What large divisions are identified in the vegetation of the plains. General characteristics of the territory @ national atlas of Russia
Waterfall Thundering Smoke
Mighty Zambezi, and with it Victoria Falls discovered by the famous Scottish traveler and explorer of Africa David Livingston. “This is the hammer of the gods,” the leader of the local tribe told him when, on November 16, 1855, Livingston unexpectedly saw a giant waterfall during one of his many expeditions. “Mosi-oa-Tunya” - “Thundering Smoke” - that’s what the locals call it.
Among the great rivers of Africa, the Zambezi ranks fourth, behind only the Nile, Congo and Niger. It originates on stone plateaus Central Africa and carries its waters to Indian Ocean. What kind of adventures await you on its almost three-thousand-kilometer path from the source to the ocean. And rapids, and swamps, and lakes. But the main thing among these adventures is, of course, Victoria Falls!
Connecting with the Kwando River, becoming full-flowing and spilling almost two kilometers wide, the Zambezi runs to the ocean - and suddenly... Its bed is crossed by a narrow, zigzag crack in the rock, a hundred and twenty-meter cliff, on the very edge of which several rocks miraculously hang on , densely overgrown with trees! And the Zambezi, foaming, rushes into this abyss with noise and roar. Huge columns of spray are visible thirty kilometers from the waterfall.
It is the most famous and significant natural monument in southern Africa.
In general, the lands along the Zambezi, Africa's largest "fish river", are still largely virgin. Since there are no barriers or fences near Victoria Falls, an intrepid visitor can venture very close to this creation of nature. Among the rumbling water flows, which for millions of years have been tumbling into a crack only fifty meters wide, passes the state border between Zambia and Zimbabwe, and two-thirds of the waterfall is located on the territory of the latter.
Over a stretch of almost two kilometers, the water mass of Thundering Smoke is divided into five separate waterfalls, and each of them has its own and sometimes amusing name. From the eastern ledge one after another comes the Rainbow Falls, then the Horseshoe, and then, after the main waterfalls, the Devil's Ledge opens, next to which a monument to the glorious Livingston has long been erected.
From the Zambian side, you can go through a small tropical forest to the Knife's Edge, a narrow pass between the first and second ledges. From there you can see a breathtaking panorama of the Boiling Cauldron, the Peak of Danger and the two-hundred-meter-high road-railway bridge, which passes over the river at an altitude of almost one hundred meters. This bold structure was erected in 1904 as part of railway, connecting Cape Town, South Africa, and Lubumbashi, Zaire.
The most beautiful areas of the Victoria Falls in terms of landscape, which does not allow the use of the Zambezi in downstream as international waterway, are located in Zimbabwe. There are also majestic crevasses, which a powerful stream formed over time from a system of narrow cracks. Victoria Falls National Park in Zimbabwe corresponds to the Zambian side national park“Mosi-oa-Tunya.”
Through the shallowed delta, the Zambezi flows into the Mozambique Strait. Geological findings related to the formation of the falls are kept in a museum next to the Mosi-oa-Tunya Intercontinental Hotel on the east side. In the description of Victoria Falls, which is located in the highlands of the tropical zone in the south of Central Africa, dotted with rivers, swamps and lakes, almost all the figures claim to be a record.
Most high altitude The river reaches a drop of one hundred and seven meters at the Rainbow Falls. At the end of the rainy season, three hundred and forty million liters of water per minute fall from the ledges. At the beginning of November, when the dry period ends, eighteen million liters of water rush down into a crevice located at right angles to the previous direction of flow.
From book encyclopedic Dictionary(IN) author Brockhaus F.A.Waterfall Waterfall is the name of a place where a river or stream falls from a steep or even sheer ledge. Thresholds are not quite correctly distinguished from V. - a series of successive, but usually insignificant V. heights, which often appear instead of one large one. IN.
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (VO) by the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (GR) by the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (KO) by the author TSBKon (waterfall on the Mekong river) Kon, waterfall on the river. Mekong, one of the largest in the world. Located on the border of Laos and Cambodia, at the exit of the Mekong to the Cambodian plain. It is a series of cascades of rapids, waterfalls and waterfalls, 3 of which have a drop of 15 to 21 m (at
From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (YO) by the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (ME) by the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (NI) by the author TSB From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (RE) by the author TSB From the book 100 Great Wonders of Nature by Wagner BertilKivach Waterfall (European Russia) The harsh, but majestic and beautiful nature of Karelia, the land of forests, lakes and granite rocks. Nowhere in the world are the giant glaciers that covered Scandinavia and Taimyr, Labrador and Patagonia, Alaska and New Zealand in not so long ago
From the book Everything about everything. Volume 2 author Likum ArkadyVictoria Falls (Zambia-Zimbabwe) Mosi-o-Tunya - “Thundering Smoke” - this is what hunters of the Batoka tribe called the waterfall on the Zambezi River for a long time. And the Matabele pastoralists living on the opposite bank gave him another, no less poetic name - Chongue, which in their language means
From the book Great Encyclopedia of Technology author Team of authorsAugrabies Falls (Namibia - South Africa) Most people who are not too experienced in geography consider the famous Victoria Falls to be the highest and most beautiful waterfall in Africa. However, this opinion, alas, does not correspond to the truth. Victoria is inferior in height and fantastic
From book South Africa. Demo version for tourists from Russia author Zgersky IvanNiagara Falls (USA-Canada) The Great Lakes of North America - Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario - are the largest lake “constellation” of our planet. The waters of the first four of them are carried into the fifth - Ontario - powerful and fast river Niagara. Its length is small (only fifty
From the author's bookAngel Falls (Venezuela) To see Angel Falls - the highest on our planet - you need to take a trip to the “lost world”. Yes, yes - it was the southeast of Venezuela, where this unique waterfall is located, that chose the famous Conan Doyle as the setting for the novel with
From the author's bookWhat is a waterfall? When a stream or river flows over a wall of stone in the form of a cliff or cliff, it results in a waterfall. Where the wall does not break vertically, but has a gentle shape, the flowing water is called a cascade. Sometimes in a cascade, water flows down a whole series
From the author's book“Thundering” “Thundering” is the name of several ships navy Russia. The frigate, laid down on August 31, 1762 in Arkhangelsk and assembled by May 31, 1763, had 32 guns. Belonged to the White Sea Fleet. In 1765 he was relocated to Kronstadt. Was decommissioned in 1778.Parusnoe
From the author's bookVictoria Falls Recently, tourists have begun to combine a trip to South Africa with a visit to Victoria Falls. This is reasonable, since flying to the ends of the world just for the sake of a waterfall is impractical. A visit to it from South Africa takes literally a few hours. Of course this is not
A set of plant communities - phytocenoses inhabiting the Earth or its individual regions. Unlike flora, vegetation is characterized not so much by species composition, but, first of all, by the number of individuals, a certain combination of them and ecological connections. Vegetation includes all types of plants inhabiting the Earth, most of which are autotrophic organisms. Thanks to autotrophs, R. plays an extremely important role in the primary synthesis organic matter due to the accumulation of solar energy. R. is also of great importance (together with the animal population of the planet) in the cycle of substances in nature. Vegetation - an important component of the biosphere, closely related to the characteristics of climate, water regime, soil and topography, and other components of the natural environment, together with which it forms biogeocenoses and ecological systems.
