What does Mongolian sound like to foreigners? video
MONGOLIAN. - Under the term “M. language." understand both the ancient, written M. language and the modern living M. language. It is not possible to accurately record the time when writing appeared among the Mongols. It is only known that the writing system introduced by Genghis Khan, which we can judge from some monuments, is Uyghur in origin. The old written M. language, now very different from the living spoken language, apparently in the 13th century. differed from the dialects of that time and even then represented an archaic form of language. Written M. language. rises like this. arr. to one of the ancient Mongolian dialects of the pre-Chingiz Khan period. One can only vaguely guess that it was formed on the basis of the dialect of the Kerents, one of the most powerful and cultural tribes conquered by Genghis Khan. The Mongolian alphabet was borrowed from the Turkic people of the Uyghurs, who in turn received it from the Iranian people of the Sogdians. Sogdian goes back to Northern Semitic (one of the Aramaic) ...
Mongolian
language of the Mongols (See Mongols) ,
the main population of the MPR, as well as Inner Mongolia and individual groups living in different provinces of the PRC. Number of speakers of M. i. about 3 million people (1970, assessment). Belongs to the Mongolian group of languages. Formed around the 14th-16th centuries. (see Mongolian languages). M. I. breaks up into dialects: Khalkha (whistle-hissing, i.e. having whistling and hissing consonants) and hissing (without the phonemes “dz” and “ts”) - Chahar, Kharachin, Tumeti, Ordos, etc. For M. I. characteristic: agglutination; the place of the subject and the definition before the predicate and the defined; lack of grammatical gender and agreement between the definition and the defined, and the predicate with the subject in number and case; absence of personal predicative particles, unlike Turkic and other Mongolian... Mongolian
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Hello, dear readers – seekers of knowledge and truth!
Interestingly, the Mongolian, Chinese, Afghan and Russian populations have something in common. And, oddly enough, it’s language. After all, Mongolian is spoken not only in Mongolia - there is a whole language group that has spread far beyond its borders.
We want to tell you what the Mongolian group of languages is. From the article you will learn what families and groups of languages there are, what place Mongolian occupies among them. Their geography, types, features, history - we will talk about all this below.
Language families
Each language acquires connections with other, related ones. Historically, they are due to the proximity of peoples and origin from the same proto-language. Related to this is the concept of genealogical linguistic classification.
There are more than seven thousand languages in the world.
Of course, it is difficult to list them all in a group. Therefore, we will provide only a list of the main language families, each of which is divided geographically into groups, and then into individual languages and dialects.
Language families are distinguished:
- India, Europe - the Indo-European family is considered the largest;
- Caucasus;
- Africa, Asia;
- China, Tibet;
- Ural;
- Altai.
The Mongolian group is included in the Altai family according to the Altai theory, which is considered the main one. This also includes the Chinese-Tibetan, Turkic, and Far Eastern groups.
Geography of the Mongolian language
The Mongolian peoples settled mainly in Asian and European territories: in the steppes, forests, mountains, and near the seas. For the most part, these are the lands of the Republic of Mongolia, Afghanistan, northeast China, especially Inner Mongolia, as well as some Volga and Baikal republics in Russia - Buryatia, Kalmykia, Tuva.
In a Mongolian yurt
However, many representatives of the Mongolian people live far from these territories, while maintaining their own traditions, including their language.
The Mongolian group includes several languages that are very similar in vocabulary, grammar, and sound. This state of affairs is not surprising - until the 5th century they were united and only later split into several branches.
They are closely intertwined with Turkic, Tungusic, Manchu, Tibetan, Korean, and Slavic languages, because their speakers live next door. Linguists note especially many borrowings from Turkic. Even now there are people here who speak two languages at once - the so-called bilinguals, for example, Uyghurs and Khotons.
Classic Mongolian was used by all literate Tuvans until the 40s of the last century.
The number of speakers of Mongolian languages in the world exceeds six million. They are divided into dialects of the west, center, and east. Their differences relate mostly to phonetics and pronunciation.
