations, to the realm of faith, thereby denying even the very formulation of the question of its scientific nature. Modern political scientists E. Shields and W. Matz regard political worldview as faith.
Most political scientists define ideology as a systematized set of ideas that express the interests, goals and intentions of large social groups - classes, nations, parties, etc.
Any ideology is political in nature, but the concept of political ideology is used in a specific sense - as a set of views of social groups on the political structure of society, on the place of politics in public life.
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY 1 legitimation of the power of the ruling forces or the right to power of the opposition; 2 articulation of the interests of groups and sectors of society; 3 mobilization and integration of citizens, stimulation of targeted actions on their part; 4 compensation for social dissatisfaction with hope for a successful change in social life.
5 prognostic - the ability of individuals and groups to formulate goals, long-term assessment of directions for the development of political processes; 6 educational - the opportunity to influence political behavior in accordance with certain goals and ideals.
The ideologization of politics makes it dysfunctional and incapable of identifying and solving socially important problems. The predominance of ideological values over practical political and especially socio-economic goals, as is known, became one of the reasons for the collapse of totalitarian regimes in the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe.
Ideologization international relations in the 20th century, especially in the period between 1945 and 1985, meant their subordination to the tasks of interstate struggle for ideological reasons. The peaceful coexistence of socialist and capitalist states was considered in the Soviet Union as a specific form of class struggle in international arena. This approach has more than once brought humanity to the brink of world war.
Levels of political ideology: 1 theoretical and conceptual. It formulates the main provisions that reveal the interests and ideals of a class, layer, nation, state; 2 programmatically political. Here, social and philosophical principles and ideals are translated into programs, slogans and demands;
3 updated. It characterizes the degree to which citizens have assimilated the goals and principles of a given ideology and their implementation in certain forms of political participation. This level can cover a fairly wide range of options for assimilating ideology: from a slight change in positions to the formation of deep worldviews.
Propaganda serves as a tool for spreading ideological influence. Its purpose is to purposefully combine the theoretical and everyday levels of political consciousness, to form people's readiness for a certain type of political action.
Thus, the existence of a socially structured society gives rise to the need for ideology as a systematized, theoretically formulated way of social group thinking, which is an essential element of power relations.
Political psychology is an integral part of political consciousness, framing and fixing political relations and interests in a social psychological form and contributing to the development of direct motives and attitudes of political behavior in the subject. Political psychology is lowest level political consciousness.
It develops on the basis of a spontaneous (theoretically unsystematized and unreflected) reflection of the interests and needs of classes and manifests itself in the form of likes and dislikes, feelings of hatred and trust, friendship and enmity, moods of enthusiasm, enthusiasm, activity and passivity. It also includes illusions, prejudices, prejudices generated by subjective distortions in assessments of the actual classes in society.
The direct source of the formation of political psychology is everyday practical consciousness, which itself grows out of the practical activities of people as a reflection of their empirical conditions of existence, work and struggle.
It represents a combination of the rational and the emotional, the interweaving of rational forms and emotions, today’s ideas and established traditions, habits, views, ideological elements and manifests itself in people’s mentalities.
All of the above is also characteristic of political psychology. It expresses political sentiments, which include representatives of a given class or group, the practice of their contacts with representatives of other classes and groups, socio-political organizations, state power, socio-psychological reaction to the most important political events and government regulations.
Political psychology is necessary condition directing powerful flows of mass energy, stimulating them political activity. It largely shapes public opinion, assessments of a given class, social group of certain political actions, political line as a whole.
Features of political psychology 1. Formed in the process of direct activity of citizens on the basis of their practical interaction between themselves and the institutions of power; 2. The reflection of political events and processes is superficial; 3. The dominant role is played by the sensual and emotional elements of consciousness; 4. Reflect primarily not the long-term, but the urgent interests of people, their everyday needs; 5. It is influenced by various ideologies and develops in the process of their confrontation; 6. Able to change quickly and respond sensitively to changing political conditions.
Elements of political psychology: 1. feelings and emotions of people that create certain motives for their political activity; 2. individual mental properties (will, memory); 3. physiological mechanisms determined by the innate qualities of a person (heredity) and manifested in psychophysical properties that regulate temperament, demographic and age-sex traits.
Political behavior, indeed, largely depends on ideology and political psychology.
We know that the role of ideology in human socialization is very important. After all, a person is literally brought up in a certain ideology, on the basis of certain theories, principles, values and views. And this value system is so strongly perceived by him that the person does not see other actions. His political and ordinary behavior is completely dependent on this ideology.
As for political psychology, it contains certain feelings, emotions, moods about political processes and phenomena. Political psychology forms political consciousness, which is produced in behavior. For example, psychology is expressed in certain types Personalities: extrovert, sensory, etc. And in accordance with these types, a person unconsciously builds his behavior.
What is the danger of political extremism?
Political extremism is dangerous because of the chaos it wreaks in society. Such extremism is committed solely for political reasons and will not be stopped until the extremists gain power and achieve their goal.
