Guatemala position in part of the world. Where is Guatemala located on the world map, its attractions
In little Guatemala, a lot of things that tourists like are brought together - monuments of ancient civilizations, pyramids and acropolises of the Mayan Indians, mountain ranges and volcanoes, mountain rivers and lakes, centuries-old majestic forests, hot springs and wide beaches. We fully agree with the Spaniards who called Guatemala the "Land of Eternal Spring".
Geography
Guatemala is located in Central America. Guatemala borders Mexico to the north and west, Belize to the northeast, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast. In the southwest, the country is washed by the Pacific Ocean, and in the east by the Caribbean Sea. Total area - 108,890 sq. km., and the total length of the state border is 1,687 km.
Two mountain ranges cross Guatemala from west to east, and divide it into three parts - the highlands, the Pacific coast (south of the mountains) and the Peten plateau (north of the mountains). In general, more than 50% of the country is located on the territory of the Cordillera mountain system. The largest local peak is the Tahumulco volcano, whose height reaches 4,220 meters. In general, in this Central American state there are more than 30 volcanoes, and among them there are active ones (for example, the Fuego and Santa Maria volcanoes).
Earthquakes rarely occur in Guatemala. Some of them are very destructive (the last strong earthquake was registered in 1976).
The longest rivers are Polochik, Usumacinta, Motagua, Rio Dulce and Sarstun.
Capital
Guatemala is the capital of the State of Guatemala. More than 1.1 million people now live in the city. Archaeologists say that on the territory of modern Guatemala, there once existed a Mayan city called Kaminaljuyu.
Official language
Guatemala has one official language - Spanish.
Religion
50-60% of the population are Catholics, about 40% are Protestants, and 3% are Orthodox Christians.
State structure
Under the current Constitution of 1985, Guatemala is a presidential republic in which the President is both head of state and head of government.
The unicameral parliament is called the Congress of the Republic, it consists of 158 deputies elected for 4 years.
The main political parties are the Patriot Party, the National Union of Hope, the Union for Nationalist Change and Democratic Freedom.
Climate and weather
The climate in Guatemala is tropical, strongly influenced by oceans and mountains. In coastal areas, the air temperature during the day reaches +40C, and at night it never drops below +20C. In the Antigua-Guatemala region, the climate is temperate all year round; not very hot.
The dry season is from October to early May, and the rainy season is from late May to late September. However, "rainy season" does not mean that it rains all day. Rains, as a rule, go in the afternoon for 1-2 hours, and then at night. The sun shines brightly in the morning and in the afternoon. It is very rare that it rains all day.
You can relax in Guatemala all year round, even in the so-called. "rain season". The fact is that the most interesting and grandiose local festivals and holidays fall on the “rainy season”.
Seas
In the southwest, Guatemala is washed by the Pacific Ocean, and in the east by the Caribbean Sea. The total length of the coastline is 400 km. During the rainy season, the water off the coast remains warm, but visibility is limited. Therefore, the best time for a beach holiday in Guatemala is from December to May, when the water is clear and warm.
Rivers and lakes
Among the longest rivers flowing through the territory of Guatemala, the following should be mentioned: Polochik, Usumacinta, Motagua, Rio Dulce and Sarstun.
Tourists are also interested in the Guatemalan lakes located in the mountains - Izabal, Atitlan, Guija and Peten Itza. Many of them are considered excellent vacation spots.
culture
The culture of Guatemala is impossible to imagine without festivals. Almost every village has its own holidays. However, more than 60 festivals are celebrated at the national level. The most popular of them are Santa Eulalia (February), Holy Week (March), Santa Cruz La Laguna (May), Almolonga (June), Santiago Atitlán (July), Joyabaj (August), San Mateo Ixtatan (September), Panajachel ( October), Nahualà (November) and Chichicastenango (December).
Kitchen
The cuisine of Guatemala has its origins in the culinary traditions of the Mayan Indians. In the future, the inhabitants of this country adopted many dishes from the Spanish conquistadors. The main local food products are corn, beans, rice, cheese, less often meat (chicken). Many Guatemalan dishes are similar to those prepared in neighboring Mexico.
Tourists are recommended to try the following Guatemalan dishes: "Chiles rellenos" (chili peppers stuffed with rice, cheese, meat and vegetables), "Chicken Pepian" (chicken with spicy pumpkin and sesame sauce), "Kak'ik" (Mayan soup with turkey with spices), Spiced mango (sliced green mango with chili and Om lime), Nachos, Flan (caramel cream) and more.
Traditional soft drinks are coffee, mate tea and fruit juices. Traditional alcoholic drinks are rum and wine.
Attractions
Around the 2nd century AD. in South America, the Mayan civilization formed, which also occupied the entire territory of modern Guatemala. In Guatemala, tourists can see not only individual historical monuments of the Maya Indians, but also their entire cities, excavated by archaeologists. One such Mayan city (called Samabah) was discovered at the bottom of Lake Atitlan.
By the way, under the protection of UNESCO there are three Guatemalan historical and cultural sites - the city of Antigua Guatemala, Tikal National Park, as well as the Quirigua Ruins complex.
Unfortunately, the ancient Mayan city of Piedras Negras is on the verge of destruction. This city was once the capital of one of the kingdoms of the local Indians.
However, the sights of Guatemala are not limited to the Indian monuments of the pre-Columbian era. In this country there are a lot of beautiful medieval Catholic churches, monasteries, forts and fortresses that were built by immigrants from Spain. So, you should pay attention to the fortress of San Felipe, founded in the XVI century.
Cities and resorts
The largest cities are Huehuetenango, San Marcos, Quetzaltenango, Escuintla and Guatemala.
Along the entire coast of Guatemala (Pacific and Caribbean) there are small towns that are now developing very quickly as beach resorts. On the Caribbean coast, Punta de Palma and Livingston beaches are popular with locals and tourists. However, most of the beach resorts are located on the Pacific coast, among them are Tilapa, Monterrico, Zipacate, Las Lisas and San Jose. Residents of the city of Guatemala, for example, prefer to relax in the resort of Monterrico, whose beaches consist of volcanic black sand. By the way, four species of sea turtles are found in the vicinity of Monterrico.
Souvenirs/Shopping
From Guatemala, tourists bring handicrafts (including ceramics), wooden boxes, bedspreads, blankets, necklaces, traditional women's Guatemalan blouses, skirts, colorful scarves, belts, coffee, sweets.
Office Hours
a country in Central America. In the west it borders with Mexico, in the east - with Belize, in the southeast - with Honduras and El Salvador. In the south it is washed by the Pacific Ocean, in the northeast - by the Gulf of Honduras.
The country's name comes from the Aztec guauhtemallan, which means "place covered with forest."
General information about Guatemala
Official name: Republic of Guatemala
Capital:
The area of the land: 108.9 thousand sq. km
Total population: 13.6 million people
Administrative division: The state is divided into 22 departments.
Form of government: Republic.
Head of State: The president.
Composition of the population: 55% - Maya Indians, 42% - mestizos.
Official language: Spanish, but English is widely spoken in cities recognized as tourist centers.
Religion: 75% are Catholics, 25% are Protestants (mostly Baptists and Evangelicals).
Internet domain: .gt
Mains voltage: ~120 V, 60 Hz
Phone country code: +502
Country barcode: 740
Climate
Three high-altitude climatic zones are distinguished - hot and humid "Tierra Caliente" (from 0 m to 800 m above sea level), moderately hot and drier "Tierra Templad" (from 800 to 2000 m) and cool (more often called " cold") and dry "tierra fria" - above 2000 m. At the same time, the eastern regions of the country adjacent to the Caribbean Sea are always hotter and rainier than the western ones.
In the mountains and on the plateau, the average temperature ranges from +6 C in winter to +20 C in summer, on the coast the temperature is around +27 C all year round. Two seasons are quite clearly distinguished - a relatively cool and rainy winter (from May to October) and a hot, dry summer (November to April). At the same time, even neighboring areas of the same area can differ markedly in air temperature and precipitation from each other. Precipitation ranges from 500 mm on the western slopes of the mountains to 2500 mm on the eastern slopes of El Peten and the Caribbean coast.
The Pacific coast has an average annual temperature of +27 C with very high humidity in the summer (it noticeably decreases in winter) and the amount of precipitation (up to 1900 mm per year). In the central regions of the country and in intermountain basins, the average temperature in summer is around +23 C, in winter - +17 C.
The rainy season here lasts from May to September, while a characteristic feature of these places is the torrential nature of precipitation (no more than 1300 mm per year), which falls mainly during the day and in the evening (at night and in the morning the skies are cloudless, which leads to a noticeable cooling during this period , sometimes even to frost on the soil). The climate of the north-eastern part of the country is hot (the average temperature all year round is about +29 C) and humid (up to 2500 mm) with high air humidity (about 95% all year round).
Geography
State in Central America. In the north and west it borders with Mexico (the length of the border is 962 km), in the east - with Belize (266 km), in the southeast - El Salvador (203 km) and Honduras (256 km). In the south, Guatemala is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean, in the east - by the Gulf of Honduras. The total length of the border is 1,687 km, the length of the coastline is 400 km.
The total area of the country is 108,889 km2 (land area 108,430 km2). The north of the country is occupied by a limestone plateau (Peten). In the south, along the Pacific coast, lowlands stretch in a narrow strip (no more than 50 km). The central and largest region of the country is mountainous. The largest mountain range is the Sierra Madre with a large number of volcanoes, some of them active. The highest point in the country is Tahumulco volcano (4220 m). The main river is the Motagua.
Flora and fauna
Vegetable world
The lowland and the lower parts of the slopes are covered with high-stemmed tropical rainforest, with closed crowns and almost no undergrowth; in some places it is interrupted by patches of savannah, and xerophytic light forests are developed in places on the exceptionally porous calcareous soils of the plain.
Palm trees grow in abundance on the Caribbean coast. In the forests of Guatemala, there are many valuable tree species, including cedrela, dalbergia (rosewood), cypress, acajou (mahogany) and logwood, which provides a valuable dye. Lianas, epiphytes, orchids and other plants with bright decorative flowers, including trees and shrubs, are abundant.
Animal world
On the sparsely populated lowlands, deer, wild pigs, iguanas and snakes, including poisonous ones, are found. In the mountains, most of the large animals have been exterminated for meat; a few squirrels and other rodents, kinkajou, foxes, and coyotes have survived.
The avifauna is rich and diverse. About 2,000 species of birds are described here, of which about 200 are migratory species originating from North America. Many tropical birds with bright plumage, including various types of parrots. Quetzal, a rare bird with bright green feathers and a long tail, is especially loved by the Guatemalans. The quetzal has become a national symbol; he is depicted on the state emblem and flag of the country, and the monetary unit of Guatemala is named after him.
Attractions
Guatemala is one of the most colorful countries in Central America. One of the centers of the powerful civilization of the Maya Indians (II - IX centuries AD) and the birthplace of even more ancient peoples of pre-Columbian America, Guatemala is famous for its abundance of historical and cultural monuments.
Three historical monuments of Guatemala, included in the UNESCO World Heritage List, seem to reflect the stages of the country's history - the Ruins of Quirigua Archaeological Park and Tikal National Park were created on the site of one of the main centers of the Mayan civilization, and the city of Antigua Guatemala represents many examples of Spanish colonial architecture .
One of the most intriguing aspects of Guatemala is also the endless exotic variety of handicrafts of the Indian population, which, like in a mirror, reflects the entire centuries-old culture of the local peoples.
Banks and currency
Quetzal (Q or GTQ), equal to 100 centavos. In circulation are banknotes in denominations of 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 quetzal, as well as coins of 1 quetzal, 50, 25, 10 and 5 centavos. Along with the national currency, the US dollar has free circulation.
Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 08.30 to 12.30 and from 14.30 to 16.30 (some branches are open from 09.00 to 20.00), on Saturdays - from 09.00 to 12.30.
Currency can be exchanged everywhere - in banks, exchange offices ("casas de cambio"), shops, markets, hotels (the exchange rate here is not the most favorable) and airports, with preference given to US dollars and euros.
Most hotels, restaurants, shops and travel agencies accept credit cards from the world's leading systems. It is worth noting that MasterCard and Diners Club are very reluctant to pay, and in some areas it is simply impossible to pay with them.
Traveler's checks can be cashed at most banks and high-end hotels. To avoid additional costs due to fluctuations in the exchange rate, it is recommended to take checks in US dollars with you.
Useful information for tourists
Folk art products - Indian fabrics, woven calendars, national clothes, knitted sweaters and hats, semi-precious stones (jasper), wooden ritual masks, leather products can be excellent souvenirs.
Tipping is usually up to 10% of the cost indicated on the bill. It is also customary to tip the porter ($1-2), the taxi driver, and the guide.
Guatemala is a country of absolute opposites, which is rich in its history and is famous for its successful future. It is here that restless volcanoes and tropical rainforests, sandy beaches and endless coffee plantations are located.
Let's take a closer look at Guatemala: where it is located, the climatic features of Guatemala, the population of the country, what nature is here, what sights are worth seeing in Guatemala, the form of government and much more.
In contact with
Guatemala: Wikipedia
- The area of the state is almost 109 thousand square kilometers;
- The capital of Guatemala is Guatemala;
- The population is 14.7 million people;
- The official language is Spanish;
- The form of government is a presidential republic;
- Currency - quetzal;
- Religion - Catholicism.
Where is Guatemala located on the world map?
Guatemala on the world map is located in Central America. In the north, the state borders on Mexico and Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. The country is washed by two oceans:
- Quiet;
- Atlantic.
As stated earlier, The capital of Guatemala is Guatemala City. It is the largest urban agglomeration in Central America. The capital is located along the mountain ranges, located on the picturesque plateau. The capital is distinguished by typical attributes of Latin American cities:
- Bright buses;
- Chaotic markets.
These attributes perfectly emphasize the majesty of the buildings of the Mayan civilization. Previously, the capital of the state was the city of Antigua, but in 1776 it was badly damaged due to a powerful earthquake. Despite the fact that the capital of Guatemala was moved to a new location, Antigua occupies a significant place in the history of the North and as one of the main cities of the Mayan people. The former capital was built at the foot of volcanoes:
- Agua;
- Feugo;
- Akatenango.
These volcanoes tower majestically above the colonial buildings that keep the mystical and mysterious history of the Mayan people.
Due to its geographical location, the climate in Guatemala can be called mild, but it is also worth noting that the air temperature here depends on the height above the level of the World Ocean. The local seasons are distinguished by the amount of precipitation and nighttime temperature conditions. Winter lasts from May to October, and summer from November to April. February, March, April and May are the hottest months in the exotic state. The most precipitation falls between May and October.
On the Pacific coast hot and tropical climate. The average daily temperature in May is +27 degrees. In December, the average daily air temperature reaches +23 degrees.
On the coast of the Caribbean during the day, the air warms up to +33 degrees throughout the year, and at night - up to +23 degrees. It is also worth noting that during the rainy season the air temperature remains the same. By the way, the largest amount of precipitation falls in this region of the country.
The best time to visit Guatemala is during the dry season from November to May.
Nature
Two-thirds of the territory of the state is located on the medium-high and high mountain ranges that belong to the Cordillera system. The Cuchumatanes and Sierra Madre mountain ranges cross Guatemala from its northern territory to its southern one. There are 33 volcanoes in this area, some of which are currently inactive. Their height reaches 3800 meters. Tajumulco Volcano is the highest point in Guatemala. Its height is 4211 meters above sea level.
The western and southern parts of Guatemala are located on the Pacific Coastal Lowland, namely, on a flat plain, which is pierced by many rivers carrying crystal clear waters from mountain ranges.
The bulk of the country's population lives in the intermountain area between the Cuchumatanes and Sierra Madre ranges. Near Lake Atitlan is the largest basin. On its southeastern side is the capital of the state - the city of Guatemala. Banana plantations, crops and cocoa grow on the basins themselves. Pine and cedar forests grow on the adjacent mountain slopes.
The main attractions of Guatemala
This country must be included in the list of countries worth visiting at least once in a lifetime. After all, it is here that the centuries-old history of the ancient Mayan tribes is combined with the promising future of their descendants. Guatemala is a beautiful place, located in Central America, which is filled with legendary buildings.
The capital of the state is an architectural eclecticism. It is here that modern glass skyscrapers rise above the ancient majestic mansions. And the wide and noisy city streets intersect with narrow streets where the local population sips strong aromatic coffee collected from the local coffee plantations.
Guatemala City is located in a picturesque area and is surrounded by volcanoes, lakes and endless plantations. All this can be seen from a bird's eye view by ordering a helicopter tour. The cost of such an excursion will average $ 900 for five passengers.
Favorite places for tourists cities of Tigal and Antigua. Travelers from all over the world come here to get to know the area, where the ancient buildings of the Mayan tribe have been preserved. On the territory of these cities there are now a large number of pyramids, palaces and temples that belonged to an ancient civilization.
Another city worth visiting in Guatemala is Quetzaltenango. It is famous for its healing hot springs and handmade souvenirs. In the city of Santa Lucia Cotzumalguapa, you can get acquainted with the history of America before its discovery by Columbus. You can ride on a luxurious snow-white yacht or on a real fishing boat by visiting Livingston, which is located in the northeast of Guatemala. There are also water excursions.
Local kitchen
Cuisine of Guatemala very similar in its traditions to Mexican, Salvadoran and Honduran. It is impossible to ignore the Indian and Spanish culinary traditions present here, which have mixed with each other due to the rich history of the state. Most of the dishes the local population of Guatemala prepares from the following products:
- Rice;
- beans;
- maize;
- Meat (mainly chicken).
The dishes also always contain a large amount of herbs and various spices. The local population still uses Mayan recipes that have survived to this day to prepare their dishes.
Coffee is the staple drink in Guatemala., which is also a first-class export item. You can inhale the aroma of impeccable black coffee even in the most remote corners of Guatemala. Locals prefer to drink coffee not very strong, but they drink it very often - about 20 cups a day. Tea is not often drunk here. However, the most popular type of tea is Mate, which is also traditional throughout Latin America. From drinks there is a wide variety of fruit juices, as many different fruits grow in Guatemala.
Entertainment and recreation
If we talk about entertainment in Guatemala, then here there are about 10 national parks and reserves, whose flora and fauna is very diverse. The country also has the deepest lake in all of Central America, which is called Atitlán. The descendants of the ancient Maya civilization live at the very foot of the volcano in the vicinity of this lake.
Beach lovers should visit the most popular beach in Guatemala - Monterico. It stretches along the Pacific coast and is ideal for swimming and sunbathing. By the way, it is worth noting that the beach is strewn with volcanic sand.
The country is famous for a large number of various holidays.. Each village or city has its own patron saint, whose day is celebrated, as a rule, on a grand scale, with musical performances, church services and colorful fireworks. You can get acquainted with traditional clothing and local life by visiting Sunday markets in Chichicastenango and nearby towns.
Those who prefer an active holiday with a combination of sunny beaches can find many ways to have a great time:
- Hiking in ancient places;
- Surfing;
- Mountaineering on volcanoes;
- Rafting;
- Diving and more.
What to buy?
If you want to bring some souvenirs to your loved ones, then the best option would be products of folk art of the local population of Guatemala. It can be self-woven clothes, Indian calendars, knitwear, semi-precious stones, wooden products, ritual paraphernalia of the Mayan civilization and much more.
Such souvenir gifts, as a rule, can be bought at local markets, and the price for them can be almost halved if you bargain well. All city streets are literally strewn with various products with images of the quetzal bird, which is also the national symbol of Guatemala.
If you want to bring products as a gift, then you should pay attention for chocolate and coffee. Even the smallest store has a huge selection of these products.
All sights of Guatemala
Authors: N. S. Ivanov (General Information, Population, Economy, Mass Media), N. V. Kopa-Ovdienko (Nature), G. G. Ershova (archeology); A. I. Kubyshkin (Historical essay), V. V. Gorbachev (Armed forces), V. S. Nechaev (health), L. G. Khoreva (Literature), V. I. Lisovoy (Music)Authors: N. S. Ivanov (General Information, Population, Economy, Mass Media), N. V. Kopa-Ovdienko (Nature), G. G. Ershova (archeology); A. I. Kubyshkin (Historical essay); >>
GUATEMALA (Guatemala), Republic of Guatemala (República de Guatemala).
General information
G. - the state in the Center. America. It borders in the west and north with Mexico, in the northeast with Belize, in the southeast with Honduras and El Salvador. In the east it is washed by the Caribbean Sea, in the south and southwest by the Pacific Ocean. Pl. 108.9 thousand km 2. Us. 12.7 million people (2006), the largest state in terms of population Center. America. The capital is Guatemala. Official language is Spanish. The monetary unit is the quetzal. Adm.-terr. division: 22 departments (table).
Administrative-territorial division(2002, census) | |||
Department | Area, km 2 | Population, thousand people | Administrative center |
Alta Verapaz | 8,7 | 776,2 | Coban |
Baja Verapaz | 3,1 | 215,9 | Salama |
Guatemala | 2,1 | 2541,6 | Guatemala |
isabal | 9,0 | 314,3 | Puerto Barrios |
Quetzaltenango | 1,9 | 624,7 | Quetzaltenango |
Quiche | 8,4 | 655,5 | Santa Cruz del Quiche |
Retaluleu | 1,8 | 241,4 | Retaluleu |
Zacapa | 2,7 | 220,2 | Zacapa |
Sacatepéquez | 0,5 | 248,0 | Anigua Guatemala |
San Marcos | 3,8 | 795,0 | San Marcos |
Santa Rosa | 3,0 | 301,4 | Kuilapa |
Solola | 1,1 | 307,7 | Solola |
Suchitepekes | 2,5 | 403,9 | Masatenango |
Totonicapán | 1,1 | 339,2 | Totonicapán |
Huehuetenango | 7,4 | 846,5 | Huehuetenango |
Xalapa | 2,1 | 242,9 | Xalapa |
Jutyapa | 3,2 | 389,1 | Jutyapa |
Chiquimula | 2,4 | 302,5 | Chiquimula |
Chimaltenango | 1,9 | 446,1 | Chimaltenango |
El Peten | 35,9 | 366,7 | Flores |
El Progresso | 1,9 | 139,5 | Guastatoya |
Escuintla | 4,4 | 538,7 | Escuintla |
G. - member. UN (1945), IMF (1945), IBRD (1945), OAS (1948), Central-Amer. States (1951), Central-amer. common market (1960), WTO (1995).
Political system
G. is a unitary state. The constitution was adopted on May 31, 1985. The form of government is a presidential republic.
The President is the head of state and government. The President is elected by the population for a term of 4 years (without the right to re-election). At the same time, a vice president is elected.
Supreme legislator. body - the unicameral Congress of the Republic, consists of 113 deputies elected for 4 years. Performed power is exercised by the government headed by the president.
Georgia has a multi-party system. Among the leading politicians parties - the National Party. progress, Guatem. republican front.