Tyva
Mongolian is recognized as the official language in Mongolia. It began to take shape in this capacity after the internal revolution of 1921. The Khalkha dialect of the Central Mongolian subgroup was taken as a basis - laws are passed in it, books are written, and educational programs are built.
Inner Mongolia, an autonomous region of China, does not have a distinct dialect, so its residents use the classic old script.
Species
Defining a clear classification of languages seems difficult. Conventionally, they are divided into two large groups – northern and southern.
Northern group includes:
- Old written
Connected with the history of the 13-17th centuries, it incorporates the Middle Mongolian, Buryat version, today’s literary language of Inner Mongolia.
- Central subgroup
This includes modern Mongolian: the state language of Mongolia is Khalkha, dialects of the center, east, south, which belong to the Mongol-Chinese territories, as well as the Ordos branch. In addition, Buryat and Khamnigan, known in the Russian Transbaikalia, are included in the central cluster.
- Western cluster
Covers Kalmyk, Oirat and their dialects.
Kalmyk camel
The southern group includes the following languages:
- Shira-Yugur - spoken by the Yugu people in China;
- Mongolian – covers the Chinese provinces of Qinghai and Gansu;
- Bao'an - has about 12 thousand Chinese speakers, whose main feature is the Muslim faith;
- Dongxiang - also common in several Chinese provinces, covers more than 350 thousand people;
- Kangjia.
In addition, there are other major languages:
- Mughal - common in Afghanistan;
- Khitan - common among the Khitai tribe who lived on Chinese territory in the 10th century; It is believed that thanks to this name, “China” sounds exactly like this in Russian;
- Dagur - native to the Dagur people of the People's Republic of China;
- Xianbi - refers to the ancient Xianbi tribe, which lived in the 2nd-4th centuries in what is now Inner Mongolia.
Yurts in Inner Mongolia
All these languages, common among certain nationalities, in certain countries, regions, provinces, have their own dialects. Due to their similarity and common origin, representatives of the Mongolian peoples can communicate without problems, especially if they live in adjacent territories.
At the same time, some of them have such different features of vocabulary, pronunciation, formation of gerunds, and cases that their representatives are unlikely to understand their “relatives.”
One of the problems of modern Mongolian languages is the threat of extinction of some of them.OngoingGlobalization with the Internet, television, world trade, mass communications puts Khalkha in first place - it is used by 8 out of 10 speakers. At the same time, the languages of small nations are gradually forgotten.
Features of the language
Mongolian languages are considered quite complex. Many of them have common features:
- agglutinativeness - prefixes and suffixes are “built on top” of one another, which changes the meaning of the word;
- inflectivity – play a big role word endings. For example, they completely replace personal pronouns;
- strict word order - first comes the dependent word, containing, for example, a description of place or time, and at the end - the main word;
- ergativity is a case indicating the subject and object of an action, the Russian equivalent to it is the passive voice of participles;
- a small number of parts of speech - there is only a verb (can be conjugated), a name (can be inflected), unchangeable parts of speech. A noun differs from an adjective only syntactically;
- presence of singular and plural;
- 7-9 cases – the number depends on the specific language;
- participle, participle as special forms of the verb;
- verb tenses - the past tense can be expressed by several forms of the verb at once, while the present and future can be the same;
- cautionary mood - it exists along with the motivating and indicative, expressed in phrases like “I’m afraid that...”.
Buryat holiday
Alphabet
Initially, they wanted to make the alphabet based on the Latin alphabet. However, as a result, the Cyrillic alphabet was taken as a basis - in 1943 the alphabet was officially adopted.
It contains 35 letters. In addition to the letters familiar to Russian people, two more vowels are added here - ө, phonetically reminiscent of the German ö, and ү, pronounced like the German ü.
The remaining letters sound the same as in Russian. The only exceptions are the complex names of some of them:
- y – khagas i;
- ъ – khatuugin temdeg;
- y – er ugiyn y;
- ь – golden temdeg.
This alphabet is still used today.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to say that Mongolian languages are unique and amazing. They are spoken by about 6 million people - not so many on the scale of a planet of seven billion.
