What AK 12 looks like. Differences from previous modifications
AK-12
New domestic machine gun
About the machine AK-12 They have been talking and writing for a long time, but few people have any idea what he is. It is known that the development of a new machine gun has been carried out on an initiative basis since June 2011 under the leadership of the chief designer of Izhmash, Vladimir Viktorovich Zlobin.
In 2011, assembly was completed and testing began on the first prototype of the fifth-generation Kalashnikov assault rifle with the working title AK-12.
The machine was first shown in January 2012. Externally AK-12 not much different from the famous Kalasha. The only thing that catches your eye is the different shape of the butt. In addition to the fact that it is easily removable, the length of the butt can be adjusted, and its cheek and butt pad are also adjustable in height. If you turn the rod with the hinge and the mate in the receiver to the other side, you can change the direction of folding the butt. This butt continues the axis of the barrel, which in theory should lead to an increase in the accuracy of fire in automatic mode.
The muzzle device of the machine gun has also changed, now making it possible to use foreign-made rifle grenades.
AK-12 with all kinds of attachments
Other external difference from the AK-74 consists of the presence of Picatinny rails, allowing the use of various attachments, including night and optical sights, tactical flashlights and a standard under-barrel grenade launcher GP-25, GP-30 or GP-34.
GP-34
Upon closer inspection, other changes become noticeable. Thus, the bolt handle is shifted forward onto the piston rod and can now be moved to left side. The rather tight fire selector of the Kalashnikov Automatic has now been replaced by a new one, which now has four positions - safety, automatic fire, single fire and firing in fixed bursts of three shots. This design of the translator also helped to get rid of the fundamental drawback of all previous generations AK - open gap behind the window for ejecting cartridges with the fuse removed, through which dirt and dust could get inside receiver.
The receiver cover now cannot be removed, but folds back like a machine gun.
Machine AK-12 equipped with a new diopter sight with an increased length of the aiming line, which led to increased shooting accuracy during single fire. In the automatic firing mode, the rate of fire is 600 rounds per minute, in the mode with a burst of three shots - 1000 rounds per minute. You can change the position of the translator thumb either hand, without lifting your index finger from the trigger.
The pistol grip fire control now has protrusions for the fingers and resembles the one that was on the first Thompsons. For better access to the shutter stop button and magazine release, the handle is moved forward and the trigger guard is shortened. The magazine release lever itself has been lengthened and slightly shifted back, and now you can reach it with your finger resting on the handle. When the last cartridge is used up, the bolt delay is activated, and when the magazine is changed, when it presses on the latch, the bolt is released from this delay and sends the first cartridge into the chamber.
An additional foregrip, similar to the one found on the German MP5, is shown on the prototype, but will most likely be optional.
AK-12 with disc magazine and under-barrel grenade launcher
A disc magazine designed for up to 95 rounds will also be optional. A four-row magazine with a capacity of 60 rounds is also provided.
But the main 30-round magazine has also changed: it now has a different feeder, which includes a bolt stop. The height of the store has also decreased somewhat. Basically on AK-12 You can also use old magazines from previous generation AKs.
The ballistics of the machine gun remained the same: in a 415-millimeter-long barrel, a 3.4-gram bullet is accelerated by a 1.45-gram powder charge to 900 meters per second. True, it is argued that inner surface The barrel is now made more carefully. On the 5.45-mm version, the results of this thoroughness are not noticeable, but in the 7.62-mm version, a 7.9-gram bullet in a barrel of the same length with the same cartridge is accelerated not to 715, but to 750-meter speed. True, so initial speed was already achieved on the AK-109.
In general Kalash remained Kalash, and no modernization will change its basic constructive idea and the philosophy on the basis of which it was created. Despite all the changes, this machine gun, even in the form of an AK-12, will remain the weapon of millions.
At the beginning of 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defense adopted two pairs of assault rifles: Izhevsk AK-12 and AK-15 and Kovrov 6P67 (AEK-971) and 6P68 (AEK-973). It would seem that this very fact suggests that competing projects in the battle for the status of the country's main machine gun were on equal terms. But few people know that initially the AK was almost doomed to defeat.
Let us recall that the competition for the creation of a new machine gun was announced by the Russian Ministry of Defense in 2012. Kovrov Mechanical Plant presented models from the AEK-971 family for it.