Nature
Relief
Mountainous relief prevails in Georgia. To the center. part of the country there is an extensive folded-block highland, fragmented and dissected by deep tectonic. depressions (Motagua, Polochik, etc.) on high and mid-mountain massifs and ridges preim. sublatitudinal strike (Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, height up to 4093 m; Sierra de las Minas, height up to 3015 m, etc.). To the folded-block highlands from the southwest adjoins the volcanic. the Sierra Madre highlands with numerous cones of active and potentially active volcanoes, including Tahumulco (height up to 4220 m - the highest point of G. and Central America), Acatenango (3976 m), Santa Maria (3789 m), etc. On the periphery of the folded-block highlands, the karst low mountains of Alta Verapaz extend, descending to the low (altitude 150–250 m) slightly hilly Peten Plateau, which occupies the north. part G. On the plateau, karst landforms (karr, underground rivers, caves, etc.) are widespread. In the south of Georgia, along the leveled lagoon shores of the Pacific approx. a piedmont alluvial lowland plain 40–60 km wide stretches.
Geological structure and minerals
G. is located within the Central American isthmus tectonic. Antilles-Caribbean. From the east, the territory of the country (in the region of the fold-block highlands) comes west. the end of the Paleozoic Chortis block, composed of dislocated metamorphic. rocks intruded by pre-Permian, Cretaceous and Paleogene granites. Block Chortis in the north. and center. parts are crossed by the Polochik-Matagua shear-fault zone, marked by Early Cenozoic ophiolites and tectonic. depressions (grabens) filled with Oligocene-Quaternary lacustrine and river deposits. The low mountains of Alta Verapaz are composed of deformed Jurassic-Cretaceous red continental and carbonate deposits. Within the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes massif, Upper Paleozoic terrigenous and detrital rocks emerge from under the Mesozoic deposits. In the north of Georgia (in the northern part of the Peten Plateau), Paleocene-Eocene marine terrigenous and Eocene lagoonal-continental (gypsum, marl) deposits of the marginal part of the young platform are widespread. In the south, the Central American volcano extends through the territory of Georgia. a belt composed of Neogene-Quaternary basaltic, andesitic and dacitic lavas and tuffs. There are approx. 20 Holocene (active and potentially active) volcanoes. The most active of them are Fuego, Santa Maria and Pacaya. For the southwest areas are characterized by high seismicity (destructive earthquakes in 1773, 1902, 1917, 1976 - more than 23 thousand dead); preserved volcanic. danger.
The most important minerals are oil and nickel lateritic ores. There are small deposits of ores of polymetals, manganese, chromium, gold, antimony. Significant reserves of kaolin, diatomite, marble, asbestos, sulfur.
Climate
G. is located within the tropical. climatic belts. The average monthly temperatures, which are 23–28 °С within the plains and intermontane depressions, drop to 13–20 °С in the low and middle mountains and to 8–13 °С in the high mountains. Precipitation falls in the year 2000-3000 mm on the coast of the Caribbean m. and north-east. mountain slopes (in places up to 3500 mm), 1200–2000 mm in the southwest. slopes of the Sierra Madre and on the Petén Plateau, 800–1200 mm on the Pacific coast, approx. 500 mm in closed intermontane depressions (Motagua). For the north-east. mountain slopes of the coast of the Caribbean m. and the Peten plateau is characterized by uniform moisture throughout the year with a small summer-autumn maximum precipitation, in the southwest. slopes of the Sierra Madre and the Pacific coast approx. Wet (May-October) and dry seasons are clearly defined.
Inland waters
St. 3/4 of the territory belongs to the Atlantic Ocean basin: b. hours of the mountainous regions of Georgia are drained by the rivers of the Caribbean basin (Motagua, Polochik, etc.), north-west. and app. parts of Georgia are the rivers of the Gulf of Mexico basin, including the Usumasinta. From the southwest slope of the Sierra Madre, short, turbulent rivers flow down into the Pacific Ocean. From the Peten Plateau, surface runoff is negligible: watercourses are lost in sinkholes and flow in underground cavities and caves. There are many natural lakes in Georgia, including the largest lake. Izabal (about 800 km 2), connected by a wide navigable canal of the Rio Dulce with the Amatic Bay of the Honduras Bay. Caribbean Sea, the picturesque volcanic lakes Atitlan, Amatitlan, and others in the Sierra Madre, Peten Itza, and Tigris mountains on the Peten Plateau, and others. Annually renewable water resources of Georgia amount to 111 km 3 , water supply - 9.3 thousand m 3 /person in year. For farms. purposes, no more than 1% of water resources are used annually (of which 74% is spent on the needs of agriculture, 9% on domestic water supply, 17% is consumed by industrial enterprises).
Soils, flora and fauna
The soil cover is dominated by red-yellow and red ferralitic soils and their mountainous varieties; the most fertile are volcanic soils. soils formed in the Sierra Madre and slithozems developed on the piedmont plain and in the north. parts of the Peten plateau. The flora and fauna of Georgia are distinguished by a very high diversity and level of endemism (13% on average). Forests cover approx. 83% of the territory. On the Peten Plateau, the coast of the Caribbean and in the lower parts of the mountain slopes, humid and variable-humid tropics prevail. forests, interrupted in places by preim. secondary savannas and xerophytic woodlands. tropical forests are rich in valuable tree species (svitaniya, tsedrela, rosewood, sapodilla, guarea, bread nuts, etc.). In the middle mountains with high 1100–2000 m (the so-called belt of fogs) broad-leaved forests of oaks, avocados, liquidambar, etc. are widespread with tree-like ferns, epiphytes, lianas, above 2700 m they are replaced by coniferous forests from dec. species of pines, firs with the participation of yew. The highest peaks are occupied by mountain meadows (similar in floristic composition to the South American paramos). Prickly bush thickets in the Motagua depression, cereal savannahs and xerophytic woodlands on the plains along the Pacific coast approx. almost completely replaced by page - x. land. The high rate of deforestation (1.7% per year) leads to increased erosion and soil degradation and threatens to reduce biological resources. diversity of the country's ecosystems.
In G. there are 150 species of mammals. Within the sparsely populated plains (the coast of the Caribbean, the Peten Plateau), anteaters (three-toed, four-toed, and pygmy), the nine-banded armadillo, the Central American tapir, deer (virgian, large mazama), peccaries, tenacious-tailed monkeys live; of predators - jaguar, puma. In the mountains, large mammals b. h. exterminated, various species of small rodents, bats, raccoons (kinkazhu, coati, etc.) have been preserved. The avifauna of Georgia is rich, numbering 670 species of birds. Lots of tropical birds with bright plumage, including quetzal (quetzal) - the national symbol of Guatemala. A wide variety of reptiles, including the Central American crocodile, numerous snakes (rattlesnakes, coral asps, etc.).
There are 73 protected natural areas in G. with a total area of 2.5 million hectares, including the biosphere reserves of the Sierra de las Minas and Maya (within the national park Tikal, included in the list world heritage).
Population
58.6% of us. G. are Hispanic Guatemalans, including 57.8% - mestizos (Ladino), 0.8% - "whites" (Creoles). Indians in the main belong to the Mayan group (35.9%): quiche (14.2%), mame (5.5%), kakchikeli (4.8%), quekchi (3.9%), pokom (1.4%) , kanhobali (1.2%), khakalteki (1.1%), tsutukhili (0.9%), ishili (0.7%), chukhi (0.5%), chorti (0.4%), etc. .; a special group of the mestizo population is made up of the Garifon (0.2%). Of the non-aboriginal population, Americans live in G. (2.8%), West Indian blacks(2.1%), Chinese (0.2%), immigrants from the UK (0.1%), etc.
The population of Georgia is constantly growing (8908 thousand people in 1990; 11225 thousand people in 2000; 12389 thousand people in 2004). Population growth (approx. 2.5% per year in 2000–05; 2.3% in 2006, one of the highest rates in the region) is the result of nature. dynamics. The birth rate (29.9 per 1000 inhabitants in 2006) significantly exceeds the death rate (5.2 per 1000 inhabitants); fertility rate of 3.8 children per woman. Infant. mortality is 30.9 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, the share of children (under 14 years old) is 41.1% (one of the highest in the region), the population of working age (15–65 years old) is 55.5%, the elderly (over 65 years old) are 3, four%. There are 99 men for every 100 women. Wed the age of us. 18.9 years. Wed life expectancy is 64.9 years (men - 67.6, women - 71.2 years).
Net migration -1.94 per 1000 inhabitants; main reasons for the outflow of the population - a low standard of living, unstable political. environment. Wed us density. 117 people / km 2. The most densely populated are the intermountain basins, especially around the cities of Guatemala and Quetzaltenango, as well as the Caribbean coast in the Puerto Barrios region. The lowest population density (approx. 10 people / km 2 ) is marked on north of the country, in the depot of El Peten. Gor. us. 39.9% (2005); in small towns, part of the population is employed by agricultural workers. work in the suburbs. The largest cities (thousand people, 2006): Guatemala (1010; with the nearby cities of Misco, Villa Nueva, etc. forms the largest agglomeration in Central America with a population of over 2.9 million people), Quetzaltenango (136 .3), Escuintla (109.4).
Economically active us. 4458 thousand people (2003); 37.2% of employees are employed in agriculture, forestry and fisheries, 22% in industry, 40.8% in services. Unemployment rate 7.5% (2003). OK. 1/2 us. lives in a subsistence economy; OK. 3 / 4 us. has income below the official. poverty rate (2005).
Religion
As of 2004–05, c. 80% of the population of G. are Catholics, more than 15% are Protestants dec. denominations (2004-05), an insignificant part (about 1.5%) adheres to Judaism, Hinduism and other religions. G. is characterized by the preservation of local traditions and religious syncretism.
Historical outline
Tips Clovis. The most ancient monuments of mountain Georgia are short-term cave and open sites of the 8th–7th millennium BC. e.; tools - scrapers, axes, etc.
G. was part of the formation zone of the ancient Mesoamerican cultural tradition, inextricably linked with the cultivation of corn in combination with pumpkin and beans (the Okos culture on the northwest coast, etc.). In the mountainous regions of Georgia, in the 4th millennium, one of the first varieties of corn, nal-tel, was bred, which soon spread throughout Mesoamerica (the hypothesis of a center of domestication of corn in mountainous Georgia was first proposed by N. I. Va vilov). In the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. (preclassic period) mountainous and lowland Georgia was densely populated by numerous culturally similar groups of farmers.
The formation of the Mayan civilization is connected with Georgia (the territory of Georgia covers most of its central and southern regions). In the 6th–4th centuries BC e. to the center. area appeared the first mountains. centers with monumental architecture (Nakbe, El Mirador, Tikal etc.). Their layout was typical of later Mayan cities: an articulation of independent, astronomically oriented acropolises adapted to the relief, representing a rectangular area surrounded by temple and palace buildings raised on platforms. On the Pacific coast, the cultures of El-Baul, Abah-Takalik, and others are distinguished, dating from between 300 BC and 300 BC. e. and 300 n. e. The Mayan culture reached its peak in the classical. period (300–900 AD). On the territory of Georgia, it was developed maya letter. The monuments of mountainous Georgia differ from those of the plains in their funeral rites, style of architecture, and ceramics. products. In 1523 Spanish. conquistadors under command. P. de Alvarado began the conquest of the Center. America. On its territory was created captaincy general Guatemala (1527). Colonial Center. America, whose population at the time of independence was 1227 thousand people, was a deep economic. and political the periphery of Spanish empire. The feudal lords ruled here. forms of land use (encomienda) and contracting of labor (habitaciones, repartimiento). The social structure of society was hierarchical. character. All top adm. the posts were occupied by royal officials appointed by the Supreme Council for Indian Affairs, economic. power was in the hands of a few. (less than 5% of us.) of the Creole top, and the main. part of the Ladino mestizos (10–12%) and the Indians (approx. 80%) were engaged in agricultural work. and handicraft work and did not possess any political. rights.