The general group is divided into many dialects, each of which has its own characteristics. Of course, we would like all of them to be preserved despite globalization, and for our descendants to also be able to learn about the culture and depth of the soul of these peoples through the study of linguistics.
Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! We hope you found our article useful and you were able to get a little closer to understanding the features of the Mongolian world. If you liked the information, share it with your friends by providing links to the article on social networks.
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Mongolia Mongolia
Regional language:
China China: Inner Mongolia
Russia Russia: Buryatia; Kalmykia; Irkutsk region: Ust-Ordynsky Buryat district; Trans-Baikal Territory: Aginsky Buryat District
in Mongolia Cyrillic (Mongolian alphabet)
in the People's Republic of China, Old Mongolian writing
Mongolian(self-name: mongɣol xele, Mongol Hal listen)) is the language of the Mongols, the official language of Mongolia. The term can be used more widely: for the Mongolian language of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in China, for all languages of the Mongolian group, in a historical context for languages such as ancient Common Mongolian and Old Written Mongolian languages.
Mongolian language in the narrow sense
The language of the Mongols is the main population of Mongolia, as well as Inner Mongolia and the Russian Federation. Often called after the main dialect Khalkha-Mongolian or just Khalkha.
Mongolian language group
Khalkha Mongolian, together with the Mongolian written language, is part of the Mongolian family of languages. This family is divided into the following groups:
- Northern Mongolian languages: Buryat, Kalmyk, Ordos, Khamnigan, Oirat;
- Southern Mongolian languages: Dagur, Shira-Yugur, Dongxiang, Bao'an, Tu (Mongolian);
- Mughal stands apart in Afghanistan.
By their structure, these are agglutinative languages with elements of inflection. The majority (except Kalmyk and Buryat) are characterized by impersonal conjugation. In the field of morphology, they are characterized, in addition, by the absence of a sharp line between inflection and word formation: for example, different case forms of the same word often function lexically as new words and allow a secondary declension, the basis of which is not the primary stem, but the case form . The role of possessive pronouns is played by special suffixes: personal and impersonal. The presence of predicative suffixes gives the impression that names can be conjugated. Parts of speech are poorly differentiated. The following parts of speech are distinguished: name, verb and immutable particles. Noun and adjective in most living and written languages are not differentiated morphologically and differ only in terms of syntax.
In the area of syntax, the characteristic position of the definition before the defined, the predicate is usually at the end of sentences and the lack of agreement in the case of the definition and the defined, as well as different members of the sentence.
The differences between the language of the Mongols of the MR and the language of the Mongols of Inner Mongolia affect phonetics, as well as such morphological parameters, which are very variable within the Mongolian family, such as the set of participial forms and the presence/absence of some peripheral case forms. The same type of differences exist between dialects within both the Mongolian language of the MR and within the language of the Mongols of Inner Mongolia. In reality, it is one language divided by a state border, with many dialects represented on both sides. The umbrella term modern Mongolian refers to this; In total, over 5 million (according to other estimates - up to 6 million) people speak it, that is, more than 3/4 of the entire Mongol-speaking population. About 6 thousand Mongolians live in Taiwan; 3 thousand, according to the 1989 census, lived in the USSR. The division has consequences mainly of an external linguistic nature: in the Republic of Moldova and in Inner Mongolia, literary norms are different (in the latter case, the norm is based on the Chahar dialect); In addition, the dialects of Inner Mongolia have experienced significant influence from the Chinese language (in the areas of vocabulary and intonation).
Historical Mongolian languages
With an even broader interpretation, the concept of “Mongolian language” expands not only geographically, but also historically, and then it includes the common Mongolian language, which existed until about the 12th century, as well as the old written Mongolian language - the common literary language of all Mongolian tribes from the 13th to the 17th century century The dialectal basis of the latter is unclear; in fact, it has always been a supra-dialectal form of purely written communication, which was facilitated by the writing (basically Uyghur) that did not convey the phonetic appearance of words very accurately, which leveled inter-dialectal differences. Perhaps this language was formed by one of the Mongol tribes that were destroyed or completely assimilated during the rise of Genghis Khan’s empire (presumably the Naimans, Kereits or Khitans). It is generally accepted that Old Written Mongolian reflects a more ancient stage in the development of Mongolian languages than any of the known Mongolian dialects; this explains its role in the comparative historical study of Mongolian languages.