Logically, they could compete with models from Izhmash with balanced automatics: AK-107 caliber 5.45 millimeters, AK-108 caliber 5.56 millimeters and AK-109 caliber 7.62x39 millimeters.
However, the plant was experiencing a crisis at that time, came new manager, who had the idea to create a “21st century machine gun” almost from scratch. This project, called AK-12, was sent to the Ratnik competition in 2013, although initially there were no such plans.
Since there were not enough resources to develop a new machine gun in two calibers at once, the 7.62 mm model was represented by the AK-103-3. But after preliminary tests, the Kovrov machine gun won. And Izhmash could participate in the competition only on its own initiative.
Well, the conclusion issued in 2015 based on the results of state tests sounded like a verdict: “The A-545 and A-762 assault rifles, after modification, are recommended for mass production and military testing. The AK-12 and AK-103-3 assault rifles did not meet the TTZ requirements and did not pass state tests. Further refinement is recommended at the expense of the developer."
This is how the attempt to create a machine gun from scratch backfired. The developers have moved away from time-tested technical solutions.
A complete abandonment of the project would seriously damage the plant's reputation. But developing it with your own funds was risky. After all, the AK-12, in addition to many technical shortcomings, was not adapted to technical processes enterprises. The unification of the machine was no more than 10 percent. And this means that ultimately the creation of a new weapon would cost 5-6 times more than the AK-74M.
A way out of the stalemate was found after another change in the plant's management. In 2015, the new general director, Alexey Krivoruchko, invited the head of Molot-Weapon, Sergei Urzhumtsev, to the position of general designer.
They abandoned the failed AK-12 and set about creating an assault rifle based on previous Izhevsk developments. This is how the project, originally called AK-400, came into being.
They decided to create a new model through a deep modernization of the AK-74.
The project was also based on developments on the AK-103-3 from the first stage of the Ratnik. The result was an automatic machine on which it was possible to install all the necessary modern sighting systems on a unified base such as a Picatinny rail.
It was possible to increase the stability, accuracy and accuracy of fire by thoroughly redesigning the gas outlet assembly, gas tube, receiver and barrel with barrel fittings.
The machine gun “learned” to fire in bursts of 2 shots, acquired a folding stock and removable muzzle devices.
The level of unification of the new AK-12 with the basic AK-74M model was about 54 percent.
In all tests, the AK-12 and AK-15 were almost on a par with their Kovrov competitors. The differences in combat effectiveness were extremely minor.
But as for the cost, the Kovrov models 6P67 and 6P68 will cost the state budget about 10 times more than the AK-74M. But the cost of the AK-12 is only slightly higher than that of its predecessor.
The AK-12 and AK-15 models, according to the Kalashnikov concern, will be improved even after they are put into service.
Within internal project"AK-EVO" plans to improve ergonomics. In particular, they will develop more convenient “double-sided” fire switches, new sights, forends and butts. The modularity of the design will also be increased.
A significant part of these modifications can eventually be used on serial AK-12 and AK-15 assault rifles.
At the same time, gunsmiths are working on a new promising platform. They started with compact samples AM-17 and AMB-17. The layout solutions are based on the ideas of the classic Izhevsk weapons school - Evgeniy Fedorovich Dragunov. They were “multiplied” by modern materials and technologies.
" is a phrase familiar all over the world. This weapon, due to its simplicity and reliability, as well as lethal force, is used in many countries, and is even present on the flags of some of them.
But everything goes on and everything changes, the old models of assault rifles - AKM, AK-74, AK-74M - can no longer provide complete advantage on the battlefield. And one of latest developments, or rather modernizations legendary weapons became new machine Kalashnikov, which received the designation AK-12 and embodied in its design all the latest developments, while retaining the best features of its predecessors.
History of creation
To modernize the famous machine gun, it was created special group on the basis of the design bureau of OJSC NPO Izhmash (since 2013, Kalashnikov Concern). Its leadership was entrusted to the chief designer of the plant, V.V. Zlobin. The project included the use of promising developments in the field of modernization small arms over the past 10 years.
Prototype was created in 2011, and the design team worked practically on sheer enthusiasm - there was no government funding for this project.
This was due to the fact that more than 15 million old versions of the AK were stored in army warehouses and refinery storage facilities and the army leadership, not being able to write them off, was in no hurry to exchange one for another.