In Sept. 1821 under the influence of European ideas. Enlightenment and national-liberate. movement in the south. In America and Mexico, patriotic circles headed by P. Molina and J. M. Delgado proclaimed the independence of the Central Amer. colonies of Spain. In 1823 (after their short stay in the Mexican Empire A. de Iturbide) a federation was created United Provinces of Central America, in which Georgia, as the most populous (more than 600 thousand inhabitants) and economically strong part of it, played a key role. In 1824, a federal constitution was adopted that abolished slavery and feuds. privileges.
For 12 years, supporters of liberal reforms and the federal structure of the Center. America at hand. F. Morazana and M. Galvez waged a stubborn struggle against the conservatives (big landowners, colonial aristocracy, army elite, church) for the preservation of the territorial unity of the federation. Ignoring the interests of the Indians by the leaders of the liberal movement led to their isolation and, ultimately, to political. and military defeat. Using the movement of the Indian masses under the arms. J. R. Carrera, opponents of unification Center. In 1839 the Americas succeeded in securing Georgia's withdrawal from the federation and established a reactionary regime based on an alliance of latifundists, the army, and the church. The conservative governments of Carrera, who was declared president for life, and his successor, V. Serna Sandoval, slowed down the economic. reforms and pursued an anti-national foreign policy, ceding, in particular, the rights to Belize to Great Britain. They were in power until 1871, when a new liberal revolution began in Georgia, headed by representatives of the so-called. coffee bourgeoisie - M. Garcia Granados Savala and J. R. Barrios.
The government of J. R. Barrios (1873–1885) took steps to modernize the economy (railroad construction, development of telegraph communications, electrification), political. and military institutions, education system. A new constitution was proclaimed, the church was separated from the state, restrictions on the use of child labor were introduced, and a new civil law was adopted. and criminal codes. However, an attempt to reunite the Central-Amer. state-va ended in failure and the death of J. R. Barrios.
With the establishment in 1898 of the dictatorial regime of M. Kh. Bandstands of Cabrera foreign capital began to actively penetrate into Germany, primarily North-Amer., capital, which in fact completely subordinated it to the nat. economy (production of coffee, bananas and cotton). Amer. "United Fruit Company" in the 1st third of the 20th century. became the largest landowner in Georgia and practically controlled its interior. and foreign policy. An increasingly important role in Georgia was played by the military. In 1921-30, during the presidency of Generals J. M. Orellana Pinto, and then S. Chacon Gonzalez, the first trade unions arose, steps were taken to stabilize the nat. monetary system, the development of the health care system and school education.
In 1931, in the conditions of the world economic. crisis and exacerbation of internal social and economic problems in G. was established by the military. dictatorship of Gen. H. Ubico. The so-called. the law on vagrancy, which actually enslaved the Indian population, and law No. 816, which gave the latifundists the right to dispose of the property and lives of peasant laborers and tenants. The country began wide political. repression, trade unions were dissolved and opposition banned. political organizations.
In June 1944, as a result of mass protests by students, workers and representatives of cf. layers, the dictatorial regime of H. Ubiko was overthrown (see. Guatemalan Revolution 1944–54). In 1945, a well-known society became president. figure J. H. Arevalo , in 1951 J. Arbenz Guzman . In G. were held democratic. reforms. In June 1954, as a result of the state. coup Árbenz Guzmán was removed from power. Colonel became president. C. Castillo Armas, who canceled the democratic. transformation government. After his assassination in July 1957, the extreme right-wing government of Gen. M. Idigoras Fuentes. Politicians have intensified in the country. repression against the democratic forces.
In con. 1960 a group of young officers - supporters of H. Arbenz Guzman organized an armament. speech under the slogan of the restoration of democracy and the implementation of social and economic. reforms. The country actually began civil. a war that lasted almost 36 years. Three leading revolutionaries org-tion - Insurrectionary. armed forces, the Partisan Army of the Poor and the Org-tion armed. people - in 1982 united within the front of Nat. revolutionary unity of Guatemala.
With the exception of citizens the government of J. S. Mendez Montenegro (1966–70), who tried, on the basis of the new Constitution adopted in 1965, to carry out limited social and economic. reforms, in power in G. to ser. 1980s were military. Dictators - Generals C. M. Arana Osorio (1970–74), C. E. Laugerud Garcia (1974–78), F. R. Lucas Garcia (1978–82), J. E. Rios Montt (1982–83) and O. W. Mejia Victores (1983–1986). During these years, the Constitution of 1965 was suspended, the Nat. Congress, the activities of leading political parties were banned, mass arrests and murders of opponents of the regime were carried out, and a large-scale drive of Indians from public lands was carried out.
Only after winning the elections and taking office as President of the Citizens. politics, ch. Christian Democratic. party M. V. Cerezo Arevalo (January 1986) in G. a new Constitution was introduced and began a slow process of finding ways to achieve internal. peace. Attempts were made to limit the role of the armed forces. forces in politics. the life of the country and start a negotiation process with the rebels. In 1987, an agreement was signed between five Central-Amer. states (Pact of Esquipulas), which marked the beginning of the process of peaceful settlement and termination of civil. wars not only in Georgia, but also in Nicaragua and El Salvador.
Despite two attempts by far-right forces to produce a military coups, power in Georgia in 1991 legally passed to President J. A. Serrano Elias. During the years of his reign in G., mass violations of civil rights continued. rights. In 1992 and 1993 the government unsuccessfully tried to negotiate with representatives of the leftist rebels. In the spring of 1993, mass demonstrations took place in Germany demanding changes in the government's neoliberal policies. Serrano Elias's attempt to launch a campaign against corruption in government, congress and the armed forces. forces, pursuing populist goals, led to his violence. removal from power by the military.
In June 1993, Congress approved R. de Leon Carpio, member. Union of National center and commissioner for the protection of citizens. rights in G. temp. the president of the country. The term of office of the President and Congress was reduced from 5 to 4 years, a number of economic reforms. Min. Education for the first time in the history of Georgia was a representative of the Maya Indians S. Tai Koyoi. In 1994, agreements were signed with the leaders of the rebels. organizations on the observance of civil. rights, on the return of forcibly resettled Indians to places of permanent residence, in 1995 - an agreement on civil. the rights of the Indians. In Sept. 1995 was announced the time. ceasefire.
Nov. 1995 general elections were held in G.. A representative of the right-wing National Party was elected president. progress A. Arsu Yrigoyen(took office in Jan. 1996). 12/29/1996 in the presence of UN Secretary General B. Boutros-Ghali, the government of G. signed a peace treaty with the rebels, which put an end to the civil. war in Georgia, during which St. 200 thousand people, and 1.5 million people. turned into refugees (more than 80% of all victims were representatives of the Indian population, 93% of all acts of violence were committed by the army and right-wing paramilitary groups). The agreement began to be implemented from the beginning. 1997. St. 3 thousand partisans laid down their arms, and by Sept. In 1998, the army was reduced by a third (from 47 thousand to 31.5 thousand people). However, the political killings and repressions in G. continued: in the spring of 1998, archbishop was killed. the capital of G. H. H. Konder, in May 1999, a prominent democratic figure was shot dead. forces R. Gonzalez.
In May 1999, important changes were made to the country's Constitution, including clauses on improving the legal status of the Indian population, limiting the power of the military, and conducting judicial reform. Nov. 1999 took place the first after the end of civil. war general elections. Success was achieved by the right-wing Guatem party. Republican Front, led by J. E. Rios Montt. The candidate of this party A.A. Portillo Cabrera, who promised to protect human rights, fight poverty and honor peace agreements, in Dec. 1999 was elected president of the country. In Jan. 2004 he was replaced in this post by a representative of the center-right coalition of the Great National. alliance, ex. mayor of the capital O.H.R. Berger Perdomo. He continued the demilitarization of the country (in May-June 2004, over 10,000 servicemen were dismissed from the army). In July 2004, the government announced the start of compensation payments to political victims. violence and terror. Dec. 2004 Watch. The UN Commission for a Peaceful Settlement in Georgia announced the completion of its mission and left the country.
economy
The basis of the economy of G. - p. x-in, which specializes in the production of tropical. crops (coffee, sugarcane, bananas, cardamom, etc.). In terms of GDP - $ 62.97 billion (according to purchasing power parity; $ 5,200 per capita in 2005) - G. surpasses other countries of the Center. America. Real GDP growth 3.1% (2005). Human Development Index 0.663 (2003; 117th out of 177 countries). Economical policy is aimed at achieving macroeconomic. stabilization, restructuring of the financial sector, overcoming poverty. In 1997–99, in order to modernize the economy, the leading state-owned enterprises were privatized. sectors: the largest energy. companies "Empresa Electrica de Guatemala (EEGSA)" and "Instituto Nacional de Electrificacion (INDE)", b. h. transport infrastructure, as well as telephone, television, etc.
In the structure of GDP, the share of the service sector is growing most rapidly (58.1% in 2005), agriculture, forestry and fisheries account for 22.8%, industry - 19.1%. Foreign is developing. tourism (the second most important source of foreign exchange earnings after coffee exports), new hotels are being actively built. 1182 thousand people visited the city. in 2004 (826 thousand people in 2000; 884.2 thousand people in 2002), tourism revenues amounted to 770 million dollars (535 million dollars in 2000; 612.2 million dollars in 2002) . Main types of tourism: cognitive, health-improving, ethnographic, ecological. Ch. tourism objects: the remains and ruins of ancient Mayan cities - Tikal (in the north of the country, on the Peten plateau), Kaminaljuyu (now within the city of Guatemala), Quirigua (in the east of Guatemala), Piedras Negras, Peteshbatun (in the northwest), Coban (near the city - the Lankin cave with an extensive network of underground passages), Quetzaltenango, Chichicastenango, Santa Cruz del Quiche (nearby - the ruins of the former capital of the Quiche - Utatlan), as well as the Totonicapan Valley (the area inhabited by the Mayan Indians; sulfur springs ; handicraft production of fabrics), a winter resort with a miner. springs in Escuintla, beaches near San José and Puerto Barrios. Main tourism centers - Guatemala, Antigua-Guatemala.
Industry
G. is a country with an underdeveloped industry. Mining provides approx. 0.6% of GDP (2005). Oil production is of the greatest importance. Despite the means. reserves, production is low (about 1.1 million tons per year, mainly in the south of the El Peten depot; the development of deposits is controlled by the Canadian company Basic Oil). Georgia exports part of its oil, but oil imports (from Mexico and Venezuela) exceed exports. Antimony ores (about 0.8 million tons per year), gold, and sulfur are mined, and ores of nickel (since 1981, the El Estor deposit), copper, zinc, lead, and chromium are mined in small volumes. Oil refineries operate near the cities of Puerto Barrios (Matias de Galvez) and Escuintla (total capacity approx. 1 million tons). Electricity production 6.9 billion kWh (2003), of which approx. 50% is accounted for by thermal power plants (mostly small, operating on fuel oil), approx. 45% at hydroelectric power stations (92% in 1990; the largest hydroelectric power station is on the Chikhoi River, with a capacity of 300 MW). Electricity consumption is low (approx. 490 kWh per capita), there are interruptions in the supply of electricity; in a number of districts, up to 85% of residents do not have the opportunity to use electricity.
One of the leading branches of the manufacturing industry is the food industry. So. some of the enterprises are small and medium-sized handicraft types, engaged in the processing of local agricultural products. raw materials and service market. Export products are produced by coffee processing plants, the production of sugar, rum, and tobacco products. Since the 1980s the textile industry is developing. At enterprises owned by Amer. firms, knitwear and garments are produced, in the main. for subsequent export to the USA (production is concentrated mainly in free trade zones in the port of Santo Tomas de Castilla and near Guatemala). There are also steel-rolling (production of galvanized steel) and tire plants, enterprises for the assembly of consumer electronics (based on imported components, including South Korean ones), production of chemical products. products, perfumes and cosmetics. and pharmaceutical. goods, paper, cement, etc. Osn. prom. the centers are Guatemala and Quetzaltenango. In zap. parts of G. have been preserved traditionally. occupations of the Indians - handicraft production of clothes, pottery, wood. jewelry.