In the history of written language, ancient (XIII-XV centuries), pre-classical (XV-XVII centuries) and classical (XVII - early XX centuries) stages are distinguished. The frequently used terms “Old Mongolian language” and “Middle Mongolian language” are used to designate the common, although dialectally fragmented, language of the Mongolian tribes before the 13th century and in the 13th-15th centuries. respectively.
Since the 17th century, in connection with the creation by Zaya-Pandita of the so-called clear script (todo-bichig), adapted to the peculiarities of the Oirat dialects, and the formation of the Oirat literary language, the classical old-written Mongolian language began to be used mainly in the eastern part of the Mongolian area - in Khalkha (outer Mongolia) and Inner Mongolia; The Buryats in the Russian Empire gradually developed a special Buryat version of the old written Mongolian language.
In Inner Mongolia, the old written language is still used today. In Buryatia, writing was introduced first on a Latin basis (in 1931), and then on a Cyrillic basis (in 1939); in the Mongolian People's Republic the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced in 1945; New literary languages developed there. In post-communist Mongolia, and partly in Buryatia, interest in the old written language is being revived; Its teaching is actively carried out.
The language of the monuments of the so-called “square script” of the 13th-14th centuries. due to the presence of a number of structural features, it is sometimes considered as a special variety of the widely understood Mongolian language.
Mongolian language and Cyrillic alphabet
There are 35 letters in the Mongolian alphabet:
Pos. | Cyrillic | Name | IPA | ISO 9 | Standard Romanization |
THL | Library Congress |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Ahh | A | a | a | a | a | |
2 | BB | bae | p, pʲ, b | b | b | b | b |
3 | Vv | ve | w, wʲ | v | v | w | v |
4 | G | ge | ɡ, ɡʲ, k, ɢ | g | g | g | g |
5 | Dd | de | t, tʲ, d | d | d | d | d |
6 | Her | e | jɛ~jɜ, e | e | ye, ye | ye, yo | e |
7 | Her | e | jɔ | ë | yo, yo | yo | ë |
8 | LJ | zhe | tʃ, dʒ | ž | j | j | zh |
9 | Zz | ze | ts, dz | z | z | z | z |
10 | Ii | And | i | i | i | i | |
11 | Yikes | Khagas and | j | ĭ | i | ĭ | |
12 | (Kk) | ka | (kʰ, kʰʲ) | k | k | k | k |
13 | Ll | el | , ɮʲ | l | l | l | l |
14 | Mm | Em | , mʲ | m | m | m | m |
15 | Nn | en | , nʲ, | n | n | n | n |
16 | Ooh | O | o | o | o | o | |
17 | Өө | ө | ô | ö | ö | ö | |
18 | (PP) | pe | (pʰ, pʰʲ) | p | p | p | p |
19 | RR | er | , rʲ | r | r | r | r |
20 | Ss | es | s | s | s | s | |
21 | Tt | te | tʰ, tʰʲ | t | t | t | t |
22 | Ooh | at | u | u | u | u | |
23 | Үү | ү | ù | ü | ü | ü | |
24 | (FF) | fe, F, ef | () | f | f | f | f |
25 | Xx | heh, Ha | , xʲ | h | x | kh | kh |
26 | Tsts | tse | tsʰ | c | c | ts | ts |
27 | Hh | che | tʃʰ | č | č | ch | ch |
28 | Shh | sha, esh | š | š | sh | sh | |
29 | (Shch) | now, eshche | (stʃ) | ŝ | šč | shch | shch |
30 | Kommersant | hatuugiin temdeg | ʺ | ı | ʺ | ı | |
31 | Yyy | er ugiyn y | y | y | î | y | |
32 | bb | golden temdeg | ʹ | ʹ | ĭ | i | |
33 | Uh | uh | è | e | e | ê | |
34 | Yuyu | yu | jʊ, | û | yu, yu | yu, yu | iu |
35 | Yaya | I | , | â | ya | ya | ia |
See also
Notes
Literature
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- (Mongolian) Tümenčečeg. 1990. Dumdadu ǰaγun-u mongγul kelen-ü toγačin ögülekü tölüb-ün kelberi-nügüd ba tegün-ü ularil kögǰil. Öbür mongγul-un yeke surγaγuli, 3: 102-120.