The new AK, presented as a 5th generation assault rifle, was first shown in January 2012.
However, its advantages were appreciated only in June 2012 at a presentation that was held for representatives of various law enforcement agencies. That is why it received the designation AK-12, although it was completed a year earlier.
But even after this, the development did not receive financial support from the state. The reasons were the same military leadership, hiding behind identified minor flaws, did not allow new version AK will receive the recognition it deserves.
However, oddly enough, such a delay only benefited the machine: during numerous modifications, some of its characteristics were improved, which made the machine even more efficient and simpler.
More specifically, the design of the bolt stop was changed, the double-sided reloading handle (cocking the bolt) again acquired its one-sided version, which also applies to the fire mode switch.
The gas group with the receiver has undergone changes.
It was at this stage that the receiver cover, as well as the receiver lining, acquired built-in Picatinny rails.
In 2015, a revised version was presented, which nevertheless received approval from the leadership of the Ministry of Defense. It was adopted as part of a new set of “Ratnik” equipment, intended for squad fighters special purpose.
However, work to improve the machine gun does not stop to this day; the Kalashnikov Concern Design Bureau is trying to take into account all the comments of specialists and experts.
Description of the Kalashnikov AK-12 assault rifle
AK-12 is an assault rifle ( automatic carbine in NATO qualification) chambered for the 5.45*39mm cartridge developed by the Kalashnikov Concern. Compared to previous versions assault rifle (AK-74M and AKM), the new one has improved ergonomics.
The modernizations carried out led to an increase in the accuracy of fire and increased the already considerable margin of reliability of the carbine - this primarily concerns the barrel, for the production of which they began to use new technology.
The AK-12 is positioned as a new platform on the basis of which it is planned to produce weapons different calibers and in a variety of directions - both military and civilian.
The automation used in the new carbine has a long stroke of the gas piston. The trigger and bolt groups of the AK-74, taken as a basis, were modified. For example, the use of a new receiver cover made it possible not only to make the structure lighter, but also more rigid, given that it is on it that part of the Picatinny rail is located.
As a result of the changes, the total mass of the bolt group has shifted. The buttstock became telescopic and was able to fold in both directions. In addition, it can be adjusted in length, as well as in the height of the cheek.
Greater stability when conducting automatic fire is acquired due to the location of the central axis line of the barrel at the same level as the butt.
This not only reduces the amount of barrel toss (bulge), but also contributes to more effective recoil damping.
Together with the displaced total mass bolt group, this made it possible to improve the accuracy of fire. Accuracy has increased due to changes in the design of the sighting group.
They include moving the rear sight to the rear of the receiver, the ability to adjust the front sight, both in the vertical and horizontal planes (for this, a special screwdriver is included in the spare parts kit).
The four-position safety switch is now located on both sides, which allows you to easily change the “shooting hand” during combat. It has the following provisions:
- “od” – single fire;
- “series” – fixed burst for 3 rounds;
- “continuous fire” – a burst without restrictions on fired ammunition;
- "fuse".
Another important innovation was the bolt stop. This feature allows you to save time when quickly reloading a weapon, in particular when equipping a new magazine to replace an empty one.
As already mentioned, the carbine is equipped with built-in Picatinny rails, which allows it to use the full range of the latest sighting devices, as well as fire control handles (included), under-barrel lights and grenade launchers, including Russian ones of earlier production.
The latter are mounted on a bar located on the lower part of the forend. New design of the DTK ( muzzle brake-compensator) makes it possible to use foreign-made rifle grenades. For these purposes, it was reduced in diameter.
The changes also affected the barrel.
First of all, its manufacturing technology, which entailed an increase in its combat life and increased shooting accuracy. The latter is facilitated by changes in the shape of the rifling and bullet entry.
Especially for the new carbine, the same Kalashnikov Concern developed a removable silencer new design. Depending on the caliber, the AK-12 can use standard AK-74 or AKM magazines.
It also supports the recently introduced 60-round magazines, which have a four-row stack, and 95-round drum magazines. The magazine latch has been lengthened and slightly moved back - this allows you to operate the machine gun with one hand, which is very useful, for example, when a soldier is wounded.
