What the behavior might be. Forms of social behavior of people
Behavior Any activity in which we engage, from gross motor activity to thinking.
Brief explanatory psychological and psychiatric dictionary. Ed. igisheva. 2008.
Behavior
Inherent in living beings with the environment, mediated by their external (motor) and internal (mental) activity. The term "P." applicable both to individuals, individuals, and to their aggregates (P. biological species, social group). The first attempts to scientifically understand P. arose on the basis of mechanistic determinism, in the categories of which P. was interpreted according to the type of interaction of physical bodies. The doctrine of evolution in biology (C. Darwin) made it possible to explain the expediency of P. in living beings, stimulating the development of objective methods for studying P. in the unity of its external and internal manifestations. On the basis of biological determinism, a doctrine was developed about the higher nervous activity of animals, which I. P. Pavlov considered to be a synonym. Pavlov contrasted consciousness with consciousness, believing that the subject of psychology was only P., which was reduced to a set of motor reactions to external stimuli. Subsequently, supporters of behaviorism made adjustments to this scheme (see) The uniqueness of an individual’s behavior depends on the nature of his relationships with the groups of which he is a member, on group norms, value orientations , role prescriptions (see). P.’s inadequacy (expressed, in particular, in a person’s overestimation of his capabilities, splitting of verbal and real plans, weakening of criticality when monitoring the implementation of the P. program) negatively affects.
interpersonal relationships. Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: “PHOENIX”. 1998 .
Behavior
The interaction with the environment inherent in living beings, mediated by their external (motor) and internal (mental) activity; goal-oriented activity of a living organism that serves to establish contact with the outside world. The term is applicable both to individuals, individuals, and to their aggregates (behavior of a biological species, social group). Behavior is based on the needs of the body, over which executive actions are built to satisfy them. The genesis of forms of behavior is due to the complication of environmental conditions, in particular the transition from a homogeneous environment to an objective one, and then to a social one. Behavioral facts include:
1 ) all external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity and communication of people - posture, facial expressions, intonation, etc.;
2 ) individual movements and gestures;
3 ) actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning;
4 ) actions - even larger acts, usually having public, social significance and associated with norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc.
The higher one climbs the evolutionary ladder, the more stereotypical behavior is replaced by acquired behavior. For understanding the biological prehistory of specifically human forms of behavior it is extremely important; information about the instincts of animals is important, as well as about the language and communication of animals and their use of tools.
According to S. L. Rubinstein, behavior is a special form of activity: it becomes precisely behavior when the motivation for action moves from the objective plane to the plane of personal-social relations (both of these plans are inseparable: personal-social relations are realized through objective ones). Human behavior has natural prerequisites, but it is based on socially determined activity, mediated by language and other sign-semantic systems, the typical form of which is labor, and the attribute is communication.
The uniqueness of an individual's behavior depends on the nature of his relationships with the groups of which he is a member; from group norms, value orientations, role prescriptions. Inappropriate behavior negatively affects interpersonal relationships; it is expressed, in particular, in an individual’s overestimation of his capabilities, the splitting of verbal and real plans, and the weakening of criticality when monitoring the implementation of behavior programs. The main thing in behavior is the attitude towards moral standards. The unit of behavior analysis is the action.
Dictionary of a practical psychologist. - M.: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998.
Specificity.Behavior is based on the needs of the animal organism, over which executive actions are built to satisfy them. The genesis of forms of behavior is due to the complication of environmental conditions, in particular the transition from a homogeneous to an objective, and then social environment.
Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000.
BEHAVIOR
(English) behavior,behavior) - externally observable motor activity of living beings, including moments of immobility, the executive link of the highest level of interaction of the whole organism with the environment.
P. is a purposeful system of sequentially executed actions, which carry out practical contact of the organism with the surrounding conditions, mediate the relationship of living beings to those properties of the environment on which the preservation and development of their life depends, preparing satisfaction needs organism, ensuring the achievement of certain goals.
P.'s source is the needs of a living being. P. is carried out as a unity of mental - incentive, regulatory, reflective links (reflecting the conditions in which the objects of needs and drives beings) and executive, external actions that bring the organism closer or further away from certain objects, as well as transforming them.
Changes in P. in the course of phylogenesis are determined by the complication of the conditions of existence of living beings, their transition from a homogeneous to an objective, and then social environment. The general laws of P. are the laws of analytical-synthetic reflex activity of living beings, based on the physiological laws of work brain, but not reducible to them.
Human behavior is always socially conditioned and acquires the characteristics of conscious, collective, goal-setting, voluntary and creative activities.
At the level of socially determined human activity, the term “P.” also denotes a person’s actions in relation to society, other people and the objective world, considered from the perspective of their regulation by social norms of morality and law. In this sense, it is said, for example, about highly moral, criminal and frivolous P. Units of P. are actions, in which the position of the individual and his moral convictions are formed and at the same time expressed. (V.P. Zinchenko.)
Large psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .
Behavior
BEHAVIOR (With. 453) - a set of real actions, external manifestations of the vital activity of living beings, including humans. In everyday speech, a narrower interpretation of behavior is traditionally accepted as a person’s compliance with generally accepted rules of relationships and the performance of certain forms of action (educational, professional, etc.). Accordingly, behavior is defined in the evaluation criteria as exemplary, satisfactory, or unsatisfactory. This interpretation, however, does not exhaust the entire variety of forms of behavior and does not allow us to consider this phenomenon comprehensively.
The behavior of any living creature is a continuous process of adaptation to constantly changing environmental conditions.
