What is the name of the Egyptian one? What is the history of Egypt? Museums and archaeological sites
Greek type
FOOT TYPES
Human feet can vary in size, shape, width and other parameters. But, despite all their diversity, each pair of feet can be conditionally classified into one of five main types, each of which is characteristic of people with certain character traits. The characteristics of each type are based primarily on the length of the fingers.
If you count from the largest toe (first) to the smallest (fifth), you can describe the feet as follows.
The Greek foot type is characterized by short first finger and a longer second finger, followed in descending order of length by the remaining three fingers. This type of foot is also characterized by a significant, compared to others, distance between the first and second toes. The width of Greek feet can vary from narrow to medium. Feet of this type up to 20% of people have.
People with Greek foot type characterized by a strong need to lead others. They are able to inspire others with their ideas and motivate them to action with their actions. Such people are more theorists than practitioners, although one does not exclude the other.
The Egyptian foot type is characterized by a long first toe and decreasing lengths of the remaining four toes. The width of the feet varies in the same range as the Greek type feet. People with Egyptian feet, often dreamers and visionaries, they are driven by great ideas. It is believed that they are prone to a passive life position. If besides thumbs their feet are slightly protruded, they are with great difficulty endure criticism from others. If the heels of the Egyptian feet are smaller in size than the large balls of the feet, such a person is likely to have to struggle to implement his ideas, while facing great financial difficulties.
Scots-Irish type
Scotch-Irish type feet have relatively long toes of almost equal length. People with this type of feet sensitive and caring, easy-going and, although sometimes very conservative, can still fight to expand the boundaries of their life.
The ancient Egyptian state was geographically located in the narrow Nile valley from the first cataract to the delta of the mighty river. Geographical feature, which gave a special direction to the development of Egyptian civilization, was the alternation of fertile lands and deserts. Egypt was divided into Upper, which occupied the Nile valley, and Lower, located in the delta. The Nile Valley is favorable for agriculture, so with climate change, tribes of proto-Semites, Berbers and Cushites moved here from the savannah. The Nile was the only source of moisture in the arid climate of North Africa, and population growth required an increase in the areas suitable for cultivation. Agriculture land. This is how a basin-type irrigation system of agriculture began to be created, a network of main and diversion irrigation canals, dams, and dams was built. Mineral resources in Egypt included granite, basalt, diorite, alabaster, limestone, sandstone, copper ores, gold, but there were no deposits of iron and tin, which hampered the development of technology and industrial production.
Highly productive agriculture leads to the emergence of the first societies and states here, as productive forces and production relations successfully developed. The surplus of the produced social product, especially in cattle breeding, which is characterized by large volumes of surplus product, ends up in the hands of the nobility and servants of the emerging cult. The institution of slavery emerges. The first slaves were prisoners of war - with the development of agriculture, it became profitable to use the labor of prisoners of war. This led to the emergence private property, social stratification of the community, the separation of the tribal nobility and its transformation over time into an exploitative class. The slave class began to be replenished from outside (wars and raids) and internal sources(former community members).
Before the emergence of the state, a fairly developed management organization had developed, which F. Engels called military democracy in his work “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.” "The gradual rise of the military leader in the process of establishing statehood, the strengthening of his role and influence is a characteristic feature of Egypt and many other countries Ancient East"A state apparatus is formed around the leader, consisting of members of his family and his servants, this is how one of the ancient systems government controlled.
The formation of classes led to the emergence of a state that regulated public relations in the interests of the ruling class, which ensures the construction and maintenance of irrigation systems vital for Egypt. The first states - nomes - covered several settlements and were more likely not states, but military-democratic formations. "Due to special natural conditions nomes - the oldest independent state formations located in the valley or Nile Delta - gravitated towards unification, which led to the creation of larger kingdoms." Around the end of the 4th millennium BC, two large kingdoms emerged: Upper and Lower Egypt. For some time they existed side by side and then united.
Profitable geographical position allowed Egypt to be active foreign policy, communicate with Western Asia via the Isthmus of Suez, and with countries along the Nile tropical Africa, by sea - with Arabia. But in the first stages of development, Egypt found itself isolated, which was greatly facilitated by the nomadic tribes neighboring it. Their raids made trade routes unsafe and strengthened the isolation of the Egyptian state, which, in turn, shaped Egyptian civilization as a unique historical phenomenon.