TTX
Caliber | 5.45*39mm |
Weapon length | 730mm (with stock folded)/940mm (with stock expanded) |
Weapon weight (without ammunition) | 3.2kg |
Barrel length | 415mm |
Initial bullet speed | 900m/s |
Rate of fire | 650 rounds per minute |
Sighting range | 1000m |
Effective range | 600m |
Magazine capacity | 30/60 rounds (box magazine), 95 rounds (drum magazine) |
Advantages of the AK-12 over previous AK models
The main differences are presented in the following list:
- Equipped with a shutter stop.
- Increased accuracy when firing in automatic and semi-automatic modes.
- Duplicating the safety switch and the bolt stop lever on reverse side carbine This is relevant when changing the “shooting hand” or for left-handed shooters.
- Improved ergonomics.
- Pre-installed Picatinny rails on the receiver and pickguard, as well as on the bottom of the handguard.
- A new design of the butt, which allows not only to fold it in both directions, but to adjust its length, as well as the height of the butt plate, which naturally affects the ease of use of the weapon.
- The reloading handle can be installed on either side of the machine.
- High quality and technical changes in the design of the trigger group.
- A new muzzle brake device that expands the scope of application of the AK-12, in particular for the use of foreign rifle grenades.
- New technologies for barrel processing and production.
- Updated sight, with the ability to quickly replace it.
Bottom line
AK-12 is the direct successor legendary slot machines AK-74 and AKM. Considering that it is a fusion of the best from its predecessors and latest technologies, this machine gun will become a reliable companion for the modern Russian fighter on for many years.
Video
AK-12 | |
---|---|
5.45 mm AK-12 assault rifle |
|
Type: | Machine |
Country: | Russia |
Production history | |
Constructor: | V. V. Zlobin |
Designed by: | 2011 |
Manufacturer: | Izhevsk Machine-Building Plant |
Characteristics | |
Weight, kg: | 3.3 (without magazine) |
Length, mm: | 945/725 with stock extended/folded |
Barrel length, mm: | 415 |
Cartridge: | “light” version - 5.45×39 mm, 7.62×39 mm, 5.56×45 mm “heavy” version - 7.62×51 mm NATO (See) |
Operating principles: | removal of powder gases, long piston stroke, butterfly valve |
Rate of fire, shots/min: |
650/1000 (with cut-offs of 3 rounds) |
Initial bullet speed, m/s: | 900 |
Maximum range, m: |
1000 |
Type of ammunition: | 30- and 60-round box magazines, 95-round drum magazines |
Sight: | removable combined sector, sighting line length - 414(open)/583(dioptric) mm |
Images on Wikimedia Commons: | AK-12 |
AK-12- the latest Kalashnikov assault rifle of the 2012 model, a Russian assault rifle of 5.45 mm caliber, promising development concern "Izhmash". The AK-12 assault rifle is being developed for export, although its key parameters also correspond to modern requirements Ministry of Defense. The AK-12 assault rifle has a well-recognized “Kalashnikov” silhouette, obviously not in last resort, for marketing reasons.
The weapon controls have been significantly redesigned for the convenience of users, the fire safety switch has been changed and duplicated on the left side, and a slide stop has been introduced, the button of which is also located on both sides. For better access to the shutter stop button and magazine release, the hold handle has been moved forward and the trigger guard has been shortened. The magazine latch lever itself has been lengthened and slightly shifted back; it can now be reached with a finger resting on the handle, and when the latch is turned off, the cartridge will be automatically extracted from the neck of the magazine.
The easily removable stock can be folded in both directions, it is telescopic, and the cheek and butt plate of the butt are adjustable in height. A removable, non-folding plastic stock has also been developed, with which, obviously, the machine gun is lighter due to the lack of a hinge with its locking mechanism and other adjustments. Another innovation is the use of Picatinny rails to secure both versions of the stock in the receiver - short sections of them are located at the end of the stocks.
The bolt handle has been moved forward onto the piston rod and can now be moved to the left side. Along the way, this also made it possible to get rid of the fundamental drawback of all previous modifications of the AK - an open gap behind the window for ejecting cartridges with the safety removed, through which dirt and dust could get inside the receiver. In the AK-12, this slot under the bolt handle (already in front of the window for extracting cartridges), regardless of the position of the safety, is now always covered by the piston rod. But due to such a radical redesign, it was necessary to significantly lengthen the receiver cover, which is hinged on the receiver in the front part and can be folded up and forward for disassembly. Similar hinged covers with a Picatinny rail with a conventional layout (AK103-3, Saiga 12, Vityaz) are shorter and more convenient during disassembly. In addition, such a solution (two slots on the sides of the piston rod with a long stroke) will increase gas contamination in the area of the shooter's face.