At the early stages of development, the child's behavior is entirely dictated by environmental stimuli. (This is why the pedagogical recommendations of behaviorists turn out to be very effective for young children; subsequently their role decreases.) Psychologists define the behavior of a child in the first years of life as field behavior, that is, determined by the external field - the material environment that consistently appears before the child. If mental development is disturbed, as happens with various mental illnesses and anomalies (for example, schizophrenia, autism, etc.), behavior subsequently remains spontaneous and involuntary for a long time. For example, by placing toys in the room accordingly, you can accurately predict the sequence of actions a child suffering from autism when he enters this room. Normal mental development involves the gradual formation of voluntary regulation of behavior, when the child’s own impulses become increasingly important (behavior becomes “field-independent”). mediated by consciously set goals.
A person’s behavior is an external expression of his inner world, the entire system of his life attitudes, values, and ideals.
Moreover, a person’s knowledge of certain norms and rules is not enough to regulate his behavior if they are not consciously learned by him and accepted as his own beliefs. Only when embodied in real behavior do internal attitudes acquire the property of beliefs.
The behavior of each person reflects his individual psychological characteristics: the degree of emotional stability, character traits, inclinations, etc. Individual individual traits can leave a negative imprint on behavior. For example, emotional instability combined with a learned tendency to act violently may manifest itself in aggressive behavior. Popular psychological encyclopedia. - M.: Eksmo
Behavior
A general term that describes any response in the body that can be measured. Debate about what can and cannot be considered behaviorism has continued since the advent of behaviorism, where the emphasis is only on overt and observable reactions. Over the years, the meaning of the term has expanded and it is now used to refer to a range of reactions that are not directly observable. For example, verbal memory or problem-solving may be considered a type of behavior, although the researcher draws conclusions based on the end result rather than observing the process.
Psychology. AND I. Dictionary reference / Transl. from English K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: FAIR PRESS. Mike Cordwell. 2000.
Synonyms:See what “behavior” is in other dictionaries:
BEHAVIOR- the ability of animals to change their actions, to respond to internal influences. and ext. factors. P. includes processes with the help of which the animal senses the external environment. the world and the state of one’s body and reacts to them. P. is considered in various... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary
BEHAVIOR- the process of interaction of living beings with the environment. P. arises at a high level of organization of matter, when its living structural formations acquire the ability to perceive, store and transform information using it... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
BEHAVIOR- until the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. was understood almost exclusively as a commonly used term in the field of practical pedagogy, which included public assessment (“good”, “bad” P.) of the moral level of the student in ... ... Great Medical Encyclopedia
BEHAVIOR- BEHAVIOR, behavior, many. no, cf. A set of actions and actions, a way of life. Impeccable behavior. Line of conduct. || Course of action. “My behavior, I know, is unforgivably rude.” A. Turgenev. || Compliance with established rules... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
behavior- Cm … Synonym dictionary
One of the traditional theoretical and practical problems in psychology has been the study of human behavioral reactions. Psychology itself is often defined as the science of behavior. In particular, the works of V. M. Bekhterev and B. G. Ananyev convincingly proved that behavior should be considered as an integral indicator of a person’s mental activity.
This question is also traditional in general biology. However, only relatively recently did physiological sciences begin to consider it in relation to humans, which was not without a certain ideological confrontation and led to a certain inconsistency of positions that exists in the sciences on this issue.
Behavior can be defined as a holistic human activity aimed at satisfying biological, physiological, psychological and social needs.
It is easy to see that the concept under consideration is close in essence to the concept instinct(from the Latin instinctus - urge), which in physiology is defined as a vitally important purposeful adaptive form of behavior, determined by innate mechanisms, realized during ontogenetic development, characterized by strict constancy (stereotyping) of its external manifestation in a given type of organism and arising in response to specific external stimuli and internal environment.
An analysis of the literature on this problem indicates that in all representatives of the animal world, except humans, instinctive activity is genetically determined both by the cause that causes it and by the very form of this activity. At the current level of our knowledge, we simply cannot judge whether this activity is conscious and can be voluntarily adjusted. There can hardly be any doubt that in humans many types of behavior initially manifest themselves as an instinct, but already at an early stage (in mentally healthy people) they are realized and can be voluntarily corrected and even completely inhibited.
In behavior as a holistic act, the following interconnected stages can be distinguished. First, the formation of a need. Secondly, the development of motivation, expressed in motivational arousal. Thirdly, the development of vegetative reactions aimed at ensuring behavioral activity, as well as subjective experiences (emotions) of the corresponding pattern and negative in sign. Fourthly, decision-making in relation to a specific state and external situation. Fifthly, searching or forming a program to implement the decision made. Sixth, the implementation of this program and the achievement of the necessary result, which removes the need that triggered the behavioral act and the development of emotions such as modality-specific satisfaction, pleasure or even ecstasy.
Let's consider these stages of the behavioral act. What content is included in the concept of need? Need in psychology is usually defined as the state of an individual created by the need he experiences (but often subconsciously) for objects necessary for his existence and development, and which serves as a source of his activity.
As noted above, needs, according to their genesis and significance, are proposed to be divided into biological, physiological, psychological and social. There is an evolutionary-hierarchical relationship between them. The primary ones are biological needs, on the basis of which, in the process of evolution of man in general and his psyche in particular, all subsequent needs arise. This circumstance determines the fact that every need subsequent in this series has the ability to suppress all previous ones.