Modern vegetation is a product of long evolution flora, which occurred simultaneously with the evolution of the animal population and the development of the geographical envelope as a whole. Structure of vegetation. In terms of structure, characteristics of the habitat, history of development, floristic composition, and significance in the cycle of substances in nature, vegetation of land and vegetation of the seas and oceans differ sharply from each other (see Marine vegetation). Land vegetation is represented by 2-3 dozen types of vegetation, which differ in the predominant life forms in their composition, which have developed historically, but reflect the adaptation of plants to modern conditions existence (trees, shrubs, grasses, etc.). In the 19th century the study of R. was reduced mainly to identifying the predominance of one or another life form in communities. From the middle of the 20th century. no less importance is attached to the geographical connections and ecological regimes of plant communities: aquatic (hygrophytic, mesophytic, xerophytic and other communities), thermal (microthermal, megathermal, etc.), salt (halophytic, oxylophytic), etc.
Important signs R. - layering and sinusial structure (see Sinusia), as well as its seasonal rhythms, usually corresponding to the water-thermal regime of the biotope (tropical evergreen vegetation, tropical deciduous vegetation during the rainy season, summer green vegetation of deciduous forests, early spring ephemeral and ephemeral vegetation of deserts, etc. .). A complete picture of R. can be obtained by knowing not only its species composition and phytocenotic characteristics, but also the spatial patterns of its distribution, which depend on ecological and geographical factors operating on a planetary, regional, and local scale. Planetary influences determine the major differences in vegetation cover on Earth.
Regional features vegetation are identified within geobotanical regions and provinces, local factors affect within limited areas (for example, forest areas), where, following the macro- and microrelief, microclimate and soil characteristics, the vegetation is represented by a diverse range of ecological associations. Classification of R. Based on the study of the diversity of R., its structural, ecological, and other differences, classifications of R. are created, which, reflecting the existing multi-degree subordination of phenomena, in most cases are built on a hierarchical principle. Of them special meaning has a universal one, in which the divisions of R. are considered as historically established dynamic systems, changing spontaneously and under human influence. Of key importance are the large divisions of vegetation - its types: tundra, taiga, steppe, savannah, etc., combined into groups, or suites, of vegetation types: northern extratropical, tropical, southern extratropical (see map of world vegetation), corresponding to the most general ecological -geographical connections of vegetation, and in general terms - the division of the globe into associations of floristic kingdoms, or regions (Holarctic, pantropical, Holantarctic dominions).
Vegetation types are divided into plant formations, and the latter into associations. Intermediate taxa are often used: groups and classes of formations and associations. R. are classified based on species composition, degree of distribution individual species in communities and their ecology, connections. Great importance assigned to the species that dominate the cover (see Dominants, Edifiers). The ecological-geographical principle of vegetation classification allows the use of plant associations as an indicator of certain environmental features: potential soil fertility, depth groundwater, degree of soil salinity, presence of minerals, etc. (see Indicator plants). Where necessary, for specific purposes, they are created specialized classifications R. (for example, in the interests of agromelioration, use and improvement of the food supply, forestry, etc.). Of great importance in this regard are R. maps, which are compiled on the basis of a universal or specialized (depending on the purpose) classification of vegetation and, depending on the scale, visually represent R. subdivisions of various ranks (see Geobotanical maps).
Modern vegetation formed gradually, very long time, and its divisions are of different ages. Some formations of tropical rainforest already existed in the Miocene in the same places where they grow now. Formations of tundra and taiga vegetation at the site of their modern distribution are Quaternary in age. As a rule, formations are older in age than the associations they comprise.
Distribution of vegetation types. The differences between R. types and the formations and associations subordinate to them determine the amount of phytomass produced by them. Thus, the least productive communities are the Arctic deserts and Arctic tundras, as well as tropical deserts; Tropical rainforests are the most productive. Throughout the entire territory where spontaneously developed vegetation has been preserved, there are great opportunities for increasing the production of phytomass (see Biological productivity). The spatial features of R. are clearly revealed by geobotanical zoning. It is important for assessing the territory by vegetation, and also reflects the main patterns of distribution of vegetation types, plant formations and associations. The areas of groups (suites) of R. types correspond to geobotanical belts, which are divided into geobotanical regions. Within the belt, the regions are under continental conditions or experience oceanic influences.