Agriculture
The combination of large tropical plantations remains typical. crops (mainly owned by foreign companies and produce export products) with small farms that supply products for domestic. consumption. Latifundists and foreigners companies (0.2% of all farms) own approx. 3 / 4 of the cultivated land, the owners of small plots (in total, approx. 9 / 10 of the total number of farms) own approx. 15% of the land.
The main export crop is coffee (collection of 222 thousand tons of green beans in 2004). St. 80% of the collection is given by large plantations; main production areas - the Pacific slope of the highlands (about 80% of the crop) and the center. part of the highlands (approx. 15%, mainly dept. Alta Verapaz). Sugar cane (collection of 18 million tons of green mass in 2004) and bananas (about 1 million tons per year; plantations predominantly of the American companies Chiquita Brands International and Dole Food Co.) also have an important export value. with a drop in demand, banana exports declined significantly; hurricanes in 1983 and 1998 caused great damage to plantations). To the beginning 21st century the production of cotton, one of the most important commercial crops, has sharply decreased (collection of 166 thousand tons in 1985; 3 thousand tons in 2004). From con. 20th century significantly increased the production and export of cardamom (plantation area increased from 30 thousand hectares in the 1970s to 50 thousand hectares in 2005; collection - from 7.3 to 18 thousand tons), fresh fruits (total 1, 6 million tons in 2004) and vegetables (about 600 thousand tons, including Brussels sprouts, asparagus, peppers). Prem. for export grow flowers, essential cereals (lemongrass, citronella grass for the production of essential oils), tobacco, sesame. Main consumer crops - corn, potatoes, beans, rice; the areas occupied by them are gradually decreasing due to the expansion of plantations of export crops. Collection (thousand tons, 2004): corn 1072, potatoes 283, beans 76, rice 29.3, melons 188, tomatoes 187, mangoes 187, lemons and limes 142.9, watermelons 126, oranges 106, pineapples 103, avocados ok . 100. Animal husbandry is extensive. Number of cattle approx. 1.5 million (bred mainly in the Pacific lowland and in the eastern part of the highlands), sheep 700 thousand, pigs 500 thousand (2005). Precious wood species are being harvested (balsa, backout, etc.; a total of 16.4 million m 3 in 2005), as well as chicle resin (for the production of chewing gum; since the end of the 20th century, the volume of blanks has declined sharply). On the Caribbean coast - fishing, shrimp, squid, lobster, etc. (15.6 thousand tons in 2005).
Transport
The total length of the railways is approx. 1 thousand km (2005), b. h. roads - narrow gauge. Main lines belong to the state. Ferrocarriles de Guatemala and connect the capital with the Caribbean coast. Road length approx. 14 thousand km (2005), b. including unpaved and gravel roads; asphalt pavement have approx. 4.9 thousand km. Main highways: highway along the Pacific coast ca. and the Inter-Ocean Highway (San José - Escuintla - Guatemala - Zacapa - Puerto Barrios). The Pan-American Highway (511 km) passes through G.. The importance of air transport, especially passenger air transportation, is growing. There are 528 airfields in Georgia, nine of them with the St. 1000 m Intl. airports - "La Aurora" in Guatemala, "Mundo Maya" near Flores; major airports - in Puerto Barrios, San Jose. Main air transportation is carried out by the company "Aviateca". Total cargo turnover sea. ports G. 15.76 million tons (2005). The most important sea ports: in the Caribbean (cargo turnover, million tons) - Puerto Barrios 1.95, located 8 km from it Santo Tomas de Castilla 4.34; on the Pacific ok. – San Jose 2.44, Puerto Quetzal 9.49 (4 km from San Jose). The length of oil pipelines is 480 km (2004).
International trade
The value of exports is 3.9 billion dollars, imports are 7.7 billion dollars (2005). So. part of the value of merchandise exports is the production of c. x-va (approx. 43% are coffee, sugar, bananas, cardamom, 33% - fruits, vegetables, flowers), 14% - products of the textile industry. Main buyers (% value, 2004): US 53, El Salvador 11.4, Honduras 7.1, Mexico 4.1. Imports are dominated by oil and oil products, machinery and equipment, electronic components, vehicles, plastics, chemicals. fertilizers, food and consumer products. Main suppliers (% value, 2004): USA 34, Mexico 8.1, South. Korea 6.8, China 6.6, Japan 4.4.
Armed forces
Armed. forces (VS, 2005) G. consist of the Ground Forces (27 thousand people), the Air Force (700 people), the Navy (1.5 thousand people) and the military. formations - nat. police (19 thousand people). The supreme commander in chief is the president. Direct leadership of the armed forces carries out min. defense through the commanders of the Armed Forces. In service - 10 tanks, 47 armored personnel carriers, 16 armored personnel carriers, 196 art. guns, 85 mortars, 32 anti-aircraft guns, 10 combat and 25 auxiliary aircraft. aviation, 12 combat helicopters, St. 30 patrol boats. Acquisition of the Armed Forces - on call, the term is valid. military service 30 months The training of command personnel is carried out in the main. in the USA.
Healthcare. Sport
In G. per 100 thousand inhabitants. there are 90 doctors, 405 persons cf. honey. staff, 18 dentists (1999). Health expenditure is 4.8% of GDP (budget funding 47.5%, private sector 52.5%) (2002). Health care is decentralized, includes several sectors (public, private commercial and non-commercial, folk medicine), based on primary health care. The most common infections diseases - bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever, malaria (2003). Main causes of death in the adult population - infectious diseases. diseases, injuries and poisonings, diseases of the cardiovascular system, cancer (2003).
National The Olympic Committee was founded and recognized by the IOC in 1947. In 1952, sportsmen of Georgia participated in the Olympic Games for the first time, then since 1968. The most popular sports are boxing, wrestling, cycling, equestrian and sailing, light and weightlifting, swimming, shooting, fencing, football. In 2000, the futsal world championship was held in G., for the opening of which the Polideportivo Sports Palace was built in the capital for 7.5 thousand spectators. In 2001, the 7th Central Amer. games (the first were also held in G. in 1973); 564 sportsmen took part in 37 disciplines. In 2002, 60 km from the capital, the Volcano Autodrom was built (area 15 ha).
Education. Scientific and cultural institutions
Education is compulsory and free for children aged 7 to 14. However, in con. 1990s only 41% of children of the same age attended school. The education system includes a 6-year (in rural areas - 3-year) beginning. school, 5-year secondary school, prof. schools. In 2003, approx. 85% of students, secondary - approx. thirty%. G. has one of the lowest literacy rates in Lat. America - 69% (2003). The largest un-you: state. University of San Carlos (1676), private Catholic. un-you - un-t Rafael Landivar (1961), un-t Del Valle (1966), un-t Mariano Galvez (1966), un-t Francisco Marroquin (1971); conservatory (1875), Nat. plastic school. Arts (1920) - all in Guatemala. Scientific institutions: Guatem. Academy of Languages (1887), Guatem. Academy of Geography and History (1923), Academy of Medical, Physical. and natures. Sciences (1945), Academy of Mayan Languages (1959), Nat. Institute of Atomic Energy (1966), Nat. Institute of Electrification, Institute of Anthropology and History (1946), Nat. Institute of Geography, Nat. observatory (1925). General management and coordination of scientific. research is carried out by the National scientific council. and tech. Research (1967). National library in Guatemala (1879). Museums: colonial (1936), Santiago (1956), old books (1956) - all in Antigua Guatemala; National museum of contemporary lawsuit "Carlos Merida" (1934), Nat. Museum of History and Fine Arts (1935), Nat. Museum of Archeology and Ethnology (1948), Nat. natural museum. history "Jorge A. Ibarra" (1950), Nar. Arts and Crafts (1959), Museum of the History of Guatemala (1975) - all in Guatemala.
Mass media
State. information agency - Inforpress Centroamericana. Daily government. edition - gas. "Diario de Centroamérica" (published since 1880; 35,000 copies in 2005). 5 daily morning newspapers are published (circulation, 2005): Prensa Libre (about 25 thousand copies), Siglo Veintiuno (20 thousand), El Gráfico (30 thousand), La República ( 35 thousand), "El Periodico" (20 thousand), evening gas. "La Hora" (about 30 thousand). Weekly magazines - "Crónica" (15 thousand), "Crí tica" (about 10 thousand). Broadcasting since 1930. Total 640 registered. radio stations (2004); 22 radio stations in Guatemala, of which 5 are state-owned, including La Voz de Guatemala. Television broadcasting since 1956. 26 television stations (2004), 5 nationwide television channels (all pro-government), one of them belongs to the Ministry of Defense, 4 private channels (3, 7, 11, 13; belong to one owner).
Literature
Lit-ra G. develops in the main. in Spanish language. The pre-colonial period is represented by the legacy of the Maya-Kiche Indians (fragments of hymns, military songs, lyrics, myths). Preserved recorded in Latin approx. ser. 16th century mythological epic with historical features chronicles "Popol-Vuh" (published in 1861, Russian translation 1959); book of prophecies "Chilam-Balam"; nar. drama "Rabinal-Achi". In the 16th century B. Diaz del Castillo created the historical. chronicle "The True History of the Conquest of New Spain and Guatemala". Among others, the most significant. chroniclers of this time - F. Vasquez, F. Jimenez, as well as B. Villacañas, P. Sotomayor and M. Lobo, who participated in the creation of dictionaries and grammars of Indian languages. Poetry 17th century wore premier. religious character (P. de Lievana, J. de Mestanza, brothers F. and J. Cadena, nun J. de Maldonado y Paz). In the 18th century journalism began to develop (P. Molina, S. Bergagno), fable genres appeared (R. Garcia Goyene), opisat. poems (“Country Life in Mexico” by R. Landivara, 1781). In the 1st floor. 19th century in the literature of G. formed a romantic. direction; its largest representative is the poet J. Batres Montufar. A notable phenomenon was the work of the satirist J. A. de Irisarri. All R. 19th century costumbrism was born (collection of everyday writing essays “Pictures of Morals” by H. Milia i Vidaurre, 1865; the story “From a Bird's Eye View” by F. Lainfiesta, 1879, etc.). In con. 19th century naturalist tendencies intensified in the literature of Guinea: the novels of R. A. Salazar and E. Martinez Sobral. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. appeared the genre of politics. novel (M. Soto Hall); sharp satires. the pamphlets were created by R. Arevalo Martinez. In the 1st floor. 20th century the aesthetics of modernism was actively combined with elements of romanticism and avant-garde in the works of F. Herrera, S. Bragnas, and others. His novels in many ways anticipated the work of M. A. Asturias, who laid the foundations magical realism in lit-re G. A noticeable phenomenon lit. G. became the work of L. Cardoza and Aragon. Social issues were reflected in the work of most writers of the 2nd floor. 20th century: O. R. Castillo, R. Obregon Morales, C. Illescas, A. Acuña, C. Matute and others. In the 1990s. great popularity won the poetry of U. Akabala, who, referring to the nat. folklore, created poems in the Quiche language; in R. Menchu Tum's book "My name is Rigoberta Menchu" (1983), the life of Indian tribes is shown with sympathy. So. con writers. 20th century – M. R. Morales, G. A. Montenegro, H. Barnoia, A. Arias, F. Goldman.