Biological needs are inherently the initiators of behavior in the interests of preserving the species. By their genesis, these are innate, inherited needs. These include reproductive (sexual), parental, defensive, territorial, research (including indicative), gregarious and a number of others similar to them. Aggressive needs are often included in this category. However, in this regard, it should be noted that it is necessary to distinguish between aggression as a form of behavior caused by competition for a sexual partner, food, territory, etc., and aggression as a need to fight for the existence of a species, against representatives of other species. In biology, it is generally accepted that intraspecific aggression as a need does not exist; in any case, this is fully applicable to the species Homo sapiens, in which aggression appears at a higher level of needs and quite often manifests itself as a form of behavior aimed at satisfying other needs.
Physiological needs associated with existence individual throughout his real life. By their origin, some of them are innate, while others are acquired in the process of individual learning. The first include primarily the needs associated with maintaining homeostasis, in particular the needs for food, water, minerals, as well as those associated with urination, defecation, sleep and similar ones. They also include the desire for comfort in the broad sense of this term, i.e., to minimize negative and maximize positive sensations and experiences. Physiological needs include stereotyped actions of a very high degree of strength and automatism formed in the process of ontogenesis - habits. Hence “habit is second nature.” During the process of ontogenesis, physical dependence can also form, i.e., the need to use psychoactive substances, which is often a sign of deviant behavior (for example, nicotineism, alcoholism, drug addiction, etc.).
Psychological needs wear personal character, they ensure the preservation of a person’s mental integrity and usefulness. These kinds of needs are formed mainly in the process of development of the personal structure and are not directly related to genetic mechanisms. These are religious, aesthetic, educational and cognitive needs, altruism, egocentrism. Aggression can act as a psychological need, as well as mental dependence, i.e., the desire to use psychoactive substances in order to obtain pleasant sensations.
Social needs are related to the interests of society. Under certain conditions, they become decisive and suppress all other needs. These include patriotic, socio-political, activity-based, communicative, ideological, collectivist needs, morality, ethics, socially determined aggression, etc.
It is easy to notice that at any given moment a person may have biosocial prerequisites for the development of needs of several, sometimes very different, types, but at the same time, only one of them is satisfied in the implementation of a behavioral act. This is explained by the fact that against such a background, motivation is formed, giving rise to only one of them.
Motivation according to interpretations accepted in psychology, it is an incentive to activity associated with satisfying the needs of the subject; or (I would like to pay special attention to this) conscious the reason underlying the choice of actions and actions of an individual. There is reason to believe that in this awareness, and therefore in voluntary correction, lies the fundamental difference between human behavior and other representatives of the animal world. And this must somehow be combined with unconscious mental processes in humans.
To date, generally accepted ideas about the physiological mechanisms of behavioral acts have not yet been formed. It seems to us that the most justified concept is the concept of the domestic physiologist Academician K.V. Sudakov, formed on the basis of the ideas of A.A. Ukhtomsky about the dominant and P.K. Anokhin about the functional system.
According to this point of view, deep biological processes lie at the basis of any behavioral act (including psychological and social). Changes in the parameters of the internal environment (osmotic pressure, glucose concentration, concentration of hydrogen ions, temperature and many others) are the fundamental principle, trigger, stimulus that excites the activity of the motivational centers of the diencephalon (hypothalamus), contributing to the formation of a specific (i.e., a certain biological modality) motivational excitement, which covers the formation of reactions from the physiological autonomic systems that are adequate in their physiological significance, as well as a negative emotional background in connection with a developed but still unsatisfied need.
The strength and further dynamics of motivational arousal are very significantly influenced by the presence (and its strength) or absence releaser(from the English release - liberation, relief), i.e. an external factor that contributes to the development of motivation against the background of a particular need (for example, a buffet against the background of a food need) or its suppression (for example, unpleasant information against the background of a food need).
Motivational arousal, reaching the frontal cortex, is transformed into a perceived goal of activity (decision-making in connection with a problem situation caused by an initial need). The program for implementing the decision made is selected from among those already tested on the basis of life experience, or a new version is formed.
The concrete implementation of this program begins with the motor cortex, the functioning of which triggers the corresponding motor acts (remember the often cited quote from I.M. Sechenov’s article “Reflexes of the Brain”), aimed at directly satisfying the need. As an example, in the case of nutritional need, it is the search for food, the capture of it in one way or another and the subsequent act of consuming and digesting it.
This activity is the basis for the stimulation of a specific satisfaction center, which not only ensures the formation of positive emotions in connection with the satisfaction of the need, but also records in memory the method of achieving the goal, which will significantly facilitate behavioral activity in later life.
This specific goal-oriented activity normalizes the state of the internal environment, at least in relation to that parameter that led to the development of specific motivational arousal and initially initiated this activity, thereby opening up the possibility of carrying out behavioral acts of a different modality associated with other needs.
The proposed scheme is considered by its authors as universal, allowing one to explain behavioral activity in connection not only with biological, but also with social needs. In the latter case, apparently, the initiating moments are not factors of the internal environment (but they still act as competitors), but ideas, thoughts, judgments formed on the basis of analytical-synthetic activity in the fronto-parietal part of the cerebral cortex in connection with information arriving there based on the second signaling system.
Obviously, it is not always possible to satisfy a particular need for purely physical reasons (lack of a necessary object), moral, ethical, etc. This situation and the state that develops as a result of this are called deprivation(from the English deprivation - deprivation, loss). Even in our daily life, we come across this situation quite often. It is enough to mention the following types of deprivation: sensory - complete or partial deprivation of external stimuli, sexual - inability to satisfy sexual needs, social - restriction or deprivation of communication with other people, and many similar examples. In most cases, habituation and adaptation to such a limitation do not develop, but, on the contrary, there is an increase in motivational arousal, an increase in the negativity of the corresponding emotions with a possible transition to frustration(from Latin frustatio - deception, frustration, destruction of plans), which is often considered as a form of psychological stress.