The northern extratropical spaces - the most significant land mass on the globe - on this basis are clearly divided into 3 parts: continental, Atlantic, Pacific. The vegetation of each of these parts, which contains several geobotanical regions, is characterized by certain common features, determined by the history of the development of modern plant communities, as well as environmental factors, now operating in continental and oceanic conditions. On the plains within the geobotanical regions of the continental landmass, the zonal distribution of plant formations is usually very clearly manifested. For example, on the West Siberian Plain, the largest in Eurasia, from north to south, the following change in vegetation types and classes of formations can be traced: arctic, subarctic tundras, tundra light forests, northern deciduous-fir, middle cedar-swamp taiga, southern spruce-cedar-fir taiga, subtaiga birch-aspen forests, meadow steppes, forb-turf steppes, dry fescue-feather grass steppes. On the East European (Russian) Plain, the plains of North America, etc., similar patterns of zonal distribution of P are observed. However, each large geobotanical region on the plains is characterized by its own zoning features. R. zones are divided into provinces, and the latter into geobotanical districts and regions. Often they use the division of vegetation zones into subzones.
Vegetation zones in the mountains are always, although with deviations, similar to vegetation zones on the plains. For each mountainous country In accordance with its natural features, it has its own characteristics of the vertical distribution of plant communities. On this basis, types of vegetation zonation are distinguished. Depending on the purpose, various approaches to zoning based on R characteristics are possible. General scientific and practical significance has zoning, which aims to establish a spatial combination of plant formations as integral territorial systems, within which vegetation formations form connections specific to them with the entire set of ecological and geographical factors.
Vegetation dynamics. R. is a dynamic component of the landscape. She is sensitive to changes in the natural conditions surrounding her, especially to human influences. Vegetation that has not been modified by humans is called indigenous; under the influence of humans, it often changes significantly and turns out to be represented by other associations (derived vegetation), distributed over a large area and often very characteristic of a particular area, for example, most of the birch forests settle in place coniferous forests; in the tropics large spaces are occupied by savannas - derivatives tropical forests, disturbed by fires and other external influences. About 17% of the land area is occupied by plant communities used as hayfields and pastures, where vegetation has been modified to one degree or another by humans. For example, in Europe, meadow vegetation, with a few exceptions, develops on the site of forests cut down in the distant past. With the non-interference of external agents, the derivative of R. is restored and takes the form of the radical or close to it. Changes in plant associations occur without human influence, where the relief, humidity regime, and other conditions change.
Transformation and protection of vegetation. Optimizing the structure of vegetation is important not only for increasing its productivity and increasing the number of more useful raw materials and industrial plants, but also from the point of view of the impact of vegetation on the environment, which it is capable of changing in the desired direction. R., as a factor that is favorable for humans in sanitary and hygienic terms, improves the local climate, restrains soil erosion, regulates river flow, thereby preventing floods, etc., deserves every possible protection. R.'s transformation is necessary for the elimination of natural focal diseases, for the destruction of mosquitoes, mosquitoes and other insects that complicate the development of new areas in various zones of the Earth (taiga, tropical forest, etc.). The aesthetic and health-improving properties of R. dictate care for it when organizing recreation and tourism. Vegetation is the subject of study of geobotany and ecology; In some countries, the doctrine of vegetation cover is emphasized.
Plants that mainly grow in meadows are a variety of grasses. There are about 8,000 different species. All meadow plants must be able to survive dry periods and the fact that their leaves and shoots are eaten. Most trees can't handle this.
Land plants and water
Most land plants obtain water from the soil through their roots. They need water to create through photosynthesis. nutrients in the leaves.
In the leaves, part of the water turns into steam, which enters the air. Water always passes from the soil through plants into the air.
If a plant does not have enough water, it first withers and then dries up. If it does not receive water, it dies.
How do plants survive dry (arid) periods?
Trees - large plants. The bigger they grow, the more water they need. Even with the help of long and deep roots, many trees would not be able to obtain the amount of water necessary for survival in the steppe.
Grasses are much smaller than trees and grow deep roots. They help to obtain the small amount of water that is available in the steppes. Grasses can live with less water than trees. In very dry places only short grass grows, in wetter places taller grass can grow.
There are trees that can survive in places like lowland steppe where water is scarce. Trees such as acania, baobab and eucalyptus grow in the savannas of Africa and Australia. They all have hard leaves, like desert plants. They have hard leaves, they need less water, as they lose little of it. Some savannah trees store water in their trunks. Baobabs accumulate great amount water in thick trunks. Many animals get water from them; for example, elephants break trunks for this.
How do plants cope with herbivores?
Herbs are distinguished by long, straight leaves that grow from the ground. The older the plant, the longer the leaves. When animals eat the ends of leaves, new ones grow from the base. This means that herbivores do not pose a real threat to the grass.
Trees produce new leaves every year. At first the leaves grow quickly, then stop growing. If the leaves are eaten, the trees will not be able to grow new ones until next year. Trees should prevent animals from eating the leaves.
Some plants, such as the holacanthus bush, grow sharp spines on their branches. Many animals avoid eating such prickly food.
Acacias also have thorns. Their leaves also contain unpleasant-tasting substances. Herbivores soon realized this; Animals such as giraffes move away from acacia trees and look for tastier food.
Using Herbs
Many grasses used as food, such as wheat, oats, barley and rice, are types of grains. Previously, farmers collected seeds wild plants and chose the largest ones. They kept them and planted them in next year. Hundreds of years later, modern cereal plants were bred from wild ones. Cultivated cereal plants produce a much larger harvest than their wild relatives
The vegetation of Russia makes up a significant part of the northern extratropical vegetation of the world. Russia occupies most of northern Eurasia and therefore the patterns vegetation cover, appearing on its territory, are essential for understanding the botanical geography of the entire continent.