Visual arts and architecture
On the territory of G. in the 3rd–9th centuries. Mayan lawsuit developed. In Kaminalhuyu, Quirigua, Tikal, temples were built on pyramidal or tower-shaped foundations, palaces, pyramids, steles with relief images of rulers, altars were erected. High artist. painted and figured ceramics, products made of stone, bone, shells, etc., differed in level. The traditions of the Maya culture were preserved in the Nar. artistic handicrafts of the Indians, manufacturing fabrics, decorated with transverse stripes with a complex geometric. ornaments, shawls and belts with ornaments and figures of people and animals; women's and men's huipili shirts are decorated with embroidery with a predominant red color. All clay utensils are made without the help of a potter's wheel; their painting often reproduces ancient motifs; Wicker vessels made of agave fibers and palm leaves are also common.
During the colonial period, towns arose in Georgia with a rectangular network of streets built up with squat, massive stone buildings with low walls and arcades. At home, prim. one-story, had vnutr. courtyard (patio) with a gallery on trees. pillars, a portal set aside from Ch. axis of the building, on the corner - a balcony or a turret (mirador). In the architecture of residential buildings, the influence of Arabic-Spanish is noticeable. Mudéjar style. From the 2nd floor. 18th century the facades were decorated with baroque lush stucco and carving patterns: Palacio de los Capitanes Generales (1549–68; rebuilt in 1763–64, architect L. Diez Navarro), Town Hall (1739–43, architect D. de Porres) , University of San Carlos (1773, architect X. M. Ramirez), monastery with c. Nuestra Señora de la Merced (17th century, rebuilt in 1760) - all in Antigua Guatemala. In the 16th–18th centuries there was an original school of cult sculpture: trees. the statues were covered with metal, enamels and lacquer, creating the illusion of items made of precious metals (sculptors J. de Aguirre, C. Cataño, A. de la Paz, E. Zuniga). Polychrome ceramics were also made. statues to decorate churches. Painting also wore Ch. arr. religious character. The works of A. de Mantufar are especially famous. Since the 19th century (mainly in the capital) buildings were built in the style of classicism, from the middle. 20th century - in the spirit of modern European architecture. The small towns of G., populated in the main. Indians, built up preim. houses covered with straw and tiles, and preserve the archaic. shape. In 1920, the National school of fine arts in Guatemala, in 1963 - Local school of fine arts in Quetzaltenango. In the 2nd floor. 20th century masters came to the fore who turned to the life and history of the Indians (painters A. Galvez Suarez, U. Garavito, T. Fonseca, P. R. Gonzalez Chavahay, and others). Famous sculptors - X. Urruela, R. Galeoti Torres. The works of K. Merida, D. Vasquez Castañeda and others are close to abstractionism. In the last third of the 20th century. the influence of figurative expressionism (E. Rojas, M. A. Quiroa, R. Cabrera), primitivism is noticeable. In architecture, con. 20th century monumental forms of painting and sculpture are actively used (E. Resinos).
Music
Music roots. art-wa G. - in the pre-Columbian culture of the Maya, in the era of the New Age, experienced the Spanish. influence. The face of music the country's culture means. degree is determined by tradition. and folklore music of the Ladino, Maya, Garifon, and other peoples.
From Ser. 16th century received the development of music. European life. sample, an important part of which is Catholic music. churches. The composer and organist E. Franco (1554–1573) worked in the cathedral in Guatemala, and Spanish music was played. and netherl. composers. Among other musicians of the colonial period were E. de Leon Garrido, M. Pontaza, and the author of the popular villancicos V. Syens (2nd half of the 18th – early 19th centuries). L. F. Arias (late 19th – early 20th centuries) was the first composer to turn to local folklore. H. Castillo used Indian music. material in her instrumental compositions and operas "Kiche Vinak" (1925) and "Nikta" (1933, not completed). R. Castillo also turned to Indian themes (ballet Kaal Baba, 1951), who was educated in Paris and wrote music in an impressionistic style. An important contribution to the formation of nat. music G. cultures were introduced by: S. Lay, E. Solares (mid-20th century), J. Oreolana, J. A. Sarmientos, U. Ayestas, R. Asturias, I. de Gandarias, I. Sarmientos, P. Alvarado , A. Crespo, U. Orbaug, D. Lehnhoff (second half of the 20th century).
Movie
The first film show was held in G. in 1896. The first feature film (Agent No. 13) was directed in 1912 by A. de la Riva. Two versions of the game f. The Master's Son was staged in 1915 and 1929 (directors A. Gerbruger and A. Palarea). In the 1930s filmed ch. arr. documentaries about religion. holidays and sports. The first sound film was Rhythm and Dance (1942, directors E. Fleishman, R. Aguirre, H. Gavarret). The first full-length feature film was The Hat (1950, directed by G. Andrew and Fleishman). 1944–54 was dominated by popular science films. All R. 1950s a film studio was built in the country. Among the films: "Vacation 1953" by M. Reishenbach (1953), "Daughter of the Caribbean" by S. Abulararach (1955), "A Crown for My Mother" (1958), "Earthquake in Guatemala" (1976) and "Candelaria" (1977) ) R. Lanusa, "The Joy of Life" (1960) and "Sundays Pass" (1967) A. Seurat. There were also films intended for workers and students. audiences: "Christmas in Guatemala" (1977, dir. L. Argueta), "Veil" (1978, dir. H. Chang). In 1968, the Guatem Development Association was established. cinema, in 1970 - University Cinematheque. At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries. The cinematography of G. is one of the most dynamically developing in the Center. America. The films Neto's Silence by L. Argueta (1994), Uraga by A. Carlos and G. Escalon (2002) and others testify to the search for an original film language.
The content of the article
GUATEMALA, The Republic of Guatemala, the northernmost of the Central American Republics, covers an area of 108,899 sq. km. It borders Mexico to the north and west, Belize to the east, and El Salvador and Honduras to the south and southeast. In the east, Guatemala has a narrow outlet to the Caribbean Sea, where one of the main ports of the Caribbean coast in Central America, Puerto Barrios, is located; The southern coast of the country is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean for 240 km.
Guatemala has approx. 32% of the total population of Central America, and the capital of the country is the city of Guatemala with a population of 1.2 million people (according to 1995), located in the mountains at an altitude of approx. 1500 m above sea level - the largest city on the isthmus. The capital plays a leading role in all areas of the country's life. The second largest city is Quetzaltenango (88 thousand).
natural conditions.
Relief.
On the territory of Guatemala, three physical and geographical regions are distinguished: the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the highlands of the southern and central parts of the country, and the Peten Plain in the north.
A lowland adjoins the Pacific coast, reaching a width of approx. 50 km near the border with Mexico and gradually narrowing to the southeast, towards the border with El Salvador.
The highlands occupy more than half of the country's territory and continue to the northwest, within Mexico, and to the southeast, into the territory of El Salvador and Honduras. The height of the surface above sea level is mostly from 1000 to 2400 m, with individual volcanic peaks over 3700 m high. Geologically, this area corresponds to outcrops of ancient crystalline rocks, forming ridges of latitudinal strike with sharp ridges and steep slopes; they are dissected by deeply incised river valleys opening eastward towards the Caribbean Sea. In the south-west of the highlands, separating it from the coastal lowland, the Sierra Madre ridge rises, on the ancient base of which numerous cones of young volcanoes are superimposed, including the highest mountain in Central America, the Tajumulco volcano (4217 m). The crystalline rocks here are overlain by a thick cover of lavas and volcanic ash.
Irregular-shaped depressions nestled among the volcanoes, one of which contains the lake. Atitlan. From the slope of the highlands, facing southwest, short stormy rivers flow into the Pacific Ocean, but most of the mountainous region is drained by rivers belonging to the Caribbean Sea: Sarstun and Motagua, as well as tributaries of the Polochik River, which flows into Lake. Izabal, connected by a wide navigable channel with the Amatic Bay of the Caribbean Sea. In the middle and lower reaches, the valleys of these rivers have a wide and flat, well-moistened bottom, bounded by long and narrow spurs of mountains.
The north of the territory of Guatemala is occupied by the Peten Plain (absolute heights 150–210 m), composed of limestones. Its surface is dotted with typical karst forms - rounded funnels and dips. Many rivers get lost in these funnels, continuing their way to the sea in underground cavities and caves. The entire Petén Plain is covered with dense rainforest.
Climate and flora.
The climate of Guatemala is tropical, and its characteristics depend on the height of the area and its accessibility to humid trade winds blowing inland from the Caribbean Sea. The coastal lowlands are characterized by the hottest and most humid climate, with average daily temperatures of approx. 27 ° C. The most abundant precipitation falls on the Caribbean coast and the slopes of the mountains facing it, as well as on the Peten plain (1500–2500 mm per year). The lowland and the lower parts of the slopes are covered with high-stemmed tropical rainforest, with closed crowns and almost no undergrowth; in some places it is interrupted by patches of savannah, and xerophytic light forests are developed in places on the exceptionally porous calcareous soils of the plain. Palm trees grow in abundance on the Caribbean coast.
On the low Pacific coast, precipitation is brought mainly by the summer southwest monsoons. Short-term but heavy showers fall from May to October, winters are dry here. This precipitation regime determines the predominance of grass savannahs with ribbon forests along the riverbeds. Dense semi-deciduous forests grow in the foothills. Temperatures in the mountains are lower than in the lowlands, and their seasonal fluctuations are insignificant. For example, in Guatemala, the average July temperature is 19°C, and the average December temperature is 16°C.
Seasonal differences are determined not so much by temperature fluctuations as by the regime of precipitation, the bulk of which falls from May to October. For example, in the capital, where the annual amount is 1320 mm, 1240 mm falls in the summer. Oak forests grow in the middle belt of mountains; above 2100 m they give way to pine, and from 3000 m, where low temperatures prevent the growth of trees, alpine meadows begin. . In the forests of Guatemala, there are many valuable tree species, including cedrela, dalbergia (rosewood), cypress, acajou (mahogany) and logwood, which provides a valuable dye. Lianas, epiphytes, orchids and other plants with bright decorative flowers, including trees and shrubs, are abundant.
Animal world.
On the sparsely populated lowlands, deer, wild pigs, iguanas and snakes, including poisonous ones, are found. In the mountains, most of the large animals have been exterminated for meat; a few squirrels and other rodents, kinkajou, foxes, and coyotes have survived. The avifauna is rich and diverse. Here are described approx. 2000 species of birds, of which approx. 200 migratory species originating from North America. Many tropical birds with bright plumage, including various types of parrots. Quetzal is especially loved by the Guatemalans. – a rare bird with bright green feathers and a long tail. The quetzal has become a national symbol; he is depicted on the state emblem and flag of the country, and the monetary unit of Guatemala is named after him.
population and society.
Demographics and ethnic composition.
In the second half of the 20th century Guatemala is distinguished by a high natural population growth - approx. 3% per year. In the 1990s, the population growth rate began to decline slightly and in 2003 reached 2.66%. According to estimates for July 2011, the population of the country is 13,824,463 people.
About half of the country's population (51%) lives in rural areas. The country's capital, Guatemala, has been the largest urban center in Central America since independence. Its population, which in 2009 was approx. 1.075 million people, with suburbs - more than 2 million
Of the other cities, Quetzaltenango deserves mention, the center of coffee production, located in the west of the highlands; Puerto Barrios, the main port of the country on the Caribbean Sea; Escuintla, on the lowlands overlooking the Pacific Ocean, another city in the mountains, Mazatenango; finally, the old capital of the country - Antigua Guatemala (or Antigua), where the lifestyle is still largely reminiscent of the colonial. Each of these cities is the capital of the department, and all of them, except for the city of Puerto Barrios, have existed since the days of Spanish colonial rule. Puerto Barrios has grown in importance with the growth of coffee and banana exports; its development was particularly facilitated by the activities of the United Fruit Company. Another port, Santo Tomas de Castilla, was built in recent decades near Puerto Barrios on the site of an old port that was used during the colonial era; the government pays great attention to the development of this port as an alternative to the current port of Puerto Barrios. The most densely populated intermountain basins, especially around the cities of Guatemala, Quetzaltenango, Antigua Guatemala, as well as caribbean coast in the Puerto Barrios region and parts of the Pacific coast. The lowest population density is observed in the north of the country, in the department of Peten.