However, in strong personalities with well-expressed volitional qualities and the ability for introspection, psychological protection is possible through voluntary and sometimes subconscious suppression of the desire to satisfy a very strong need and associated negative emotions.
In real life, situations can often arise when satisfying one or another need causes harm to other people, and sometimes to oneself. The form of behavior that arises under such conditions is designated as deviant(from Latin deviatio - deviation), or deviant behavior.
The reasons for deviant behavior are quite varied. Among them are the following:
1) congenital or acquired damage to the brain, especially those structures that are related to the implementation of a behavioral act;
2) action programs developed in the process of mental and physical development that are inadequate or inappropriate in form;
3) unnatural stimulation of the center of satisfaction with a strong consolidation of the functional, determining connection with these circumstances;
4) long-term deprivation with the formation of very strong motivational arousal and the presence of a potent releaser;
5) extreme releaser power.
From the point of view of psychophysiological organization, there is no sharp boundary between normal and deviant behavior. As a rule, the attitude towards it is determined from a sociological position. Accordingly, taking into account the degree of sanity, its assessment is determined - whether it is a criminal offense with compulsory treatment, or only adequate treatment, even as mild as psychocorrection or psychotherapy.
Measures to prevent cases of deviant behavior can include:
1) mitigation within the limits of acceptable deprivation;
2) elimination of releasers associated with deprivation needs;
3) the formation of another motivation, according to the mechanism of the dominant, displacing and replacing the unsatisfied need;
4) negative reinforcement, i.e., in one form or another, punishment for offenses associated with deviant behavior.
Today, deviant behavior is a problem that is not yet fully understood and cannot always be successfully solved.
§ 27.2. RISKY BEHAVIORDahl’s explanatory dictionary gives the following definition of risk: “Risking (risk) - courage, boldness, determination, acting at random, at random. Risky business - wrong, doubtful, dangerous. To take risks is to indulge in luck, to do something without correct calculation, to be exposed to chance, to a known danger.” In a certain sense, risk awaits a person at every step, in all areas of life: health, professional activity, personal and social life, business, sports, recreation, entertainment, etc. We can talk about the types and forms of risky behavior, but in a scientifically In research and practical plans, the psychologist first of all needs to establish the factors influencing specific manifestations of risk.
Particular attention is paid to the problem of risk and the prevention of risky human behavior in a given situation in such applied areas of psychology as occupational psychology, engineering psychology, health psychology and preventive psychology.
In occupational psychology and engineering psychology, the central issue is the study of reliability and productivity, especially in professions where the level of extreme situations and the cost of human errors are high. The concept of “risk” is one of the key ones in describing human activity as an operator of complex control systems, especially the decision-making process. In this context, risk is understood as an action performed under conditions of choice in a situation of uncertainty, when there is a danger, in case of failure, of being in a worse position than before the choice.
Health psychology examines risk in terms of personal choices or behaviors that may be fundamental to lifestyle-related diseases. Risk is understood as the likelihood of negative health consequences arising from the use of certain behavioral practices. The term “healthy lifestyle” is very often used, which means avoiding risky behavior. Often examples of such behavior include smoking, drinking alcohol and drugs, promiscuous sexual relations and, less often, excessive work at work, increased functional and mental stress, leading to the development of somatic and mental illnesses.
Theoretical concepts describing the mechanisms of risky behavior are based on the social-cognitive approach. Behavior, from the point of view of this approach, is interdependent and interdependent by external and internal factors. Various authors include the following as internal factors: age and personality characteristics, the specifics of biological, emotional and cognitive processes, attitudes and beliefs, subjective assessments of the riskiness of a particular behavior. Particular attention in psychology is paid to the study of psychological correlates of risky behavior. As a personal characteristic that determines risky behavior, a quality such as propensity or willingness to take risks is distinguished. Thus, over the past 20 years, more than 30 sports have appeared, called “extreme”. Extremeness lies in the high probability of harming one’s health in case of failure. Sports psychologists are trying to answer the question of what determines people’s passion for such a risky activity. It has been established that a person who tends to take risks in one situation will tend to take risks in other situations. Such people have a higher background level of central nervous system activation. Exercising extreme sports allows them to use up high energy potential based on the principle of replacement. Provided that proper safety is ensured, such a pastime should be considered as a preventive technique for reducing risky behavior in other life situations. Conventionally, we can all be divided into two types: “risky” and “cautious”. Risk-takers tend to influence others, strive for leadership in groups, and have a high level of aspirations. Cautious people prefer to obey, are more conservative and indecisive.
One of the most studied personality characteristics associated with risk taking is sensation seeking or the desire for new experiences. This quality largely determines individual experiences of boredom and routine, as well as adventurism in various areas of life. Another individual variable associated with risky behavior is beliefs about one's future. In everyday understanding, these beliefs are divided into optimistic and pessimistic. Research data has convincingly shown that people with positive views about their own future take more steps to ensure safety than people who demonstrate negativism. Individual ways of adaptation and resistance in stressful situations may include risky behavior patterns, such as the use of alcohol, drugs, unsafe sexual relations, opportunistic strategies and tactics in professional activities. Very often, such behavior is caused by the desire to avoid stress and low adaptive capabilities of the individual. Psychological correlates of risk also include personality traits such as impulsiveness, motivational goals for success, and low self-control.
External factors play an equally significant role in determining behavior. The actions of each person, one or another personal choice are always made in a certain sociocultural context, in a behavioral environment created by the expectations of other people, the rules and norms of social life, as well as the possibility of violating state laws with impunity. The degree of formative influence of social groups, family, social environment and personal culture on individual patterns of human behavior should not be underestimated.