Extremism is also behavior that is formed as a result of radical views. These values may be too bold and the actions too harsh, which can lead to big mistakes.
Political psychology is an area of people’s political consciousness, which consists mainly of a sensory, visual perception of politics and an emotional attitude towards it, and is directly related to the activities of people in the field of politics.
According to the content in political psychology we can distinguish stable part(common sense, mentality, psychological makeup of the ethnic group, traditions, etc.) and part is more mobile, unstable(moods, experiences, emotions, feelings, expectations). Essential among the unstable, quickly passing manifestations of political psychology have mood- general, pronounced features of psychology, covering large masses of people for a certain period of time and determining their attitude towards this or that political event or problem. Sentiment has a significant impact on political behavior large masses of people.
Significant transitory aspects of political psychology also include infection– rapid dissemination, coverage of certain mental state large masses of people - and suggestion, characterized by an uncritical perception of the impact by the object of suggestion.
Political ideology is a systematized, theoretically formulated hierarchy of political values, on the basis of which goals for preserving or changing social reality are developed.
Political values include the most general guidelines of political practice - humanism, security, freedom, justice, democracy, order, etc.
Unlike political ideology, political psychology includes both rational, so subconscious (non-rational, irrational) elements. Political psychology arose historically earlier than political ideology.
Political ideology verbalizes (expresses), theoretically formalizes, and logically substantiates what already takes place in political psychology. It gives a theoretically systematized form to scattered ideas, vague feelings and moods. Ultimately, all ideologies arise on an appropriate psychological basis. On the other hand, political ideologies created artificially, without a real psychological basis, seem to hang in the air and do not fulfill the functions for which they are created.
Functions of political ideology are:
1. Regulatory. Ideology is a standard for assessments and a guideline for activities.
2. Integration function. Ideology is aimed at uniting supporters of corresponding values.
3. Mobilization function. Ideology should inspire and raise the masses to achieve certain goals.
4. Legitimation and delegitimation certain political forces and modes.
5. Cognitive. Ideology gives a certain image of social reality;
6. Constructive function. Based on ideologies, specific action programs are created .
Political ideologies, like political values, reflect the needs and interests of people. Due to the diversity and divergence of these needs and interests, there are usually several ideologies in society.
The most influential forms of political consciousness are political ideology (for details, see topic 25) and political psychology.
Political psychology is often more significant for politics than other forms of political consciousness. It is a collection of predominantly emotional and sensory sensations and ideas of people about political phenomena that develop in the process of their (people’s) political behavior and direct interaction with institutions.
Recognition of such spiritual education orients Scientific research to a transition from considering a person as a bearer of certain political functions, statuses, rights and doctrines to the analysis of its specific feelings and psychological mechanisms that govern the behavior of individuals, groups and mass communities. In this regard, it is no longer the properties of the abstract “political person” that are taken into account, but the specific abilities of individual or group subjects for interpersonal (intergroup) communication and cohesion, the peculiarities of their perception of political phenomena, the intensity of expectations, characteristics of temperament (sociability, sensitivity, anxiety of consciousness), mechanisms attracting attention and suggestion, imitation and infection, the structure of preferences (sociometric structure) and other mental reactions.
Many scientists have spoken about the fundamental importance of political feelings and emotions in politics. For example, Aristotle, considering politics as a form of communication between the state and the citizen, wrote that rulers “...need to know the mood of those raising uprisings...how political unrest and strife actually begin”; Descartes wrote about six senses that motivate man in peace and power; Machiavelli, who argued that “to rule is to make people believe,” specifically pointed out that differences in sentiment are the main cause of “all the troubles that occur in the state.” Many scientists were confident in the existence of the “soul of the people” (W. Wund, G. Le Bon), described “mental epidemics” (for example, during revolutions), attacks of popular lynching, people’s intoxication with freedom or thirst for revenge, mass psychoses, etc. .
Political psychology generally characterizes such (from individual to mass) affects. Moreover, it includes both universal feelings and emotions of a person, specifically manifested in political life (for example, anger, love, hatred, etc.), and those sensations that are found only in political life (feelings of sympathy and antipathy for certain ideologies or leaders, feelings of subordination to the state, etc.). However, the different roles of these feelings and emotions predetermine the dual significance of psychology in political life.
On the one hand, it acts as a spiritual phenomenon that mediates all varieties political thinking and human behavior, gives form to all subjective manifestations of his mental and practical activity. In this regard, political psychology represents that internal mechanism for the transformation of human ideas, which is organically woven into the political process, but at the same time may not play any independent role in human behavior.
Irremovability from political activity universal mental ways of interaction and communication between people turns psychology into a kind of universal measure of all politics as a whole. In other words, power, the state, parties, various political actions of subjects, as well as other political phenomena are presented as certain forms of psychological interaction between people. In this regard, a whole direction has emerged in political science, whose representatives absolutize the role of psychological factors. They clearly reduce all the causes of revolutions and tyrannies, democratization or reform of the state and society to psychological foundations political behavior of people. Even massive ones political processes are explained psychological qualities individual or small group(E. Fromm, G. Allport, E. Bogarus, etc.). In this case, “political man” is understood as a product of personal psychological motives transferred to the public sphere (G. Lasswell). Politics itself is practiced as “a psychological phenomenon first of all, and then ideological, economic, military, etc.”