Egyptian civilization left numerous monuments material culture, including written ones, with the help of which you can get a more complete understanding of the culture and statehood of Egypt since ancient times. From written sources, the “Annals of Thutmose III”, recorded on the walls of the temple of Amun-Ra in Thebes, and the writings of the priest Monephon in Greek (IV-III centuries BC), describing the history of Egypt from ancient times, have reached us. It was he who systematized and united on the basis of kinship or characteristics domestic policy several hundred pharaohs in 30 dynasties, which are divided into 3 decades of 10 dynasties in each. This classification served as the basis for the modern periodization of the history of Ancient Egypt and the identification of its most important periods: Ancient, Middle, New and Late Kingdoms.
Archives of legal texts and documentary materials from the temple of King Neferirk, dating from the 25th-24th centuries, have also been preserved. BC, "Teachings" of the pharaohs (written on behalf of the pharaohs and addressed to descendants), containing a lot of information about the structure of the state, "Teachings" of private individuals, describing the advantages of the profession ("Teachings of Akhtoy") or giving instructions to sons about behavior in society ("Teachings of Amenemope").
“Prophecies” are a special type of didactic literature, which is a description of future misfortunes in the event of the destruction of the customary order and the existing system (“The Speech of Ipuser”, “The Speech of Neferti”). Some sources suggest that this is a description of real facts of popular uprisings, clothed in the form of prophecies.
Works of fiction ("The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant", the fairy tale "On Truth and Falsehood") provide a realistic description of the life and customs of the ancient Egyptian state. In addition, works of a religious nature have come down to us - the so-called “Book of the Dead”, “Memphis Theological Treatise” - containing rituals, spells, etc., allowing the deceased, having overcome all difficulties, to achieve eternal bliss, medical papyri.
An idea of the structure of the state in Ancient Egypt is also given by the works of ancient historians: Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch.
Numerous objects of material culture have been preserved: ancient burials, mummies, household items, excavations of ancient cities, temples, which make it possible to study the life, customs, culture and international connections Egypt.
2.1. Social system of Ancient Egypt
2.2. Government system of Ancient Egypt
Chapter 3. Characteristics of the political regime "Eastern Despotism"
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
I believe that the topic is mine course work is very relevant.
Egypt - greatest mystery antiquities. When did this state arise? Science does not give an exact answer to this question. Only indirect data determines the time when life began to boil on the banks of the Nile. In numerous scientific works and textbooks, modern Egyptologists call the “birthdays” of the country Hapi (one of the ancient names of Egypt) - the second half of the 4th millennium BC. Science since the time of Champollion, who revealed the secret of hieroglyphs, has been guided by ancient writing and material heritage - pyramids, ruins of majestic temples, surviving sculptural images.
The purpose of the course work is to consider and study the political system of the Ancient Egyptian state.
The objectives of this course work are:
Study of the causes and conditions of the emergence of the Ancient Egyptian state;
Analysis of the state and social system of Ancient Egypt;
Characteristic political regime"Eastern Despotism";
The study uses methods of cognition identified and developed by modern science, such as: dialectical, problem-theoretical, systemic, structural-functional, historical, comparative legal.
Chapter 1. The emergence of Ancient Egypt
"In the great valley of the Nile African river, it was here in this mysterious land of the pharaohs that civilization was formed. Here everything took on an original, isolated character: religion, culture, and the state. Already to the ancient Greeks, Egypt seemed like a land of wonders. Even mighty Rome, having entered into close relations with Egypt, could not tear off the mystical veil of mystery from it” 1.
The name "Egypt" is of Greek origin. “It goes back to the Egyptian name Hikupta (Ka-dom-Ptah). This was the name of the main sanctuary in Memphis. The Egyptians were the first to establish the length of the year, dividing it into twelve months of thirty days, with the addition of five more days at the end of the year. They made this discovery based on observations of celestial bodies. The Egyptian year began on July 19 with the rising of Sirius, when the Nile flooded, and lasted until the next flood. The year was divided into three times - flood, sowing, harvest. The Egyptians were also the first to erect altars, statues and temples to the gods and carve images on stone” 2.