Thus, today the problem of the HIV (AIDS) epidemic is acute throughout the world. It should be noted that the problem of risky behavior became widespread precisely with the spread of HIV infection throughout the planet. The development of a vaccine and medicines against this disease is already a fight against the consequences of people’s risky behavior. Currently, sociocultural structures are widely used to inform people about the causes and consequences of contracting this terrible disease, as well as prevention methods. However, this method of warning gives practically zero results. Data from research in the field of HIV (AIDS) prevention indicate social, i.e., factors that arise in the context of relationships with other people, factors of risky behavior. The main sources of HIV infection are sex in the absence of preventive measures and injecting drug use with other people. Belonging to a particular social group, the need for self-affirmation, love, and a sense of trust may contradict the need for protective behavior. A significant correlate of risk is the degree of control an individual has. On the other hand, dependence, the need for submission, or a high need for acceptance from others create significant barriers to the implementation of individual protective behavior. Research shows that this is more true for women who are economically and psychologically dependent. There are 4 factors that aggravate the risk of contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases: the social status of the woman; the importance of relationships with a partner from the point of view of a woman’s sense of self-worth; partner's authoritarianism; personal experiences and fears associated with sexual and physical violence. Research documents the prevalence of coercion in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships.
It should also be noted that risk behavior is influenced by such parameters as personal culture, values and norms accepted in society, social policy and how risk issues are covered in the media.
Summarizing the analysis of factors influencing risky behavior of an individual, it should be noted that the most effective counteraction to risky behavior that harms oneself and others is the formation of personal attitudes towards safe behavior. Foreign and domestic experience shows that when achieving such a goal, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of all levels of regulation of human behavior: biochemical, physiological, mental, socio-psychological and macrosocial. And only a comprehensive preventive impact on all levels gives a positive result.
Preventive psychology is involved in the development and evaluation of the effectiveness of various preventive programs and interventions aimed at changing human behavior. Preventive programs can be aimed at an individual (individual counseling and psychological support), at a group of people (educational and training programs, specialized interventions for risk groups) and society as a whole (coverage of the problem in the media, public actions, changes in social and public policy aimed at shaping both public opinion and individual value systems). Despite the importance of the work of scientists to prevent risky behavior and combat its consequences, the importance of public policy in this direction should be especially emphasized. The US experience can be cited as an example. Thanks to government programs, the number of smokers has decreased from 60% of the population to 17%; in recent years, the spread of HIV infection has been stabilized, and the number of people involved in recreational forms of physical education has reached 70% of the population.
§ 27.3. ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIORThe term in the title is quite common, used both by specialists who encounter such behavior in the nature of their work, and by ordinary people. However, it is not in any of the dictionaries - psychological, sociological, philosophical, ethical - and this applies to all Soviet-Russian publications of the 20th century. Paradox! But this happens when a word seems so clear and unambiguous that no one finds it difficult to clarify its definition... Let's try to understand this mysterious and mystical concept.
Human behavior in a broad sense is his way of life and actions, how he behaves in relation to society, ideas, other people, to the external and internal world, to himself, considered from the perspective of their regulation by social norms of morality, aesthetics and law . It is axiomatically believed that all our behavior is socially determined and therefore, naturally, all of it is social, but it can also be asocial.
Asocial (from the Greek “a” - negative particle) is a characteristic of an individual or group whose behavior contradicts generally accepted norms. Hence, antisocial behavior is behavior that violates social norms (criminal, administrative, family) and is contrary to the rules of human life, activities, customs, and traditions of individuals and society as a whole. It turns out that we are talking about a violation of legal and moral norms, but the trap is that legal norms, even if they are violated, are always clearly stated and in each state there is a unified system of legal norms. Moral standards are not written, but implied; they are enshrined in traditions, customs, and religion. That is, there is a fan of ideas about moral norms, and there can be as many of them as there are bearers of these ideas. The situation seems to be similar with the concepts of morality and antisocial behavior. Everyone knows them and uses them, but a clear difference between them cannot be found in any work on ethics, not to mention the fact that these concepts themselves also do not have clear definitions. Morality is a certain combination of “I” and “You”, the possibility of dialogue and unity. Society isolates, and morality acts as a kind of compensation for alienation. This is a value that has its own importance for each of us. For example, hedonistic morality, where the main principle is pleasure and selfishness, is not social. Why? A person is concerned only with himself and strives to receive a maximum of positive emotions and a minimum of negative ones. Sounds tempting. Why should we strive for negative emotions? The catch is that here there is concern only for oneself, and the interests of others are simply not taken into account. Hence the basic contradiction. Within his morality, a person retains ideals and values, and morality acts as a way or form of their implementation. When interacting with other people whose interests he voluntarily or unwittingly ignores, his behavior will be perceived as antisocial.
If we consider the ideas about the rules of human behavior from a historical perspective, then the ancient Greek views, which have become very popular in our time, explained the conditioning of the norms of human communication by global, cosmic processes and orders. Aristotle considered behavior that establishes order to be positive, and behavior that violates it to be negative, while the main concept for him was the dichotomy “fair-unfair.” And antisocial behavior appeared to him as unfair. Subsequently, ideas about right and wrong in human relations and actions were accompanied by the formalization of certain rational rules, but initially it was about the social regulation of behavior carried out with the help of these rules.