The most important botanical and geographical patterns of the macrostructure of the vegetation cover of Russia include latitudinal, meridional and altitudinal differentiation of the vegetation cover.
Vegetation cover is distinguished by its systemic organization and multidimensionality. The highest ranking divisions are the vegetation of the plains and the vegetation of the mountains. This emphasizes the significant difference in the nature, composition and structure of the vegetation of the plains and mountains and their macro-ecological diversity.
Regional differentiation of vegetation cover is expressed by regional complexes - sectors. The sectors are associated with such environmental parameters as moisture transfer features and the degree of oceanic-continentality.
On the plains, subzonal categories of vegetation cover and/or their edaphic variants are distinguished. They are subordinate to regional complexes.
The vegetation of each mountain range represents a typical altitudinal range as a whole. The main feature of altitudinal belts is determined by the latitudinal position of the pedestal, height and meridional position.
Plains vegetation
On the territory of Russia there are the East European and West Siberian plains, the vegetation of which demonstrates a classic change of zonal types. In the east, lowland territories occupy small areas, giving way to mountain ranges, and the clarity of the zonal division of vegetation is obscured. In the Pacific part of Russia, the influence of the ocean is felt, which disrupts the patterns of zonal distribution of vegetation cover. The zoning structure is manifested in regional complexes. Each regional complex differs in its set of subzonal vegetation categories. Vegetation categories of the same type in latitudinal position in different sectors have different species composition.
Vegetation tundra type forms the cover of the Far North of the country, which stretches in a strip along the coast of the seas of the Arctic Ocean and is found on the islands. The main features of the tundra type of vegetation include the absence of a tree layer, the large role of low-growing small-woody plants (from shrubs and dwarf trees to prostrate (creeping) shrubs and dwarf shrubs). Herbaceous perennials are widespread. The importance of mosses and lichens is great. The vegetation cover is characterized by perforation - the presence of spots of bare soil.
There are 5 regional complexes in the tundra. The westernmost, Atlantic, is represented only by southern tundras with Betula nana, Calluna vulgaris, Empetrum hermaphroditum, Carex bigelowii, in which boreal species such as blueberries are constantly found. The Eastern European, Western Siberian and Central Siberian sectors have the most complete zonal spectrum from the High Arctic to the southern tundra. High Arctic tundras are found only on some islands in the Arctic Ocean. A significant area of the islands is occupied by glaciers, and the vegetation cover is fragmentary. Grass-lichen-moss spotted tundras dominate. Lichen-moss and moss-lichen communities (with minor participation of flowering ones) are widespread, which are confined to highly gravelly and rocky soils. On the archipelago of Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya (East European–West Siberian sector) in tundra communities there are Deschampsia alpina, Cerastium arcticum, C. regelii ssp. caespitosum, which are not present in the Central Siberian sector. Presence Ranunculus sabinii, Cerastium bialynickii, C.regelii s.str., Deschampsia brevifolia determine the specifics of the high Arctic tundras of the Central Siberian sector. There are no high Arctic tundras in the East Siberian and Chukotka regional complexes.
Arctic tundra found in all except the Atlantic complexes. Prostrate shrubs begin to play a major role in them. For the Eastern European - Western Siberian sector, the background species is Salix nummularia, in Central Siberian the role of Salix polaris, S. reptans, There are 2 types of vegetation Dryas – D. punctata And D. octopetala. In the East Siberian sector, it comes out on top Cassiope tetragona, disappears D. octopetala. In Chukotka, Arctic tundra communities are characterized by Salix rotundifolia, S. phlebophylla, Dryas integrifolia, Carex lugens. Arctic tundras to the south are replaced by hypoarctic ones, which are represented by northern shrub-moss and southern shrub-moss-lichen subzonal categories. Their differences are also marked from sector to sector by geographically differentiating species (NN 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15) 1 .
Boreal (taiga) vegetation located in temperate latitudes south of the tundra. Taiga occupies a leading position in northern Eurasia. It stretches from Scandinavia to Pacific Ocean. Most of the taiga vegetation of Eurasia is concentrated in Russia. Taiga forests are also characteristic of many mountain systems, forming mountain-taiga belts in them.
The boreal vegetation of the plains includes 5 subzonal categories: from pre-tundra open forests to sub-boreal forests. It is characterized by the dominance of dark coniferous, light coniferous, small-leaved and mixed forests. Dominant conifer species forest species: Picea abies, P. obovata, Abies sibirica, Larix sibirica, L. gmelinii, L. cajanderi respectively, they replace each other from west to east, forming 7 regional complexes.
The shortest zonal spectrum in the Atlantic sector is represented by pre-tundra birch woodlands (16). In combination with southern shrub tundras, hummocky and aapa swamps, they form the forest-tundra of the Kola Peninsula.
The Eastern European sector (East European Plain) has a complete zonal range from birch-spruce woodlands (17) to subtaiga (24, 25). Subzonal categories of vegetation are represented by spruce forests (18, 20, 22, 24) and, replacing them on soils of light mechanical composition, pine forests (19, 21, 23, 25). In subtaiga forests, the composition of the forest stand, which is dominated by spruce or pine, or in the form of undergrowth includes nemoral woody species: oak, linden, maple, hazel. This also includes coniferous broadleaf forests Kaliningrad region, in which Central European species are found - beech and hornbeam.
The forests of the Urals complex have features of the European and Siberian taiga. This regional complex is found on both sides of the Urals. A complete zonal range (26-32) is also expressed here, from spruce and larch-spruce open forests to broad-leaved fir-spruce subtaiga forests.
The Ob-Irtysh sector unites the forests of the largest taiga complex (33-42). The role of swamps in the structure of the vegetation cover of the West Siberian Plain is enormous. In terms of area, swamps here prevail over forests. The vegetation of the vast Ob floodplain plays a great role. (130).