- The end of the Altaic controversy (review of Starostin et al. 2003)
- Walker, Rachel. 1997. Mongolian stress, licensing, and factorial typology. Rutgers Optimality Archive, ROA-172.
- (German) Weiers, Michael. 1969. Untersuchungen zu einer historischen Grammatik des präklassischen Schriftmongolisch. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. Asiatische Forschungen, 28. (Revision of 1966 dissertation submitted to the Universität Bonn.)
- Yu, Wonsoo. 1991. A study of Mongolian negation. Ph. D. Thesis. Bloomington: Indiana University.
Links
- Monumenta Altaica - Altai linguistics - grammars, texts, dictionaries; everything about Mongolian languages and peoples.
The territory of distribution of Mongolian languages and dialects is not continuous; there are quite a few Mongolian peoples living at a considerable distance from the main body of the Mongols, in the midst of other linguistic and ethnocultural elements. In addition, today within the Mongolian zones there are enclaves of Turkic and Tungus-Manchu languages, and there are also many zones of contact between Mongolian languages and Sino-Tibetan, Slavic and others. This picture is not new; already in ancient times, zones were formed in which representatives of not only the listed language groups, but also Samoyeds, Paleo-Asians, Koreans, and Iranians lived next to the Mongols.
During periods of extended migrations of the Huns, Avars, and Tatars, the Mongols found themselves among the Indo-European and Turkic peoples. After the collapse of the Mongol Empire, individual groups of Mongols found themselves separated from the main body of the Mongol-speaking population. One of the last major migrations was the movement of the Oirats in the 17th century to the Volga, where they gradually formed into a new ethnic group - the Kalmyks. All this predetermined the noticeable difference of some branches of the Mongolian language tree from each other, as well as the diversity of writing systems. For example, such an ethnic group as the Dagur (Daurs) certainly have a language of the Mongolian group, but with such a large percentage of common vocabulary with the Tungus-Manchu languages that for a long time it was considered Tungusic. The Mongols who found themselves in Khuhe-nur (Kukunor), the central regions of modern China, intensively absorbed elements of the Sino-Tibetan languages. The peculiarities of the language of the 13th century were preserved by small Mongolian ethnic groups in China (Bao'an, Mongors) and Afghanistan (Mughals). The ancestors of the Buryats, who settled over a vast territory around Lake Baikal, from ancient times had close contact with the ethnic groups of the Turkic and Tungus-Manchu groups, adopting from them part of the vocabulary and, possibly, some features of phonetics. The Buryat language, phonetically, has become one of the most unique Mongolian languages, despite the fact that the ancestors of the Buryats lived in territorial contact with the bulk of the Mongols for almost a millennium.
All main dialects of the Buryat language are characterized by the absence of affricates, the presence of the sound “h” (pharyngeal spirant) in place of the common Mongolian -s, as well as some words not found in other Mongolian languages. Some Mongolian archaisms, such as the sound “k”, were preserved among the Nizhneudin Buryats and Onon Khamnigans.
The Khorin dialect, which formed the basis of literary Buryat, had all the features that distinguished it from the languages of neighboring Mongolian peoples, such as Khalkha and the late medieval Oirat dialects. The same features brought Khorinsky closer to the dialects of the Lena-Angara and Sayan-Angara Buryats - Ekhirits, Bulagats and Khongodors. This fact proves that already in the 13th century, characteristic features appeared that later constituted the distinctive features of the Buryat language. The fact is that a significant part of the Khorin residents during the turbulent years of the formation of the Mongol Empire were forced to leave the Baikal region, where they returned only in 1594-1613. Having returned to their ancestral home, the Khorin people spent less than fifty years in close contact with the speakers of the Ekhirit-Bulagat dialect. In the 1640s, the territorial connection between Khorinsky and Ekhirit-Bulagat had already disappeared, but common Buryat features were recorded in both dialects. Obviously, this community could not have developed only through mutual influences in just over forty years of not very close contact.