You can look at antisocial behavior from the point of view of adaptation - maladaptation. Then we will regard social behavior as adaptive, and antisocial behavior as maladaptive. But will this help? After all, it is well known that it was maladaptive behavior that led to the progress of mankind. Thus, ritual burials and rock paintings did not have any utilitarian, adaptive purpose. From here it is quite obvious that maladaptation can also have a plus sign. Of course, antisocial behavior is maladaptive behavior, but, unfortunately, apart from the obvious statement, this does not give us anything due to the vagueness of the concept of “maladaptation,” which exacerbates the ambiguity of the original term.
The closest thing to the concept of “antisocial behavior” is the term “deviant,” i.e., non-normative behavior that deviates from the social norm. Deviation from the norm is called asocial primarily because the norm itself is social.
The famous lawyer V.N. Kudryavtsev uses the concept of “socially negative behavior” as an analogue of the term “antisocial behavior,” which is a relatively common phenomenon; therefore, it usually involves the development and implementation of organized forms of combating it. Such behavior “harms the entire people, negatively affects the development of the individual, and impedes the forward movement of society” 2 . The legal literature emphasizes that a clear separation of different types of social deviations is not always possible; for example, the same behavior may include a violation of administrative, moral and aesthetic norms. At the personal level, socially negative behavior manifests itself in crimes, delinquencies, immoral offenses, and violations of the rules of human society.
The term “criminal” or “criminal” behavior is also close to antisocial behavior, but in scope criminal or criminal behavior is much less common than asocial behavior, which includes other forms of offenses and immoral behavior.
Antisocial behavior is also considered as a type of aggressive behavior. Aggressive behavior is a manifestation of aggressiveness, expressed in destructive actions, the purpose of which is to cause harm. It is expressed differently in different people: physically or verbally, actively or passively, directly or indirectly, but the reality is that there are no people who would be completely absent. People differ only in the volume and proportion of aggressive patterns in their behavioral repertoire. Numerous theories of aggression identify and explain the origins of human aggressiveness, its mechanisms, but none of them suggests that its complete absence is possible, although all sorts of ways to control and correct it are proposed. Humanistic psychologists speak directly about aggression as a form of natural energy, recalling the energy of wind, sun, water, which can kill or help. A person can suppress the energy of aggression, and then this is fraught with illness. Another option is when a wave of energy breaks out in the form of words and deeds, sometimes constructive, sometimes not. There is no general rule for expressing aggression. The question is about its transformation, about changing the target and form of manifestation. That is, aggressive behavior can be destructive and constructive or creative. One of the founders of the American wing of existential psychotherapy, Rollo May, associates aggression with the manifestation of strength, and each person potentially has five levels of strength. The first level is the strength to live, it is manifested in how the child cries, achieving what he wants, from what he draws his strength and how he realizes it. If a child’s actions do not evoke a response from those around him, then he does not develop, and the extreme manifestation of such powerlessness is death. The power to live is not good or evil, it is primary in relation to them. And it must manifest itself throughout life, otherwise a person will face psychosis, neuroses or violence. The second level is self-affirmation. We not only live, but also need to affirm our being, defending our significance and thereby gaining self-esteem. The third level of strength is defending your “I”. This form of behavior is characterized by greater force and outward focus than self-affirmation. We have a built-in reaction to an attack, and we are ready to respond to it. A person defends his own and other people’s interests, and often those of others with more energy than his own, but this is also a form of defending his “I”, since he defends these interests. The fourth level of strength is aggression, which appears when there is no opportunity to defend one’s “I”. And here a person infiltrates someone else’s space, partially taking it for himself. If we are deprived of the opportunity to express aggressive tendencies for some time, this will result in depression, neurosis, psychosis or violence. The fifth level of power is violence; it occurs when all other ways of asserting one’s power are blocked. Thus, each of us has a negative side that contributes to the potential for good and evil, and without which we cannot live. It is important, although not easy to understand, to accept the fact that a significant part of our successes is associated with contradictions generated by negative aspects. Life, R. May believes, is the achievement of good not aside from evil, but in spite of it.
It is clear from this that aggressive behavior is a much broader concept than antisocial behavior; on the other hand, they can overlap. Over the 20 years of its existence at the Faculty of Psychology, specialization in legal psychology, a solid array of data has been obtained on the characteristics of aggression of persons with both social and antisocial behavior. Thus, in the graduate study of E. P. Bulatchik, the characteristics of aggressiveness in persons with different types of antisocial behavior were compared, namely: persons who committed thefts and murders. It turned out that murderers have significantly higher levels of aggression, especially directive type aggression, which manifests itself in establishing superiority over other people in the expectation that others will behave in accordance with their interests. At the same time, killers completely lack the need to reckon with other people, to take them into account. Similar results were found when comparing minors with the same types of antisocial behavior. When this type of antisocial behavior such as prostitution was studied (graduate work by I. Volkova, 1994), it turned out that in terms of level indicators of aggression, differences between female students and representatives of one of the oldest professions were found precisely in aggression of the directive type, and among female students directiveness is much higher. Thus, one cannot equate the severity of directive type aggression with antisocial behavior. Moreover, studies conducted among teachers and kindergarten teachers, whose behavior is absolutely social, show that these indicators are much higher for them.
Often, the level of aggression of persons with antisocial behavior is higher than with social behavior, but it was also revealed that the “proportion” of aggression in the behavioral repertoire is much more important than absolute indicators of aggression. Schoolchildren of ordinary and elite schools, students of various universities, including the St. Petersburg Institute of Theology, teachers, doctors, kindergarten teachers, bank employees, lawyers, psychologists - all have a certain level of aggression. For some it is higher, for others it is lower, but there were no such subjects whose indicators of aggression were completely absent! And of course, as a rule, the difference between persons with antisocial and social behavior was not in the level of aggression, but in its weight, volume and place that it occupies among other behavioral patterns.