More than half of the total population of Guatemala are Indians, descendants of the ancient Maya, the rest are mainly Spanish-speaking mestizos - Ladino, descendants of Spaniards and Indians. The share of the white population, mainly of Spanish origin, is small, except for the ruling classes. Blacks live along the Caribbean coast. Ladino play a major role in the life of the country, both in the cities and in the countryside. Their environment is dominated by Spanish customs, although somewhat modified under the influence of the Indians. Outside the cities, the bulk of the Ladino is concentrated in the east of the country and on the Pacific coast.
Most Indians live in the southwest of the country and in the central highlands. They still retain many Mayan customs, although their way of life is gradually changing. Roads connect with the outside world their settlements, once completely isolated; young people are drafted into the army, and many Indian families are forced to leave their homes in search of work. Although an increasing number of Indians speak Spanish, 24 different Maya languages are still spoken in the country, mainly Quiche, Quekchi and Mame.
The Mountain Indians usually live a semi-subsistence economy on farms that are privately or communally owned. Most of the plots are so small that they cannot feed a family, and some Indians additionally rent land or work on large farms as sharecroppers. Even more often they are hired on the plantations of the Pacific coast. More than half a million Indians descend from the mountains each year to the coast, where they work on the plantations, picking coffee, cotton or sugar cane.
Religion.
The vast majority of Guatemalans are Catholic, at least nominally, but the influence of Protestant missionaries has grown markedly in the years since World War II. The Baptist, Episcopal, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Mormon churches are firmly established in the country, but evangelical Protestant fundamentalist groups, whose leaders are mostly Indian or Ladino, enjoy the greatest influence. The total number of Protestants is approx. 30% of the country's population. Most of them belong to the poorest strata, but gradually Protestants appear in the middle and upper classes; Protestants were two presidents - Efrain Rios Montt and Jorge Serrano. Evangelicals mostly try to stay out of politics or support conservative political groups. Catholic missionaries are also quite active; many of them adhere to progressive views, sharing the principles of the so-called "liberation theology". In Indian communities, ancient religious beliefs are still strong, often combined with Christianity.
Labor movement.
The first labor legislation in the country was adopted in the period 1944–1954, along with other democratic reforms. These laws established a minimum wage, an 8-hour day, and provided for welfare measures. After the military coup of 1954, these reforms were canceled and trade union activity was suppressed. New laws issued in 1961 prohibited the formation of peasant unions and outlawed strikes. After 1985 trade unions again began to openly participate in the life of the country. Most of the country's trade union organizations are united in the National Trade Union Front. The National Confederation of Trade Unions has 24,000 members. The coalition of trade unions and peasant organizations, the Union of People's Action, is very active.
Political system.
The current constitution of Guatemala was drafted by an elected legislative assembly in 1985 and entered into force in January 1986, simultaneously with the inauguration of the civil government of Vinicio Cerezo, elected from the Christian Democratic Party. The 1986 constitution provides for various guarantees of human rights and civil liberties and makes it illegal for the military to interfere in politics. It contains a lengthy account of the crimes of military dictatorships that have succeeded each other over the past 30 years. In 1994, significant amendments were made to the Constitution.
In accordance with the constitution, the head of government of Guatemala is the president, who is elected, together with the vice president, by direct popular vote for a 5-year term and cannot be re-elected for a second term. If no candidate receives an absolute majority of the votes, another round of voting is held with only the two candidates who received the most votes in the previous round. The President is also the head of the armed forces, he appoints the Council of Ministers, which directly governs the country, and has the right to veto laws passed by Parliament.
Legislative power belongs to the National Congress, whose members are directly elected for 5 years; it legislates, approves the state budget, and can override a presidential veto, which requires a two-thirds majority. The Cabinet of Ministers is accountable to the National Congress and, at the request of the latter, must appear before it with explanations of its actions; Congress has the power to remove ministers from their posts. The National Congress has the power to remove the president and vice president if it deems them physically or mentally incapable of performing their duties. The decision on this is made by a qualified majority of votes based on the opinion of a special medical commission of five competent doctors appointed by the Steering Committee of the Congress.
The supreme body of the judiciary is the Supreme Court, which consists of 13 members elected for a five-year term by the National Congress. Judges have the right to create as many judicial chambers as they deem necessary. The judges of the Court of Appeal and the five members of the Constitutional Court are elected in the same way. in 1990 by the former leader of the military regime in 1982–1983, retired General Efrain Rios Montt. Rios Montt is a charismatic leader popular with a wide variety of people. Electoral laws forbade the former general from running for president because of his involvement in the 1982 military coup, but this did not stop his party from being active. In 1994, Germany won the parliamentary elections and became the country's largest political force. Front candidate Alfonso Portillo in January 1996 was not enough to win the presidential election by only 2% of the vote. In 1999, party chairman Rios Montt led A. Portillo's new presidential campaign. Germany acted from the standpoint of combining classical conservatism with elements of populism and national reformism, promising the Guatemalans capitalism with a social, human face, security and justice, the removal of the army from interfering in politics, solving the problem of poverty and achieving national harmony. The slogan "Law and Order" attracted the sympathy of the population, dissatisfied with corruption and crime. As a result, Germany won both the presidential and parliamentary elections. A. Portillo received 47.8% of the vote in the first round and 68.3% in the second, having assumed office in 2000 and formed a government from representatives of his party, as well as a number of centrist and left figures. In the National Congress of Germany, he won 63 out of 113 seats; front leader Rios Montt was elected President of the Parliament. (2000–2010 cm.below in the HISTORY section. Guatemalan Revolution of 1944 and modern period.)
Municipal districts have a certain independence; each of them is headed by a mayor and a municipal council elected by the population.
Political parties.
The traditional political parties of Guatemala - conservative and liberal - reflected the interests of the main groups of the elite and succeeded each other in power from 1839 to the middle of the 20th century. After the Second World War, new parties appeared on the political arena. After the coup of 1954, which put an end to the so-called Guatemalan Revolution (1945-1954), formally a multi-party system was preserved in Guatemala, but in practice, predominantly right-wing parties operated legally, and all left-wing parties and many parties of the “center” were banned. Outlawed in 1954, the Guatemalan Labor Party, which was essentially communist, continued its activities while underground. For a long time, the centrist Christian Democratic Party was banned under the pretext that it was "controlled" by international organizations (usually such terminology was used in relation to Marxist parties). After 1954, hundreds of political leaders were physically destroyed by paramilitary death squads. Although the government stopped supporting right-wing terrorists after President Vinicio Cerezo took office in 1986, human rights violations continued, while a number of more progressive political parties were allowed to resume their activities. Leftist parties remained banned until the end of the guerrilla war (1996).
In the 1980s and 1990s, a new party system emerged in Guatemala. Hegemony passed to the newly created political organizations.
The largest party in modern Guatemala is the Guatemalan Republican Front. (FRG), a right-wing conservative association founded in 1990 by the former leader of the military regime in 1982-1983, retired General Efrain Rios Montt. Rios Montt is a charismatic leader, popular among a wide variety of segments of the population. Electoral laws forbade the former general from running for president because of his involvement in the 1982 military coup, but this did not stop his party from being active. In 1994, Germany won the parliamentary elections and became the country's largest political force. Front candidate Alfonso Portillo in January 1996 was not enough to win the presidential election by 2% of the vote. In 1999, party chairman Rios Montt led A. Portillo's new presidential campaign. Germany acted from the standpoint of combining classical conservatism with elements of populism and national reformism, promising the Guatemalans capitalism with a social, human face, security and justice, the removal of the army from interfering in politics, solving the problem of poverty and achieving national harmony. The slogan "Law and Order" attracted the sympathy of the population, dissatisfied with corruption and crime. As a result, Germany won both the presidential and parliamentary elections. A. Portillo received 47.8% of the vote in the first round and 68.3% in the second, having assumed office in 2000 and formed a government from representatives of his party, as well as a number of centrist and left figures. In the National Congress of Germany, he won 63 out of 113 seats, and the leader of the front, Rios Montt, was elected chairman of the parliament.
National Vanguard Party (PNA) is the second most influential political organization in Guatemala. It was founded in 1985 by Alvaro Arcu Yrigoyein, who in 1986-1990 served as mayor of the country's capital. Politically, the PNA represents right-wing and centre-right conservative circles. Her agenda is to continue the democratic process and social market reforms to build a "people's capitalist" society, and to eliminate discrimination and poverty through national consensus (including agreement with former leftist rebels). In 1990-1991, the PNA participated in the government of President Jorge Serrano, but A. Arsu resigned from the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs, refusing to recognize the independence of Belize, which Guatemala traditionally considered a seized territory. In the 1994 parliamentary elections, the party became the country's second political force, and in 1996 its candidate A. Arsu won the presidential election and became the head of state (1996–2000). Its main achievement should be considered the conclusion of the Peace Agreement with the left-wing rebels on December 29, 1996. In mid-1999, the official number of the PAN reached almost 30 thousand people. However, in the 1999 presidential election, the PAN came second. Its presidential candidate Oscar Berger won only 30.3% in the first and 31.7% in the second round. The party has 37 out of 113 seats in the Congress and is in opposition to the government of President A. Portillo.
Legalized after the peace agreement of 1996, the left forces broke into third place in the political system of modern Guatemala. The leading grouping of the left is the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity. (URNG). It arose in 1982 as a bloc of four military-political organizations - the Rebel Armed Forces, the Guerrilla Army of the Poor, the Revolutionary Organization of the Armed People and France's Guatemalan Labor Party. In 1982, the URNG included 6 thousand people, the number of its armed detachments in the mid-1990s reached 3 thousand fighters. After the demobilization of the URNG armed formations in May 1997, Unity in October 1998 was officially registered as a political party. The groupings included in it were reorganized and renamed. URNG, having turned into a legal party, abandoned the traditional leftist ideology and now acts from positions close to social reformism and social democracy.
In the 1999 general election, the URNG led the New Nation Alliance, a left-wing coalition that also included the Genuine Integral Development movement. Alliance candidate Alvaro Colom Caballeros collected 12.3% of the vote. The bloc has 9 seats in Congress. The leaders of the URNG are Pablo Monsanto, Rene Moran, Gaspar Ilom and Carlos Gonzalez.
A real breakthrough in the history of Guatemala, at least in terms of its political traditions, was the result of the 2007 presidential election. Usually, in the struggle for the first post of the state, “right” and “centrists” who were no different from each other converged, this time the victory was won by the “left” - Alvaro Colom Caballeros. The UNE bloc that supported him (“National Union of Hope”) proclaims itself a follower of the social Christian and social democratic strategy, declares loyalty to the ideals of the French and Mexican revolutions, but most importantly, the Guatemalan revolution of 1944
In 2000, Alvaro Colom Caballeros announced the creation of his own political bloc of the social democratic orientation "National Unity of Hope" and already in 2003 participated in the elections for the presidency of the country. Although Alvaro lost, he became the first left-wing candidate to rise so high in an election in fifty years.
In 2007, Alvaro Colom Caballeros again became the candidate of his party in the presidential elections and this time won with 52.7% of the vote. On January 14, 2008, Alvaro Colom Caballeros took the oath and became President of the Republic of Guatemala.