Modern science believes Ancient Egypt one of the oldest states. “The ancient Egyptians themselves called their country Kemi. She was considered the “breadbasket of the world.” The Nile, which flooded every year, deposited a deep layer of black fertile silt. Hence another name for Ancient Egypt - Kemet, i.e. black" 3.
The Egyptian state took shape towards the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. in Northeast Africa. Its location in the valley downstream The Nile River led to the intensive development of irrigated agriculture, which contributed to social stratification and the separation of the administrative elite led by priests already in the first half of the 4th millennium BC. e.
Egypt stood at the origins of European civilization. The written signs of the Egyptians formed the basis of the Phoenician alphabet, from which the alphabet of the Greeks and Romans arose. Egyptian scientists developed the principles of many sciences: astronomy, medicine, geometry, mechanics and architecture. The people of Kemi surpassed other peoples in crafts, technology, and agriculture.
Ancient Egypt is one of the earliest states in which the features of such a large and vibrant phenomenon as oriental despotism are quite fully represented.
Among its most characteristic features and features of the slave system of Ancient Egypt, domestic and foreign scientists highlight the following: the presence of significant remnants of the primitive communal system; the existence of primitive forms of patriarchal slavery and farming, in which the slave is allowed to have his own property and even a family; the preservation for a long time, along with private ownership of slaves, of collective slavery (slaves belonging to individual temples, the state); the existence of agricultural communities, due to the harsh climatic conditions of the East and, as a consequence, the need to use collective labor in the construction of irrigation structures, in the operation of irrigation systems, the development of livestock farming, the cultivation of crops, and land cultivation; The rural community carried out the purchase and sale of land plots.
Some scientists believe that the people of this country could probably do even more if their initiative and enterprise were not limited by despotism and the canons of priestly ideology. The individual was suppressed by the power and arbitrariness of the bureaucracy. General obedience to the pharaoh and the authorities was only occasionally interrupted by the indignation of the masses.
Ancient Egypt, in its political structure, was the most centralized, bureaucratic state of the Ancient East. “Only he had clear functional responsibilities of officials of various ranks. The reasons for the stability of this state over thousands of years still seem mysterious” 1.
The political history of Ancient Egypt has no analogues in its chronology. In the second half of the 4th millennium, the first state formations took shape - nomes, which arose as a result of the unification of rural communities around temples for the joint conduct of irrigation work. The territorial location of the ancient nomes, stretched along a single waterway, very early led to their unification under the rule of the strongest nome, to the appearance in Upper (Southern) Egypt of single kings with signs of despotic power over the rest of the nomes.
Already at the turn of the 4th-3rd millennia BC, there were about 40 separate regions in Egypt - “nomes”, i.e. independent communities, loosely connected with each other, each of which occupied a territory sufficient to conduct an independent irrigation economy. Each of the nomes had its own deity, its own temple, and its own slaves. The latter were kept at the temples in workhouses and historical and legal sources often call them “temple slaves.” Thanks to trade and maritime robbery, trading centers such as Busiras, Buto, Metelis, etc. appeared relatively quickly in the northern nomes. Over time, the northern nomes united and formed Lower Egypt. Later the southern nomes united into Upper Egypt.
By the end of the 4th millennium BC. e. The kings of Upper Egypt conquered and united all of Egypt under their rule.
In Egypt, earlier than in other countries, a class slave-owning society developed and for the first time in the world a state arose. It is not known with certainty when the first state formations arose in Egypt, but already by the 3rd millennium BC. e. there was a state in Egypt. The history of the ancient Egyptian state is divided into several periods: Early, Ancient, Middle, New and Late Kingdoms.