The muzzle brake-compensator has been redesigned and reduced in diameter to allow shooting with guns rifle grenades However, the sample shown does not yet have the gas regulator required for this. In addition to the Picatinny rails located on top of the receiver cover, receiver lining and the bottom of the forend, the AK-12 assault rifle also has two short guides on the sides of the forend and one on top of the gas chamber. The lower Picatinny rail does not interfere with the installation of standard under-barrel grenade launchers GP-25, GP-30 or GP-34.
The machine gun can use the same magazines as the AK74/RPK74 (including 4-row and experimental drum magazines with 95 rounds). But to make the bolt stop work for the AK-12, new magazines are being developed. In particular, at the end of June at the exhibition “Technologies in Mechanical Engineering - 2012” it was shown new store for 30 rounds with a modified feeder.
Story
Options
The manufacturer plans to produce the AK-12 in two versions: light - for traditional intermediate cartridges 5.45x39 mm; 5.56×45; 6.5 Grendel or 7.62x39 mm; and also heavy - chambered for 7.62×51 NATO cartridges. The AK-12 is being created as a basic platform, on the basis of which about 20 will be developed in the future. various modifications small arms for civil and military purposes. In particular, shortened versions, a submachine gun, hunting rifle and a shotgun.
Differences from previous modifications
Photo of AK-12 with possible options supply stores and attachments(presentation)
Features of AK-12:
Notes
Links
- Alexander Kalinin. Gunsmiths will have to rearm. NTV, May 25, 2010
- Pyotr Sapozhnikov.
Kalashnikov AK-12 assault rifle, prototype shown in 2013
Kalashnikov AK-12 assault rifle, a prototype that underwent initial testing under the Ratnik program in 2013-14.
Kalashnikov AK-12 assault rifle, the variant that successfully passed the “Ratnik” tests in 2016 and was recommended for adoption
photo: Kalashnikov Concern
Kalashnikov AK-12 assault rifle, the variant that successfully passed the “Ratnik” tests in 2016 and was recommended for adoption
photo: Kalashnikov Concern
The Kalashnikov AK-15 assault rifle, which is a 2016 version of the AK-12 assault rifle chambered for 7.62x39 cartridge, complete with a tactical silencer
Caliber |
5.45 x39 |
|
Automation type |
gas outlet |
|
Weapon length, mm |
880-940 (690 with stock folded) |
|
Barrel length, mm |
||
Weight without cartridges, kg |
||
Rate of fire, rounds/min |
||
Magazine capacity, cartridges |
5.45mm Kalashnikov AK-12 (GRAU index 6P70) is promising example individual small arms developed by the Kalashnikov Concern and intended to equip soldiers of the Armed Forces and others law enforcement agencies. The AK-12 was created to replace the assault rifle in service.
The development of the assault rifle was started in 2011 by the IZHMASH plant (now part of the Kalashnikov concern) on its own initiative. The first AK-12 projects were developed under the leadership of Vladimir Zlobin from Tula, who was invited to IZHMASH in 2011. In 2013, the 5.45mm AK-12 assault rifle was entered into the Russian Defense Ministry’s “Ratnik” competition along with the 7.62mm AK-103-3 assault rifle.