Approximately the same can be said about the language of the Buryat ethnic group Khongodor, which has all the listed Buryat properties, while it is almost equally close to Ekhirit-Bulagat and Khorin. The origin of the Khongodors is still controversial among scientists, but their language irrefutably indicates that this ethnic group originates from the same common territory in which the ancestors of the Khorians and speakers of Ekhirit-Bulagat dialects lived together. The sound “h”, the absence of affricates and general specific terminology laid the foundations for the uniqueness of the Buryat language, which existed until the 13th century and has survived to this day, despite the difficult trials that befell the speakers of these dialectal features and the centuries they spent far from their ancestral home .
The dialect of the Mongols who lived in the territory between lakes Khubsugul and Baikal, along the Angara and the upper reaches of the Lena, in the mountainous regions of the Eastern Sayan, of course, did not develop immediately. By the time Genghis Khan's power was formed, it was already quite developed and possessed some of its stable features. In particular, the sound “h” instead of “s” was clearly present in the language of the ethnic groups of the region already in that era. To a lesser extent than the Buryats, this feature is also present among the Yakuts, who included and were later assimilated by the Turks the Mongol-speaking ethnic groups of the Baikal region. The break between the ancestors of the Buryats and the Mongol-speaking part of the ancestors of the Yakuts apparently took place around the 13th century.
In turn, these facts indicate that the ethnic groups who spoke the “h dialect” lived in a special ethnolinguistic and ethnocultural zone for quite a long time, and the formation of their dialect was actively influenced by contacts with languages with which they were not in contact, or contacted in to a lesser extent, dialects of Onon-Kerulen and other Mongols. This zone was most likely located over a vast area around the lake. Khubsugol, on the western coast of Lake Baikal, along the Eastern Sayan, the Angara and Lena rivers.
Another large Mongol-speaking zone, probably from ancient times, occupied the areas of modern Manchuria, Eastern Mongolia, and the sources and upper reaches of the Amur. As a matter of fact, according to one theory, it was here that the proto-Mongolian language took shape, from which all subsequent languages and dialects of the Mongols branched off. The formation of Proto-Mongolian took place under the conditions of the collapse of the Proto-Altai linguistic community. The search for the ancestral home of the Mongols is correlated with the data of linguistic reconstruction of proto-lexicons. Among the common Mongolian names of the main ungulates, fur-bearing animals and predators of the taiga zone, there are no Turkic parallels, but there are Tungus-Manchu and, what is especially interesting, Samoyed. In Proto-Altai, only terms denoting the species of red deer, wapiti or deer are obvious. Until now, the names of the male and female of this animal are impressively close in all three Altai groups. Mongol-Turkic parallels are revealed in the semantic groups of names of wild and, partly, domestic animals associated with the steppe landscape. But the names of domestic horse, mare and foal in Mongolian differ sharply from Turkic, while revealing complete analogies in the Tungus-Manchu languages, the common “ancestor” of which apparently originated close to Proto-Mongolian.
(Inner Mongolia)
Mongolian ( Mongol Hal , Mongol khel)- the official language of Mongolia in 1921. Belongs to the Mongolian group of languages. The literary language develops on the basis of the Khalkha dialect. Mongolian is also spoken in the Chinese province of Inner Mongolia, although the number of speakers there has been declining over time, the Russian Far East and Kyrgyzstan. The total number of speakers is about 5 million. The modern language (with its dialects) was formed in the XIV-XVI centuries on the basis of one of the dialects of the ancient Mongolian language.
Most speakers in Mongolia speak the Khalkha dialect; those living in China speak the Chahar, Oirat, and Barg-Buryat groups of dialects.
1. Classification of the Mongolian language
The Altaic language theory supports the hypothesis that the Mongolian language family is part of the larger Altaic family, which also includes the Turkic and Tungusic languages. Associated languages include Kalmyk, whose speakers live near the Caspian Sea, and the Buryat language of Eastern Siberia, as well as a number of minor languages in China and the Mughal language of Afghanistan.