In the north of the Ob-Irtysh region, larch woodlands predominate (33). Large area occupy hummocky swamps (124). To the south, light forests give way to northern taiga, where larch (36) and larch-pine (35) forests dominate. The watersheds are occupied by hummocky and aapa bogs, huge raised bog systems with an abundance of lichens and large lakes (126 b). Larch-spruce-cedar forests are also typical (34). The middle taiga is dominated by spruce-cedar forests, sometimes with fir, and larch-pine forests are less common. In the middle taiga, the confinement of forests to river valleys is especially noticeable. There are many raised bogs on the watersheds.
In the southern taiga Western Siberia dark coniferous cedar-spruce-fir forests predominate. The West is dominated pine forests. The presence of linden is typical in southern taiga forests. Sphagnum raised bogs are common on watersheds, forming systems that include aapa, including the famous Vasyugan bog.
The transition from the southern taiga to the sub-taiga is gradual. Of the coniferous forests in the subtaiga, only pine forests are found on sand (41). Birch and aspen forests dominate (42); they usually grow small groves(with pegs), alternating with damp meadows, swamps, and pine forests. Often birch stakes are confined to depressions with pronounced solod soils.
The Central Siberian (43-47) and East Siberian (45-51) sectors have a shortened zonal alignment. In Central Siberia there is no subtaiga, in Eastern Siberia The latitudinal section ends with middle taiga forests. The boreal vegetation of these most continental sectors is formed by light coniferous, predominantly larch forests.
The boreal vegetation contains a peculiar Far Eastern complex. The features of its vegetation cover are associated with the originality of the floristic composition and complex physical and geographical conditions - the influence of the Pacific Ocean and monsoons in the southeast, the Sea of Okhotsk and the seas of the Arctic Ocean in the north, continentality air masses Siberia and Central Asia, the complexity of the relief and geological structure. Northern taiga larch forests (52) are found in small areas along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk; significant areas are occupied by mid-taiga larch forests and sphagnum stands (53). Southern taiga forests are diverse: spruce-fir ( Рicea ajanensis Abies nephrolepis), larch and pine-larch. In their forest stand they are found sporadically Betula davurica, B. platyphylla; well developed undergrowth Rhododendron dauricum, Duschekia manshurica, Lespedeza bicolor, Corylus heterophylla. Subtaiga forests are especially unique Far East, represented by broad-leaved pine and broad-leaved larch with Mongolian oak and Manchurian birch (58,59), birch-pine (60) and spruce-fir-cedar with Pinus koraiensis, Picea ajanensis And Abies nephrolepis(57).
Nemoral vegetation is represented by broad-leaved forests, which grow in Russia only in the west (Eastern European regional complex) and in the east (Far Eastern complex). In western Europe, nemoral vegetation occupies almost its entire territory, and in eastern Asia It descends significantly further south than in Europe, which is certainly due to the influence of the Pacific Ocean. In the continental regions of Siberia, broad-leaved forests are absent and are geographically replaced by steppes.
Broad-leaved forests of the Eastern European sector are represented by linden-oak with the participation of ash (61) and linden with oak (63). On light soils they are replaced by pine-broadleaved forests (62) and steppe pine with oak (64).
The increasing continentality of the climate from west to east leads to a gradual reduction in European nemoral vegetation types, of which only half reaches the western slopes of the Urals. The role of South Siberian light-loving and cold-resistant species is becoming noticeable. An important boundary is the Volga, towards which many tree species, such as ash, shrubs and herbaceous species, gradually fall out from the west.
Small groves oak forests are found quite far to the north in the subzone of the southern taiga (Leningrad, Novgorod, Pskov regions), and linden forests (probably derivatives that arose on the site of linden-spruce forests) are found even further north. In the south, broad-leaved forests along ravines and ravines, the so-called ravine forests, penetrate far into the steppe region.
In the Far East, broad-leaved forests are found in the south. In the southwestern part they are represented by oak trees ( Quercus mongolica) and black-birch-oak. Some western oak forests have cryophilized grass cover. In the eastern part there are oak and mixed oak-broad-leaved forests with the participation of a mesophilic group of trees: Amur velvet, linden ( Tilia amurensis, T. mandshurica, T. taquetii) and vines (65).
Steppe vegetation Russia in the form of a strip extends from the western border of the country to the South Siberian mountains. To the east, the steppes are found in isolated areas, mainly in intermountain basins. In European Russia this strip is very wide and in the south reaches the Caucasus, and in Asian Russia- before state border and continues in the countries of Central and Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China).
Steppe vegetation unites communities of xerophilic microthermal turf herbaceous plants. The dominant biomorph in the steppes are turf grasses from the genera Stipa, Festuca, Agropyron, Koeleria, Poa, Cleistogenes, Helictotrichon etc. in different environmental conditions communities of turf sedges, onions, forbs, subshrubs and shrubs are formed. Steppe communities are polydominant; their distribution is associated with chernozems and chestnut soils.
In the steppe type of vegetation, 4 regional complexes are distinguished: Eastern European, Trans-Volga, Western Siberian and Trans-Baikal. The steppes of the Eastern European and Trans-Volga complexes are most fully represented and have a full zonal spectrum; The Western Siberian sector is represented only by the northern part of the zonal spectrum, and its southern part is located in Kazakhstan. The Transbaikalian complex unites isolated areas of steppes, found in intermountain basins and being in flora-genetic relationship with the Central Asian (Mongolian and Chinese) steppes.
There are 4 subzonal latitudinal categories steppe vegetation: meadow, northern, middle and southern. The latitudinal differentiation of steppes from north to south is associated with an increase in the degree of climate aridity, and its regional differentiation is associated with increased continentality.