The AK-12 assault rifle passed State tests in 2014, and the conclusion of the state commission was “The AK-12 assault rifle did not pass the test. Improvement recommended at the expense of the developer." The reason for this conclusion was the low reliability and operational strength of the first versions of the AK-12. An additional problem was the fact that the new machine was developed, in fact, without taking into account the specifics of those already available at IZHMASH technological processes, and even in the case of successful solution of problems regarding the reliability and strength of prototypes, its formulation in serial production would require very significant costs, both financial and time. As a result, the new management of the Kalashnikov concern decided to change the management of the project and essentially remake the machine gun to meet the requirements of the Ratnik. In 2015, under the leadership of the new chief designer Sergei Urzhumtsev, an assault rifle was developed, which initially received the factory designation “Ak-400”. This machine gun, which incorporates the main and most successful proven design and technological solutions Izhevsk Armory School, in two versions (chambered for 5.45 and 7.62mm caliber) at the end of 2015, successfully passed repeated tests, fully fulfilling all the requirements presented for the competition. In March 2016 State Commission officially approved the results of repeated tests, which indicated that both Izhevsk machine gun correspond to the issued TTT. In the spring of 2016, a pilot batch of AK-12 5.45mm and AK-15 7.62mm assault rifles was produced, and they were aimed at military tests in departments Russian army which were successfully completed in 2017, while most of the interviewed test participants, answering the question “which machine gun would you go into battle with,” gave preference to Izhevsk samples, and not their competitors developing ZiD (with balanced automation). In January 2018, information appeared that the AK-12 and AK-15 assault rifles were officially approved by the Russian Ministry of Defense and recommended for arming units of the Russian Army; mass production of these assault rifles should begin in Izhevsk at the end of 2018. On the basis of the AK-12 and AK-15, the shortened AK-12K and AK-15K assault rifles, first shown in 2017, were developed, as well as the promising light machine gun.
7.62mm Kalashnikov AK-15 (GRAU index 6P71) is a variant of the AK-12 assault rifle, model 2016, chambered for the 7.62x39 cartridge, model 1943. The AK-15 assault rifle was created as a small weapon special units and is intended to replace the 7.62mm Kalashnikov family assault rifles in service with previous generations, and. Like its predecessors, the machine gun can be used with special cartridges with a subsonic bullet speed of 7.62x39 US, which, in combination with a shot silencer, ensure truly low-noise shooting from the weapon. which is important when conducting special operations.
The description below matches final versions AK-12 and AK-15 assault rifles, which have passed all tests and are recommended for adoption by the Russian Army.
The 5.45mm AK-12 assault rifle and its 7.62mm variant AK-15 retain the gas-operated automatic mechanism traditional for Kalashnikov assault rifles with locking by turning the bolt and can use magazines from previous generations of 5.45mm assault rifles of the AK-74 family and 7.62mm AKM, respectively. The gas outlet assembly, gas tube, receiver and barrel have been significantly redesigned in order to increase the accuracy of fire in all modes. The gas tube is rigidly fixed in the receiver, cannot be removed during disassembly and has a removable plug in the front for cleaning. The new design of the handguard and the receiver guard are rigidly fixed to the gas tube and receiver and do not touch the barrel (the so-called “floated handguard”), which increases stability and accuracy of fire when in various ways holding the machine gun, with or without a stop.
The cocking handle is part of the bolt frame and is located on the right side of the weapon. The safety switch for fire modes is located on the right, has 4 positions (safety - automatic fire - burst of 2 shots - single), and has an additional “shelf” for index finger, providing more convenient switching of fire modes without changing the grip of the shooting hand.
The Kalashnikov AK-12 (AK-15) assault rifle is equipped with Picatinny rails on the receiver cover and receiver lining, which ensures convenient and repeatable installation of day and night sights various types. The design of the receiver cover is removable, is attached to the receiver using a transverse pin in the front part and has spring-loaded elements in the rear part to eliminate the influence of backlash. Cover fastening ensures zeroing is maintained installed sights after disassembling and assembling the weapon, as well as during active use. The forend also has additional Picatinny rails on the bottom and sides for installation. additional accessories. The machine gun is equipped with a folding buttstock adjustable in length. The buttstock is made of impact-resistant plastic with steel reinforcement and can withstand weapon drops on concrete, shooting from underbarrel grenade launcher and the use of weapons in hand-to-hand combat. A removable muzzle brake-compensator is installed on the barrel; in addition, it is possible to install a bayonet or a quick-detachable tactical silencer. It is possible to install a 40mm grenade launcher or . A pencil case with cleaning accessories is located in the pistol grip of the weapon, a collapsible three-section cleaning rod is located in the butt tube.
incomplete disassembly AK-12 assault rifle - dismantling the receiver cover |
incomplete disassembly of the AK-12 assault rifle - dismantling the elements of the forend. The non-removable gas tube and the removable plug in its front part are clearly visible |
- Anton Siluanov, Minister of Finance
- Protection of consumer rights: insurance contract - legal services of the Legas company Protection of rights under an insurance contract
- Consolidated register of the territorial body of the federal treasury
- Why are whales interesting? What do whales hear? The closest relatives of whales are hippos