2. Geographical distribution
More than two million people speak Mongolian in Mongolia. In addition to three million native speakers of Northern China, they constitute a minority of the population of Inner Mongolia. This is especially true for cities. Mongol Khalkha is the national language of Mongolia. In Inner Mongolia, standard Mongolian is based on the Mongol Chahar dialect.
2.1. Dictionary
The vocabulary of the Mongolian language includes quite a few historical borrowings, especially from the old Turkic languages, Sanskrit (often via Uyghur), Tibetan, Chinese and Tungusic, supplemented by more recent borrowings from Russian, Chinese and English. Mongolia's language commissions have made efforts to transfer the latest terminology into the Mongolian language, thus producing Mongolian words such as president "jer?nhijl?gč" ("generalizer") and beer "sloy airag" ("yellow kumiss"). There are also a small number of cripples, such as "population" h?n from Chinese r?nkŏu (人口, population).
2.2. Morphology
Modern Mongolian is an aglutive, exclusively suffixal language. Most suffixes consist of a single morpheme. Mongolian has a rich range of morphemes, which allows you to create complex words from simple roots. For example, a word consists of a root, to "be", an insertive, causative (then for "foundation"), a derived suffix, which forms nouns created by action ("organization"), and a complex suffix, which means anything pertaining to the changed words (would be generic).
Mongolian has eight cases:
The main difference between modern dialects is the use of africata j, dz, c, h; There are whistling-hissing dialects (in which all four sounds are present) and sibilant dialects (in which there are only j, h).
The structure of modern language differs from the ancient one, among other things, in the absence of personal-predicative particles.
Since ancient times, the Mongolian language has been written in a special vertical script. This letter is still used in Chinese Inner Mongolia. In Mongolia itself, starting in 1945, the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced with the addition of two letters (ө, ү). The Cyrillic alphabet is still used to write the Mongolian language.
3. Group of Mongolian languages
Khalkha Mongolian language is part of the Mongolian language family. This family is divided into the following groups: Northern Mongolian languages: Buryat, Kalmyk, Ordos, Khamnigan, Oirat South-Mongolian languages: Dagurska, Shira-Yugur, Dongxiangska, Baoanska, then language (Mongorska), a separate Mughal in Afghanistan. These languages are quite close to each other.
The differences between the language of the Mongols of the MR and the language of the Mongols of Inner Mongolia affect phonetics, as well as such morphological parameters, which are very variable within the Mongolian family, such as the set of participial forms and the presence/absence of some peripheral case forms. The same type of differences exist between dialects both within the Mongolian language of Mongolia proper and within the Mongolian language of Inner Mongolia. In reality, it is one language, divided by a state border, with many dialects represented on both sides. This includes the umbrella term modern Mongolian; In total, over 5 million (according to other estimates - up to 6 million) people speak it, that is, more than 3/4 of the total Mongol-speaking population. Close to 6 thousand Mongols live in Taiwan; 3,000 according to the 1989 census lived in the USSR. The division has consequences mainly of a Zovnishnyom nature: in the MR and in Inner Mongolia there are different literary norms (in the latter case the norm is based on the old written language), in addition, the dialects of Inner Mongolia have experienced significant influence from Chinese in the field of vocabulary and intonation.
4. Historical Mongolian languages
With an even broader interpretation of the concept, the “Mongolian language” expands not only geographically, but also historically, and then it includes the post-galal Mongolian language, which existed until about the 12th century, as well as the old written Mongolian language - the common literary language of all Mongolian tribes from the 13th to the 17th centuries . The dialectal basis of the latter is unclear; in fact, it has always been a purely written supra-dialectal form, which was facilitated by the fact that the written language (basically Uyghur) did not very accurately convey the phonetics of words, leveling out inter-dialectal differences.
Perhaps this language was formed by one of the Mongol tribes that were destroyed or completely assimilated during the emergence of the empire of Genghis Khan (probably the Naimans). It is generally accepted that Old Script Mongolian reflects an older stage in the development of Mongolian languages than any of the known Mongolian dialects; this explains its role in the comparative historical study of Mongolian languages.