A number of studies of individuals with antisocial behavior have shown that there is a relationship between such behavior and impulsivity. Impulsivity refers to behavior without first thinking about its consequences. Back in 1934, D. Guilford, within the framework of the factorial approach to the study of personality, first identified the factor of impulsiveness. Later, G. Eysenck undertook a special study of the factor structure of impulsivity on a large sample of subjects. Correlating impulsivity with basic personality factors revealed that the impulsivity factor was positively correlated with factors such as psychopathy and neuroticism, and was weakly related to the extraversion factor. These data allowed G. Eysenck to consider the factor of impulsivity as carrying a high psychopathological tone, which can determine the emergence of antisocial behavior. G. Eysenck's conclusion was confirmed in a number of works by other researchers, who noted that pronounced impulsivity was closely correlated with various pathopsychological symptoms (hyperkinesis, etc.), as well as with a tendency to antisocial behavior, regardless of age. Thus, in 1987 in the USA, S. Hormuth conducted a study in which 120 criminals (who committed crimes of varying severity), 90 soldiers and 30 workers were studied. The study was aimed at studying the influence of antisocial behavior, on the control of impulsive tendencies and on the personality in general. The results showed that criminals, compared to soldiers and workers, show less control of impulsive tendencies, are more aggressive, prone to depression and neuroses, and are more open and emotionally unstable.
However, not only foreign, but also some of our researchers noted that those who committed antisocial actions are characterized by impulsiveness. Thus, a study conducted by V.P. Golubev and Yu.N. Kudryakov of persons who committed robberies and robberies showed that they are characterized by: impulsiveness, stuck affect (rigidity), a tendency to suspicion, vindictiveness, alienation, withdrawal into oneself, the desire for maintaining distance between yourself and the outside world.
Studies conducted among criminals (murderers, convicted of mercenary-violent crimes, robbers, thieves), conducted by Yu. M. Antonyan and others, showed that the leading personal characteristics of most of them are impulsiveness, high aggressiveness, asociality, hypersensitivity to interpersonal relationships, alienation and maladjustment. The highest impulsivity with low self-control was observed among those convicted of mercenary-violent crimes.
One of the latest studies of impulsivity and antisocial behavior was conducted as part of the thesis work of I. Yu. Vasilyeva (2001). We studied 60 adolescents with antisocial behavior (petty hooliganism, leaving home, tendency to alcoholism) at the age of 15 years, equally divided by gender. As a result, it turned out that there were no significant gender differences in the level of impulsivity among the subjects. The study also showed that the impulsiveness of adolescents with antisocial behavior is interconnected with such personality traits as aggression, directiveness, anxiety, egocentrism, high levels of tension, fear, a tendency to overt aggressive behavior, hostility, high self-esteem, and high energy level.
So, by antisocial behavior we will understand socially negative behavior that violates legal and generally accepted moral norms, related in content to the concept of “deviant behavior” (which, apparently, is more comprehensive), characterized by a high probability of manifestation of aggression in open behavior, its high relative weight among other behavioral patterns, unformed attitudes towards social cooperation, selfishness, egocentrism and impulsiveness.
Human behavior represents personally oriented or socially significant actions, the source of which is himself. Behavioral psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies behavior, its determinants, factors influencing it, etc.
Behavior is classified according to many parameters, including classifications that vary among different researchers. So, they distinguish:
- internal and external;
- congenital and acquired;
- intentional and unintentional;
- conscious and unconscious, etc.
The largest number of species are distinguished in social behavior.
Human social behavior
It represents an action or combination of actions among and about people. Moreover, such actions must be socially significant - have meaning for others.
Social behavior can be deviant (deviant) and delinquent (harmful to others), adequate or inadequate to the situation and prevailing circumstances, conflictual and conformist, etc.
Intentional and unintentional behavior plays a significant role in everyday communication and interaction. If a person committed a certain act without malicious intent, this does not exempt him from responsibility, but somewhat mitigates the punishment. And if the behavior served as a response (for example, a provocation to a conflict), responsibility is somewhat reduced.
Other equally important varieties are conscious and unconscious behavior. Although they can easily be confused with intentional and unintentional, they are different concepts. Unconscious behavior is an action, the motive and execution of which is not recognized by the person. As a rule, it goes unnoticed by the actor himself, but is perfectly interpreted by those around him.
Human behavior for the most part represents a social aspect, but there is also an individual aspect - it is carried out in the paradigm of “I and objects”. It is also classified into erroneous and correct, adequate and inadequate, etc.
Other classifications
According to other parameters, behavior is divided into:
- congenital;
- acquired;
- creative.
In the first case, actions that are genetically programmed are considered behavior. They also include those learned in the first hours of life.
In the second case, behavior is formed as a result of learning and upbringing. A lot of controversy arises here, since a detailed analysis of many actions clearly demonstrates that they are also genetically programmed, and training acts only as a kind of catalyst for the maturation of readiness to perform them.
Speech, lexical norms, rules of behavior, foundations, attitudes, etc. are also part of acquired behavior. A separate category is learned behavior – a model of behavior formed based on the example of other significant adults. In some cases, it is also considered phobic reactions, for example, in cases where the child has not encountered heights, but has developed acrophobia.
Creative behavior is actions created by the person himself. It represents a constructive, creative action.
There are a large number of factors that influence human behavior, but this issue is the most controversial in behavioral psychology. Currently, there are several basic concepts that explain human behavior.
1. Personality trait theory. According to this direction, human behavior is determined (predetermined) by individual traits. According to some researchers, a person can have from 2 to 10 basic character traits, which determine the general “course” of his actions.