On the other hand, political psychology represents a genetically primary, emotional-evaluative reaction of political consciousness and that specific spiritual factor that has an independent impact on the development of motives and political behavior of a person, while differing from the influence, for example, of his rational or value motives. As J. Huizinga wrote, “immediate manifestations of passion,” creating sudden effects, are capable of “invading political life on such a scale that benefit and calculation... are pushed aside.” It is well known that the calmness of feelings, the emotional adaptation of people to the situation developing in the state is the main factor in the stability of regimes. It is no coincidence, as a number of Russian scientists note, that “the authorities are not interested in the opinions of society... but in the mood,” which “can cover millions. ...The mood that has gripped the masses is enough for everything to change.”
Political ideology and political psychology partially coincide in content with the theoretical and everyday, respectively, but they also have their own specifics. The distinction between political ideology and psychology is based on the same basis - the depth and adequacy of the reproduction of political reality. However, ideology is not identical to theory, and political psychology goes beyond the framework of ordinary consciousness.
Ideology is usually understood as a system of theoretical views, ideas expressing the interests and goals of certain social groups and aimed at preserving or changing existing social relations. Political ideology, accordingly, is a theoretical understanding of political reality from the point of view of the interests and goals of any social group (class, nation, etc.).
The scope of the concepts “political ideology” and “political theory” partially overlap each other, since ideology analyzes political reality by means of theory - this is systematized, logically consistent knowledge that claims to be objective, developed by professionals in the field of spiritual production. However, ideology does not fit entirely within the framework of theory, because it represents knowledge not only about what exists (about what is), but also about what should be (about what should be) in society, which deprives it of solid theoretical ground.
The central position of ideologies in the structure of political consciousness is initially determined by a number of distinctive features their formation and functioning, which usually include: integrity, systematicity of knowledge presented in ideology, the use of means of knowledge at a theoretical level; the birth as a result of the activities of ideologists, intellectual professionals (ideology does not develop spontaneously, “by itself”); initial focus on changing or consolidating existing political relations and institutions; conditioned by the interests of various social groups (classes, strata, estates, elites, etc.); an appeal to the goals and values of public life as one of the main arguments; a tendency to some varnishing of reality.
The leading functions of ideology include: goal-setting formulation of goals social development, giving meaning and justification to the claims of social groups to power; programmatic and practical - translation of theory into practice: development of specific programs, means, methods of achieving power and its use; integrative - cohesion, formation of the unity of a social group; motivating - encouraging people to be politically active; communicative - formation special language political communication - signs, symbols, rituals, by which adherents of an ideology identify their supporters and separate “outsiders.”
The main functions of ideology can also include cognitive, axiological (value), propaganda, apologetic (protecting the political image of the ruling elite), etc. This is, in general, the purpose of ideology in the modern world.
The most influential ideologies of our time are considered to be liberalism, conservatism and socialism. All of them have long historical traditions and now they are branched complexes of ideas, principles, and guidelines that form the basis of the programs and strategies of various political forces. These belief systems turn out to be so powerful that they actually step beyond the formal boundaries of the political sphere and turn into unique types or ways of thinking that determine people’s attitude towards the entire world around them.
Another level of political consciousness, paired with ideological one, is political psychology - a set of political feelings, opinions, moods that arise among various social groups on the basis of common political needs and interests. Being an unsystematized and spontaneously formed spiritual formation, political psychology is a kind of analogue of everyday consciousness. But there is no complete coincidence between them, since the concept of “political psychology” includes, along with rational ones, also irrational ones, i.e. unconscious elements not controlled by consciousness - motives, preferences, attitudes, etc.
The scope of political psychology includes the following phenomena: socio-political foundations of psychological activity (needs, motives, interests, aspirations), psychological mechanisms interactions with the political environment (attitudes, stereotypes, prejudices), psychological states of people determined by political realities (moods, expectations, feelings, emotions); stable political and psychological forms and products of activity (traditions, skills, habits); psychological processes political communication (suggestion, imitation, persuasion, rumors), etc.
In general, this level of political consciousness has the following features: a spontaneous, little-controlled process of formation; the predominance of sensory-emotional components of consciousness; the overlap of rational and irrational spiritual elements; known inconsistency and inconsistency of personal elements; performing mainly adaptive and motivating functions; mobility, variability, quick adaptation to the current situation, etc.
Unlike ideology, political psychology is less amenable to theoretical analysis due to the presence of many irrational elements in it. But they, as shown by the development of the science of psychology in the 20th century, can become the object of theoretical consideration and practical recommendations.
More on topic 27. Political ideology and political psychology, their distinctive features, subjects and nature of the relationship:
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