The history of the Early Kingdom is rather poorly known. The Egyptian state of this period still resembles an ancient, rather primitive tribal union. The communities actually owned the land on the basis of communal land tenure, but the state government considered itself the supreme owner of all the land and collected part of the income of the free population of the communities for its benefit. Free communal peasants made up the bulk of the population. During the Early Kingdom period, Lower Egypt was conquered by Upper Egypt, and as a result, a dual kingdom was formed. “However, this unity was still fragile, and the entire history of the Early Kingdom was permeated with the struggle between the Upper Egyptian conquerors and Lower Egypt. At the head was the king. He was surrounded by a large court, consisting of many court officials and various servants. The importance of royal power was emphasized by the complete deification of its bearers. The slave-owning nobility held important positions in the royal household itself. This period is characterized by the formation of the state apparatus. A permanent army was just being formed, although the state waged numerous wars with neighboring tribes” 1.
During the Early Kingdom, the first centralized, strong slave state was formed in Egypt. The ancient kingdom is distinguished by a high level of economic development. A well-organized army of workers provided the country's population with everything they needed. The standard of living of the various segments of the population was already clearly defined. At the top of the social ladder stood the large slave-owning nobility, which had vast land holdings. Large landowners occupied important positions at court and in public administration. Priests played a special role in Egyptian society. They were surrounded by universal reverence, since it was believed that the priests had the necessary knowledge about the afterlife. The most important of this knowledge was recorded in " Book of the Dead", sacred to the Egyptians. The priests served as the support of royal power, glorifying the pharaohs. The main labor force in the state were communal peasants. During the era of the Old Kingdom, there were still few slaves, although there was a slave market, people were bought and sold. Slavery was widespread not only among the upper classes, but also among the middle strata of the population. Slaves were used, as a rule, to work in the household. Military affairs achieved significant development in the Old Kingdom. The Egyptian army consisted of two parts: a small detachment of specially trained and well-prepared soldiers and a large militia of peasants, who were recruited into the army for several months and temporarily released from field work. During this period, the most important departments of the state were created: the military, the public works department, the judicial department, and the financial and tax department.
“Towards the end of the era of the Old Kingdom, the power of the pharaohs began to weaken. Nominally, all the land of the country was considered the property of the pharaoh. In reality, the royal estates were reduced due to donations distributed as rewards for court and other services. The decline of royal power leads to the onset of the “Time of Troubles” in Egypt 1 .
During the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptian state was again centralized, power was strengthened in the central and local levels. This strengthening was facilitated by the religious reform of the rulers of the 12th dynasty, who placed among many Egyptian gods one - Amun-Ra, or the Sun God - in first place. The military organization of the central government is strengthening. Although Egyptian society still had not yet entered the Bronze Age, the social structure was changing towards greater "privatization": land began to be distributed to the "servants of the king." The bulk of the population is rigidly assigned to their hereditary professions: priests, warriors, farmers, artisans, shepherds, etc. Slavery appears in private households. “The evolution of the Egyptian state was interrupted by the invasion of the nomadic Hyksos tribes - the time of their rule was called the 2nd transition period (18-16 centuries BC)” 1.
The new kingdom was marked by the rise of the priesthood and the formation of a theocratic despotism, ruled by a bureaucratized priesthood and governors in the nomes. “Chatti becomes the first and highest administrator, managing from the capital’s office the entire land fund of the country, the entire water supply system. He exercises supreme judicial supervision and organizes control over the entire tax-paying population. During this period, under Pharaoh Thutmose 3, the Egyptian state extended from the Nile rapids to the Mediterranean Sea and to Northern Syria in the east” 2.
During the Late Kingdom, the division of society into free and slave became more pronounced. Transactions involving self-sale into slavery became widespread. The impoverishment of broad sections of the free people grew. A significant part of the population was still dependent on the treasury, temples, and nobility. The situation of artisans worsened. Along with the priesthood, the military became a privileged class. The military support of the pharaohs was made up of foreign mercenaries. The backbone of the local nobility, as before, consisted of monarchs and city rulers. Other representatives of the bureaucratic nobility were not much different from their predecessors: they were the supreme dignitary, the keeper of the treasury, the guardians of the treasury, the supervisors of works, judges, etc. Military leaders occupied a special place.
Thus, historians conditionally divide the chronology of the history of Ancient Egypt into the following periods: the Early Kingdom (3200-2620 BC); Ancient Kingdom (circa 2620-2280 BC); Middle Kingdom (circa 2134-1786 BC); New Kingdom (circa 1575-1087 BC); Late Kingdom (circa 1087-525 BC).