Meadow steppes are the northernmost type of steppes. They are characterized by the dominance of forb-grass communities with a predominance of mesoxerophilic and xeromesophilic species, mainly loose bush and rhizomatous grasses, rhizomatous sedges and forbs. Meadow steppes are common in the south of the nemoral region in the European part of Russia and the boreal region in Siberia. Together with forests (oak and oak-linden in the west and birch and aspen in Siberia) they form the forest-steppe subzone. Typologically, meadow steppes are considered within the steppe type of vegetation, but from a botanical and geographical point of view they do not belong to the steppe zone, but are closely connected with forests and without anthropogenic intervention (haymaking, grazing), meadow steppes turn into forests.
Northern steppes begin zonal series steppe zone. They are characterized by the dominance of fescue-feather grass steppes, i.e. dominance of turf grasses, with the participation of abundant xeromesophilic and mesoxerophilic herbs.
The middle steppes are also characterized by the dominance of fescue-feather grass steppes, but the herbs in them are much poorer and are represented by much more xerophilic species.
The southern steppes are distinguished by the participation of subshrubs as codominants in fescue-feather grass communities.
Throughout their range, steppe communities, especially within one subzonal category, have big number common types. The identification of mappable categories of steppes within regional complexes is therefore based on a small number of geographically differentiating species.
The Eastern European regional complex includes rich forb-grass meadow steppes with Bromopsis riparia, Carex humilis, Peucedanum macrophyllum; forb - turfgrass northern steppes with Stipa ucrainica; Stipa ucrainica; wormwood-turfgrass southern steppes with Stipa lessingiana, Artemisia taurica, A. lercheana.
The Trans-Volga regional complex combines rich forb-grass meadow steppes with Bromopsis riparia, Bromopsis inermis, Carex humilis, C. pediformis, Peucedanum alsaticum; forb-turfgrass northern steppes with Stipa zalesskii, S. korshinskyi; sod-grass middle steppes with Stipa lessingiana; wormwood-turfgrass southern steppes with Stipa sareptana, Artemisia lercheana.
The West Siberian sector, the western border of which runs along the Ishim River, includes only 2 northern latitudinal categories: rich forb-grass meadow steppes with Bromopsis inermis, Stipa zalesskii, Carex pediformis, C. supina, Peucedanum morisonii and forb-turfgrass northern steppes with Stipa capillata, S. zalesskii, Helictotrichon desertorum. The steppe soils of this sector are characterized by salinity.
The Transbaikal regional complex is characterized by a great diversity of species composition of steppe communities, since it is florogenetically connected with the Central Asian steppes, and is separated from the European-West Siberian steppes, which represent part of the Black Sea-Kazakhstan steppes, not only botanically and geographically, but also territorially by the South Siberian mountain ranges. It includes 3 latitudinal categories: rich forb-grass meadow steppes with Filifolium sibiricum, Peucedanum baicalense; forb-turfgrass northern steppes with Stipa baicalensis, Leymus chinensis and turfgrass middle steppes with Stipa krylovii.
Steppe communities and their fragments penetrate far to the north of Eastern Siberia, which is associated with the sharp continental climate, but primarily with the historical paleogeographical events that took place in this territory in the Pleistocene.
Desert vegetation completes the zonal series of vegetation types on the plains. The desert type includes communities dominated by xerophilic, hyperxerophilic micro- and mesothermic plants of various life forms, mainly subshrubs, semi-shrubs and shrubs, semi-trees. In desert communities, ephemeroids and hemiephemeroids - perennial short-growing plants - are often abundant; annuals herbaceous plants summer-autumn vegetation and ephemerals - annual herbaceous plants of spring, autumn-spring or autumn-winter vegetation. Russia contains only a small portion of a vast desert region. It is represented by the Caspian sector of temperate deserts, which belong to the northern latitudinal category: wormwood (79) and sandy wormwood (80) northern deserts. Their distribution is associated with brown soils. In the Caspian region, soils of light mechanical composition, sandy and sandy loam are widespread, therefore, along with wormwood, grass is often found here Poa bulbosa.
Mountain vegetation
The altitudinal differentiation of mountain vegetation is primarily determined by their latitudinal position. In addition, it depends on the length mountain system, its height, barrier role, steepness and exposure of slopes, etc. The presence of altitudinal-zonal differentiation of vegetation is the main regularity of the structure of mountain vegetation, which has no analogues on the plain. Separate high altitude zones mountains are often formed by communities belonging to the same typological category (vegetation type, formation, etc.) as the vegetation of the plains; their typological difference manifests itself at a rather low syntaxonomic level. These include tundra, taiga and broad-leaved forests, steppes, and deserts. There is, however, specific vegetation in the mountains, usually in the highlands, which has no analogue on the plains: nival, alpine, etc.
In the north of the European part of Russia, this is the East Scandinavian group (81) with mountain lichen tundras, birch open forests and mountain taiga forests (Khibiny, Lovozero, etc.) and the East European low mountains (82) nival-high-arcto-arcto-tundra 2. In the south of Russia, this is the northern macroslope of the Caucasus with a well-defined alpine belt system in its Caucasian version (84). The mid-mountain part of the Caucasus in the Novorossiysk-Gelendzhik region is characterized by two belts - shiblyak and broad-leaved forest (83).
The Urals are not only an important geographical boundary, dividing Europe and Asia, but also a phytogeographical boundary, connecting Eastern European and Western Siberian regional complexes. The Urals, like all large mountain ranges, have significant influence on the vegetation of the adjacent plains. As a result, a unique regional Urals complex stands out among the boreal vegetation, bearing the features of European and Siberian taiga forests. The Urals itself, with its enormous meridional extent, is divided on the map into 7 latitudinal segments (85-91).
In the east of Russia, mountain vegetation dominates.