In the history of written speech, ancient (XIII-XV centuries), pre-classical (XV-XVII centuries) and classical (XVII - early XX centuries) stages are distinguished. The terms often found “Old Mongolian language” and “Middle Mongolian language” are used to designate the common, although dialectally fragmented, language of the Mongolian tribes before the 13th century and in the 13th-15th centuries, respectively. Since the 17th century, in connection with the creation of the so-called clear script (tod bichig) by Zaya-Pandit, adapted to the peculiarities of the Oirat dialects, and the formation of the Oirat literary language, the classical old written Mongolian language began to be used mainly in the eastern part of the Mongolian area - in Khalkha (Outer Mongolia) and Inner Mongolia. In Buryatia, a special Buryat form of the old written Mongolian language gradually formed. In Inner Mongolia, the old written language is still used today. In Buryatia, writing was introduced first on a Latin basis (in 1931) and then on a Cyrillic basis (in 1939). In the Mongolian People's Republic, the Cyrillic alphabet was introduced in 1945. Accordingly, new literary languages developed there. In post-communist Mongolia, and partly in Buryatia, interest in the old written language in our time [ When? ] is being revived, its teaching is being actively carried out.
The language of the monuments of the so-called “square script” of the 13th-14th centuries. due to the presence of a number of structural features, it is sometimes considered as a special variety of the Mongolian language.
5. Writing systems
At different times, various alphabets were used to write Mongolian. The Uyghur alphabet was adapted to the Mongolian in 1208. This Mongolian alphabet was used in Mongolia until 1931, when the Latin alphabet was introduced, and finally the Cyrillic alphabet in 1937. The traditional alphabet was abolished by the pro-Soviet government in 1941, and a short-lived attempt to revive the traditional alphabet after 1990 was abandoned after a few years.
In China, Mongolian, along with Chinese, is an official language in some regions in Inner Mongolia. They always used the traditional alphabet, although a transition to the Cyrillic alphabet was considered before the Sino-Soviet crisis occurred. In China, two types of Mongolian script are used - the classic, official among the Mongols on a state scale, and the clear script, which is used mainly by the Oirats in Khingan.
The modified Cyrillic alphabet used in Mongolian is as follows:
Cyrillic | Name | IPA | Translation | Cyrillic | Name | IPA | Translation | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ahh | A | a | A | pp | pe | (pʰ), (pʰʲ) | n | |
BB | bae | pʲ | b | GG | er | rʲ | r | |
Vv | VE | w ʲ | V | Ss | es | s | With | |
GG | ge | ɡ , ɡ ʲ , ɢ | G | Tt | te | tʰ, tʰʲ | T | |
Dd | de | tʲ | d | Ooh | V | ʊ | V | |
Her | e | jε ~ jɜ, e | There is | Үү | ү | u | ? | |
Her | e | jɔ | e | Ff | FE ~ fa ~ ef | (F) | f | |
LJ | zhe | ʧ | same | Xx | heh~ha | x, xʲ | X | |
Zz | ze | ʦ | With | Tsts | tse | ʦ ʰ | ts | |
Ii | And | i | And | Hh | che | ʧ ʰ | h | |
Yikes | Khagas and | j | And | Shh | i~ash | ʃ | w | |
Kk | ka | (kʲ) | To | Shch | sha ~ eshche | (sʧ) | sch | |
Ll | el | ɮ , ɮ ʲ | l | Kommersant | hatuugiin temdeg | " | " | |
Mm | Em | mʲ | m | Yyy | er ugiyn y | i: | And | |
Nn | en | nʲ | n | bb | golden temdeg | " | b | |
Ooh | V | ɔ | V | Uh | There is | e | e | |
Өө | ө | o | V | Yuyu | yu | jʊ | yu | |
Yaya | I | ja | I |
Үү and Өө are sometimes written as Vv and Э, predominantly using Russian keyboard software that does not support them.
6. Example
"Testament" of T. Shevchenko in Mongolian language (translated by Mishigiin Tsedendorzh)
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