2.Behaviorist theory. It defines a behavioral act as a response to a stimulus. Behavior is a set of emotional, motor, speech reactions formed in response to the influence of the external environment.
At birth, a person already has a certain repertoire of genetic reactions. During life, the impact of a stimulus provokes the creation of new reactions based on this repertoire; unconditioned stimuli are combined with conditioned ones, forming complex systems.
3. Second theory gave rise to the creation of social learning theory. According to it, human behavior is determined by roles and patterns. They, in turn, are formed in the process of observing social patterns. Personality is a product of the interaction of “I” and the environment, therefore behavior is influenced by the person’s environment, significant adults, movie characters, teachers, comrades, etc. This theory explains well the variability of behavioral acts depending on circumstances, but pays little attention to personal qualities as a factor in determining behavior patterns.
4. Psychoanalytic theory. It represents the greatest opposite of behaviorism and states: behavior is the result of resolving intrapersonal conflict. It arises between three structures of the psyche: Id (It - subconscious, instinct), Ego (I, personality) and SuperEgo (society, conscience, norms, foundations). The leading role belongs to the Id, it is this that motivates action, and behavior is defined as a set of behavioral acts in response to the impulses of the Id. Conflicting aspirations are unconscious and therefore must be recognized as internal conflicts and analyzed accordingly.
5. Cognitive theory. Behavior according to it is not a mechanical response to a stimulus, but the result of an interpretation of a specific situation, which is realized through existing knowledge and experience. Behavioral actions depend, first of all, on a person’s own assessment of circumstances, therefore the subjects of study should be: obtaining information, explaining it, creating and recognizing an image, imagination, speech, etc.
6.Gestalt. According to this theory, a person perceives the world in the form of holistic images, while interacting with the surrounding reality, he identifies the most relevant wholes here and now. Behavior is a manifestation of being in the form of a single image. That is why the “here and now” characteristic is primary in the interpretation of certain human actions.
7. Group dynamics theory. Human behavior directly depends on collective activity, since he is not only a participant in the group, but also its product. This assumption “works” only in relation to behavior in a group, more often in a work team.
Sociological theories are a separate category, since they distinguish a fairly large number of them. In addition, they consider the behavior of an individual exclusively in a group or society.
Sociological theories
Typicality theory. Behavior is determined by the presence of typical properties, which, in turn, are formed due to belonging to a category (cultural, national, professional, etc.)
Theory of social action. Behavior is a consequence of actions taking into account the interests, needs, and perceptions of other participants.
Institutional. Behavior is the role acquired by the individual, namely the compliance of actions within its framework with norms.
Functional. Behavior is the performance of a certain function established for the purpose of normal functioning of the group.
Interactionism. Behavior is the interaction between participants in structural units, small groups within a large one.
Theory of social conflict. Behavior is a consequence of a clash of interests of group members, as well as public positions and opinions.
Social exchange theory. Behavior is based on a rational, mutually beneficial exchange of goods, activities, and rewards for them.
Phenomenological approach. The main aspect of this theory is the concept of the everyday world. It is shared by many people in the process of life, however, it does not exclude private, biographical moments. There are face-to-face or impersonal relationships in the world, and this determines human behavior.
We have described only the main generally accepted theories, each of which determines human behavior in a certain way. It should be understood that the factors influencing human behavior at any given moment and under certain circumstances are diverse, and each of them requires consideration.
The article was prepared by psychologist Margarita Vladimirovna Poltoranina
Human behavior in society is a complex concept that reflects the interaction of a particular person with other people. This concept reflects a person’s reaction to events, situations and the behavior of other people. Any type of human behavior is based on a person’s needs to communicate with society, interact with people in order to achieve their goals.
Psychologists divide human behavior in society into 3 types: aggressive, passive, and assertive. At the same time, a person can change the type of behavior if he wants to change. Most often, a person has one type of behavior that predominates, which helps him get through difficulties and resolve conflicts. Let's look at each type of human behavior.
Aggressive behavior
Aggression is behavior in which a person chooses methods to achieve results that violate the rights of other people. An aggressive person imposes his beliefs and does not take into account the interests of others. Aggressive behavior requires great emotional effort and energy.
This behavior is typical of people who like to take control of everything. Relationships with other people are built on negativity. Typically, people with aggressive behavior are insecure and weak-willed individuals whose goal is to humiliate other people in order to become better and more confident against their background.
Passive behavior
Passivity is behavior in which a person sacrifices his interests and allows others to violate their rights. A passive person does not publicly express his thoughts, emotions, and beliefs. He constantly apologizes, makes excuses, speaks quietly and uncertainly. They put other people's interests above their own beliefs.
Most often, passive people accept the role of the Victim and feel helpless and weak. Passive behavior, like aggressive behavior, is a sign of self-doubt. But, unlike aggressive behavior, a passive person does not take responsibility for his actions. He gives the right to other people to make decisions for him, even if he is absolutely sure that this decision will cause harm.
Passive behavior is based on fear of life's difficulties, fear of making decisions, fear of standing out from the crowd and fear of responsibility.
The goal of passive behavior is to prevent any conflict at the stage of its occurrence, as well as to make one’s life easier by shifting responsibility to others.
Assertive behavior
Assertiveness is the expression of your thoughts and emotions directly and confidently. Assertiveness is a behavior characteristic of self-confident people. This is the “golden” mean between aggressive and passive behavior.
An assertive person is able to defend his rights and solve life’s difficulties, without entering into conflict. He knows what he needs and speaks about it openly; he can easily refuse another person in a situation where it is necessary. An assertive person respects himself and the opinions of other people, but at the same time he does not depend on the opinions of others.
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