The Central Siberian system of low mountains and high plateaus forms, as it were, one continuous chain of vegetation types from mountain-tundra on Taimyr (Byrranga (92) to mountain-mid-taiga on the Yenisei Ridge (95). The South Siberian mountain system includes the Sayans, Kuznetsk Alatau and Altai (96-98) The vegetation of the South Siberian mountains is extremely diverse - from mountain tundra and alpine formations on the peaks to forest-steppe and steppe on the slopes of southern exposures, but the largest areas are occupied by mountain taiga forests, among which pine and fir-cedar forests predominate. Fir subnemoral, so-called black forests, are found sporadically. In the East Siberian and Chukotka mountain systems, from north to south, there seems to be an increase in the number of altitudinal zones from the mountain tundra to the mountain-northern taiga. Note that in the south of the Verkhoyansk Range (East Siberian group) the role of dwarf pine becomes noticeable for the first time (102).
The belt of dwarf cedar is especially noticeable in the mountains of the Okhotsk-Beringian group (107-108).
The role of elfin wood continues to be significant in the mountains of the Baikal-Dzhugdzhur system, especially on the Dzhugdzhur ridge itself and the Stanovoye Highlands. The southernmost in this group is the Borschevochny ridge, where the forest-steppe complex is well defined, bringing it closer to the mountains of Mongolia.
The vegetation of the mountains of the Far East (116-121) and Kamchatka is strongly influenced by the Pacific Ocean. Common to all is the structure of the upper altitudinal zones of vegetation: mountain tundra, subalpine with thickets of elfin pine, in places alder and stone birch. Taiga and broad-leaved belts are specific.
Vegetation of swamps and floodplains
The vegetation of swamps plays a huge role in the structure of the tundra and taiga, often determining this structure, for example in Western Siberia, in the northeast of European Russia, in Eastern Fennoscandia. Swamps are specific ecosystems, the vegetation of which is controlled primarily by the quantity and trophicity of water and is characterized by poor floristic composition, heterogeneity and complexity of composition. Polygonal swamps are confined to the north of the tundra region, and hummocky swamps are located to the south. The spread of ridge-hollow grass-sphagnum-hypnum bogs (aapa) is associated with the south of the tundra region and the taiga. In the taiga region, sphagnum bogs reach optimal development. It should be noted that there is an asymmetry in the distribution of swamp vegetation in the East European and West Siberian Plains. Thus, the northern border of the vegetation of hummocky bogs in Europe almost coincides with the northern border of the northern taiga, and in Western Siberia they are still widespread in the northern taiga, that is, the boundaries of raised bogs in Siberia are shifted to the south. Polygonal swamps are widespread in the north of the Asian part of Russia. In the Eastern European (Malozemelskaya) tundra, the western border of their distribution is the Neruta River.
The importance of floodplain vegetation is also great and varied. Many large rivers are major botanical and geographical boundaries, for example the Volga, Don, Onega, Yenisei; river floodplains are unique corridors connecting vegetation of different latitudinal categories. Floodplains are characterized by natural heterogeneity and dynamism of vegetation cover, due to the erosion-accumulation activity of rivers. A distinctive feature of the vegetation of the floodplains of the tundra region is the absence of forests. Boreal floodplains are characterized by the development of dark coniferous forests at high levels, and in the floodplains of subtaiga, broad-leaved forest and steppe regions– development of broad-leaved trees (in the European part of Russia) and others hardwood, in places pine forests. In the floodplains of the southern part of the steppe and desert regions, forests grow only in the riverine part. Meadows and reed thickets develop in the estuarine parts of southern rivers, and meadows, swamps, and grass marshes develop in northern rivers.
It is necessary to preserve and restore the unique diversity of the country’s vegetation – the source of life on Earth.
It makes up a significant part of the northern extratropical vegetation of the world. Its territory and the waters of the border seas are home to more than 6,000 species and ecological forms of algae (from 12 divisions), approximately 3,000 species and forms of lichens, about 1,200 species of leafy mosses, at least 350 species of liverworts and approximately 12,500 species of vascular plants.
In general, the flora of Russia by level species diversity comparable to other floras of the extratropical Holarctic. The Holarctic kingdom of flora includes 4 subkingdoms - Boreal, East Asian, Ancient Mediterranean and Madrean. On the territory of Russia, the flora is represented by the floristically rich and relatively ancient subkingdoms (East Asian and Ancient Mediterranean) and the floristically least rich and younger Boreal subkingdom, which includes the flora of almost the entire territory of the country.
To a large extent, the flora of Russia is original, which is primarily determined by the composition of vascular plants: approximately 2,700 species and subspecies are endemic (found only in Russia). The number of endemic plant genera is small - 11 strict and 5 genera are included in the group of conditional endemics.
The vegetation cover of Russia is distinguished by its systemic organization and multidimensionality. The most important botanical and geographical patterns of its macrostructure include latitudinal, meridional and altitudinal differentiation. The diversity of vegetation cover is due to the significant extent of the country's territory - from north to south and from west to east. In the first case, a latitudinal zonality of the vegetation cover is formed, associated with a natural increase in the amount of heat as one moves south; in the second, the characteristics of the vegetation cover are determined by a decrease in the amount of precipitation from west to east, up to Yakutia. The characteristics of the composition and structure of the vegetation cover of individual geographic regions are also determined by the relief, soil, geological history, human influence.
The highest ranking divisions are the vegetation of the plains and the vegetation of the mountains. The categories of the next rank of plains vegetation include vegetation types: tundra, boreal, nemoral, steppe and desert. Each type of vegetation is characterized by a set of different biomorphs. Regional differentiation of vegetation cover is expressed by regional complexes - sectors. The sectors are associated with such environmental parameters as moisture transfer features and the degree of oceanic-continentality. Each regional complex differs in its set of subzonal vegetation categories.
On the plains, subzonal categories of vegetation cover and their edaphic variants are distinguished. They are subordinate to regional complexes.
The vegetation of each mountain range represents a typical altitudinal range as a whole. The main feature of altitudinal belts is determined by the latitudinal position of the pedestal, height and meridional position.
Vegetation of the plains. On the territory of Russia there are the East European and West Siberian plains, the vegetation of which demonstrates a classic change of zonal types. In the east, the main spaces are occupied by mountain ranges, and the clarity of the zonal division of vegetation is obscured. In the Pacific part of Russia, the influence of the ocean is felt, which disrupts the patterns of zonal distribution of vegetation cover.
Tundra-type vegetation forms the cover of the Far North of the country, which stretches in a strip along the sea coast and is found on the islands. The main features of the tundra type of vegetation include the absence of a tree layer, the large role of low-growing small-woody plants (from shrubs and dwarf trees to creeping dwarf shrubs and dwarf shrubs). Herbaceous perennials are widespread. The importance of mosses and lichens is great. The vegetation cover is characterized by perforation - the presence of spots of bare soil.
Boreal (taiga) vegetation is located in temperate latitudes south of the tundra. Taiga occupies a leading position in northern Eurasia. It stretches from Scandinavia to. Most of the taiga vegetation of Eurasia is concentrated in Russia. Taiga forests are also characteristic of many mountain systems, forming mountain taiga belts in them. The boreal vegetation of the plains includes 5 subzonal categories: from pre-tundra open forests to sub-boreal forests. It is characterized by the dominance of dark coniferous, light coniferous, small-leaved and mixed forests.
Nemoral vegetation is represented by broad-leaved forests, which grow in Russia only in the west (Eastern European regional complex) and in the east (Far Eastern regional complex). In western Europe, nemoral vegetation occupies almost its entire territory, and in eastern Asia it descends much further south than in Europe, which is due to the influence of the Pacific Ocean. In the continental regions of Siberia, broad-leaved forests are absent and are geographically replaced by steppes.
Steppe vegetation in the form of a strip extends from the western border of the country to the southern Siberian mountains. To the east, the steppes are found in isolated areas, mainly in intermountain basins. In the European part of Russia, this strip is very wide and in the south reaches the Caucasus, and in the Asian part of Russia - to the state border and continues in the countries of Central and Central Asia (Kazakhstan, China). The steppes are represented by herbaceous xerophytic and mesoxerophytic vegetation with characteristic communities, mainly turf grasses (feather grass, fescue, tonkonog, etc.) and forbs.
Desert vegetation completes the zonal series of plains vegetation types. The desert type includes communities dominated by xerophilic, hyperxerophilic micro- and mesothermic plants of various life forms, mainly subshrubs, subshrubs and shrubs, and semi-trees. In desert communities, ephemeroids and hemiephemeroids - perennial short-growing plants - are often abundant; annual herbaceous plants of summer-autumn growing season and ephemerals - annual herbaceous plants of spring, autumn-spring or autumn-winter growing season. Russia contains only a small portion of a vast desert region. It is represented by the Caspian sector of temperate deserts, which belong to the northern latitudinal category.
Mountain vegetation The altitudinal differentiation of mountain vegetation is primarily determined by their latitudinal position. In addition, it depends on the extent of the mountain system, its height, barrier role, steepness and exposure of slopes, etc. The presence of altitudinal-zonal differentiation of vegetation is the main regularity of the structure of mountain vegetation, which has no analogues on the plain. Separate high-altitude mountain belts are often formed by communities belonging to the same typological category (vegetation type, formation, etc.) as the vegetation of the plains; their typological difference manifests itself at a rather low syntaxonomic level. These include tundra, taiga and broad-leaved forests, steppes, and deserts. There is also specific vegetation in the mountains (usually in the highlands), which has no analogue on the plains: nival, alpine, etc.
The vegetation of swamps plays a huge role in the structure of the tundra and taiga, often determining this structure, for example in Western Siberia, in the northeast European Russia, in Eastern Fennoscandia. Swamps are specific ecosystems, the vegetation of which is controlled primarily by the quantity and trophicity of water and is characterized by poor floristic composition, heterogeneity and complexity of composition. Polygonal swamps are confined to the north of the tundra region, and hummocky swamps are located to the south. The spread of ridge-hollow grass-hypnum-sphagnum bogs (aapa) is associated with the south of the tundra region and the taiga. In the taiga region, sphagnum bogs reach optimal development. It should be noted the asymmetry in the distribution of swamp vegetation on the East European and West Siberian plains: the northern border of the vegetation of hummocky swamps in Europe almost coincides with the northern border of the northern taiga, and in Western Siberia they are still widespread in the northern taiga, that is, the boundaries of raised swamps in Siberia is shifted to the south. Polygonal swamps are widespread in the north of the Asian part of Russia. In the Eastern European (Malozemelskaya) tundra, the western border of their distribution is the Neruta River.
River floodplains are unique corridors connecting vegetation of different latitudinal categories. Many large rivers are major botanical and geographical boundaries, for example the Volga, Don, Onega, Yenisei. Floodplains are characterized by natural heterogeneity and dynamism of vegetation cover, due to the erosion-accumulation activity of rivers. A distinctive feature of the vegetation of the floodplains of the tundra region is the absence of forests. Boreal floodplains are characterized by the development of dark coniferous forests at high levels, and in the floodplains of the subtaiga, broad-leaved forest and steppe regions - the development of broad-leaved (in the European part of Russia) and other deciduous species, and in some places pine forests. In the floodplains of the southern part of the steppe and desert regions, forests grow only in the riverine part. In the estuarine parts of the northern rivers, meadows, swamps, and grass marshes develop, and in the southern rivers, meadows and reed thickets develop.