Guatemalan Christian Democracy (or Christian Democratic Party, CDA) was created in 1955 as a legal opposition to the military regimes. In the early 1960s, the CDA established ties with the Renovationist wing of the Catholic Church, trade unions, student and peasant organizations of the country. After a new military coup in 1963, the party was banned and was able to operate legally again only in 1970. Nevertheless, it continued to be subjected to repression: in 1980–1985, 300 members of the CDA were killed by ultra-right death squads and an attempt was made on its leader Vinicio Cereso.
In 1985, V. Cerezo won the presidential election. The CDA government (1986–1991) began a process of democratization and "national reconciliation". It began negotiations with the left-wing rebels, proclaimed a course towards economic stabilization and support for the middle and low-income sections of the population. However, the severity of contradictions in the country did not contribute to the success of the centrist policy of the Christian Democrats. The party lost the presidential elections of 1990-1991, but still remained the second force in Congress. In the 1990s, the CDA experienced a series of splits, and its influence gradually declined. In the 1995–1996 elections, the Christian Democrats, together with the Social Democrats and the Union of the National Center, formed the National Alliance coalition, which managed to become the third most powerful political group. In 1999, Christian Democracy managed to win only 2 seats in Congress. The party is part of the Christian Democratic International. Leader - Alfonso Cabrera.
Democratic Front New Guatemala (DFNG) is a center-left bloc that was formed in 1995. Its participation in the 1995-1996 elections was the first opportunity for the left to legally speak out in 40 years. By nominating banker Jorge González del Valle, who is closely associated with the International Monetary Fund, as a candidate for the presidency, the front collected 7.6% of the vote. The DFNG acted as a political ally of the URNG, but ran independently in the 1999 elections. Its representative, Ana Catalina Soberanis Reyes, received 1.3% of the vote.
National Center Union (SNC) is a moderate center-right party that upholds traditional values, human rights and the principles of national concord. It was founded in 1982 by newspaper publisher Jorge Carpio Nicolle. In the 1985 elections, the SNC came in second place after the Christian Democrats, and J. Carpio was elected vice president of the country. In 1991, he lost the presidential election to J. Serrano, although the SNC briefly became the largest party in the country. After the removal of Serrano from power, the representative of the centrists, the well-known human rights activist Ramon de Leon Carpio, served in 1993-1996 as interim president of the country. His administration succeeded in strengthening the democratization of the political system, enacting a number of constitutional reforms, and deepening negotiations with the left-wing rebels. Nevertheless, the influence of the SNC as a party in the 1990s (after the parliamentary elections of 1994) fell catastrophically. In 1999, SNC candidate Danilo Julián Roca Barillas won only 1% of the vote.
Moderate Right Party Solidarity Action Movement (MAS) arose in 1987. It relied on the support of army circles and a number of Protestant organizations that were at war with the country's Catholic Church. IAS leader Jorge Serrarno Elias served as President of the Council of State under the dictatorship of General Ríos Montt (1982–1983). In the 1990 elections, the IAS became the third most powerful party in parliament, and J. Serrano managed to win the second round of the presidential elections in 1991 and become president of Guatemala. He formed a "national unity" government and pursued a neo-liberal economic policy. Under the pretext of fighting corruption and drug trafficking, J. Serrano demanded emergency powers, on May 25, 1993, he dissolved parliament, the Supreme and Constitutional Courts, but on June 1 he was removed from power. After the fall of the Serrano administration, the IAS is in deep crisis.
In addition to the main parties that left their mark on the political development of Guatemala in the 1990s, other small groups and organizations are active in the country. – Progressive Liberation Party (leader - A. Valladares Molina; 3.1% of the vote in the 1999 elections and 1 seat in Congress), Green Organization – Democratic Union (leader - J.E. Asturias; 1.1% of the vote in the 1999 elections and 1 seat in parliament) and others.
Foreign policy.
Guatemala is a member of the UN, a member of the Organization of American States, the Organization of Central American States (OCAS), the Central American Parliament, and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Back in the 16th century. Guatemala, which then belonged to Spain, laid claim to the neighboring territory of British Honduras, which is now called Belize and gained independence in 1981. Friction between Guatemala and Great Britain on this issue led to a rupture of diplomatic relations in 1981. However, in the late 1980s, the civilian government of .Sereso managed to resolve this issue through diplomacy. In 1991, Guatemala recognized the independence of Belize. Belize, for its part, allowed Guatemala to use its ports on the Caribbean coast and the sea route leading to Puerto Barrios through Belize's territorial waters. In 1993, the Guatemalan Congress revised and annulled this agreement. Since then, Guatemala has been busy looking for a solution that would allow the transfer of part of the territory in southern Belize; relations between the two states remain strained, fueled by numerous border incidents. The British government offered to pay Guatemala $24 million for renunciation of territorial claims, but in 1998 the conflict had not yet been resolved.
Armed forces.
For many decades, the military has been the most powerful political force in the country and, in the eyes of many, is still the main obstacle to democratic development. The country has a two-year military service (though not universal) for men aged 18 to 50. The size of the armed forces increased during the period of military rule (1954–1985), peaking at no less than 70,000 men in the 1980s, and gradually declined during the 1990s; this process accelerated after the signing of the agreement in 1996. In addition to the army proper, civilian paramilitaries, the so-called civil defense patrols, were created in the 1980s. Participation in them was officially voluntary, but in fact mandatory; their number reached several hundred thousand people, most of whom were Maya Indians. Under the terms of the 1996 peace agreement, these patrols were disbanded. After the establishment of peace in 1996, the size of the armed forces was reduced to 31 thousand people in the ground forces; The Air Force has 1,000 personnel, and the same number serves in the Navy.
Economy.
In terms of production, Guatemala surpasses any of the countries of Central America. In 1997, its gross domestic product (GDP) was $17.8 billion, which was approx. $2,900 per capita. The Guatemalan government encouraged foreign investment by providing investors with significant tax breaks and exemptions from customs duties. US investment in Guatemala's economy exceeds its investment in other countries in the region. From the mid-1960s to the late 1970s, there was an impressive growth in GDP, mainly due to the influence of the Central American Common Market, which stimulated industrial development. The average annual increase in the period from 1965 to 1978 was almost 6%. After 1979, many economic problems worsened, and the rate of GDP growth in the early and mid-1980s slowed compared to the previous period, and in 1981 there was a drop in production. The restoration of civilian rule had a positive effect on the economy. In 1987, economic growth was 3.5%, and in the 1990s, its rate increased steadily, reaching 4.3% in 1997. The average growth in the period 1998-2002 was expected to be 5.3% per year.
Agriculture (first of all, coffee production) reacted to the changed situation, which suffered especially hard in the 1980s from the general economic union and frequent armed clashes. In 1987, the recovery of the industrial sector began, and by 1994 it accounted for 19% of GDP and 17% of the labor force. The most dynamic growth was noted in construction and tourism-related industries. According to 1994 estimates, tourism, the second most important source of foreign exchange earnings, provided approximately 2.4% of the gross national product.
The economic depression of the 1980s had severe social consequences. In 1987, 87% of Guatemalan citizens were officially considered to be living below the poverty line (against 79% in 1980); in 1990, 72% of Guatemalans were undernourished. In the early 1990s, there were no significant improvements. By 1995, in connection with a sharp housing crisis, cases of unauthorized seizure of empty buildings or land where huts were being built became more frequent; in the city of Guatemala and around it arose approx. 200 settlements of this type. In rural areas, inequality in the distribution of land is pronounced, sharper than anywhere else in Latin America. Although the 1996 peace agreement included a number of provisions regulating land ownership, Guatemala has not yet passed a land redistribution law. 67% of the total area of agricultural land in use falls on the largest land holdings, constituting 2% of the total; 80% of farms occupy 10% of all land.
At the moment, the economic indicators of the country are as follows: GDP (according to purchasing power parity) - 68 billion dollars (2008); $68,360 million (2009); $70,150 million (2010)
The real GDP growth rate for 2010 is 2.6%. GDP per capita approx. $5200 (2008–2010)
GDP by sectors of the economy: agriculture - 13.2%; industry - 23.8%; services - 63% (2010).
Agriculture.
In the late 1990s, agriculture was still the backbone of the Guatemalan economy. In 1997 it gave approx. 70% of exports, 25% of GDP, and it employed half of the working population.
There is a sharp difference between large modern farms - latifundia, which produce most of the main export crops, and small peasant farms - "minifundia", where semi-subsistence farming is carried out and most food crops are grown for domestic consumption. The agricultural sector, which produces plantation export crops, is the most dynamic; it is primarily supported by the government, often to the detriment of small farms. For example, between 1970 and 1980, the area under export crops increased by 45%, while smallholders lost 26% of their land. From 1985 to 1998, the area of coffee plantations increased from 228.2 thousand hectares to 250.6 thousand hectares, while coffee production increased from 179 to 236 thousand tons. The area of cardamom plantations increased from 32.6 to 48.6 thousand hectares. ha, and their products - from 7.3 to 16.7 thousand tons. During the same time, the area occupied by corn crops decreased from 16 to 14 million hectares, while the corn crop increased from 1070 to 1120 thousand tons The area under black beans decreased from 16.9 to 12.2 thousand hectares, and the harvest of beans decreased from 113 to 82 thousand tons. rice harvest decreased from 37.9 to 32.1 thousand tons.
Prior to World War II, Guatemala exported mainly bananas and coffee. After 1950, the production for the export of cotton (which pushed bananas from second place in exports), meat products, and sugar increased significantly; the main sugarcane plantations are located on the Pacific coast, with its fertile soils on volcanic deposits. Coffee remains the leading export crop, but in 1997 it accounted for only 24% of export earnings. Non-traditional agricultural exports have grown significantly in importance, including cardamom, cut flowers, fruits and vegetables. The 1,500 largest coffee plantation farms produce approx. 4/5 of the total crop; during the collection of coffee beans, more than 400 thousand people work for them.
Banana production began on the Caribbean coast at the end of the 19th century, and until 1970 the leading role was played by the American United Fruit Company, which for many years remained the largest landowner in Guatemala. In 1970, she sold her businesses to the Del Monte Corporation. Banana plantations were hit hard by hurricanes in 1983 and 1998.
Forestry and fisheries.
Although Guatemala is rich in fish resources, fisheries are underdeveloped. Most of the forest resources, including stocks of mahogany and other valuable tree species, are concentrated in the rainforests of the Petén department. Although there are very few rainforests around the world and they are of great ecological value, the government of Guatemala is expanding the exploitation of the forests of Petén.
Manufacturing industry.
Industrial enterprises give approx. 20% of GDP; they employ 14% of the economically active population. In terms of production, the manufacturing industry of Guatemala significantly exceeds the rest of the countries of Central America. The structure of this sector is dominated by light industry enterprises producing consumer goods - clothing, fabrics, food products and drinks. Heavy industries include a tire factory, a growing pharmaceutical industry, several chemical and fertilizer factories, and a steel mill. Almost two-thirds of manufacturing workers are employed in technologically simple industries. Although the development of industry has stimulated the recovery of the economy, the problem of unemployment in the country remains unresolved, since capital-intensive industries predominate here, which are also dependent on imported raw materials and equipment.
Mining industry and energy.
Guatemala is the third largest antimony mine after Bolivia and Mexico. Gold, lead, iron and steel are produced in small quantities, as well as building materials, mainly for domestic consumption.
Large oil fields were first discovered in the early 1970s in the north of the department of Alta Verapaz; in the course of further exploration work, deposits were also discovered near the Mexican border in the department of Petén. Several US and European oil companies have received concessions to develop them. In 1980, Guatemala began exporting oil, with half of the exports going to the United States. The oil is transported by pipeline to the port of Santo Tomas de Castilla on the Caribbean coast. There are also two oil refineries owned by US companies. By 1996, oil production in Guatemala was 16 thousand barrels per day (5840 thousand barrels per year); by 2000, the volume of oil production was increased to 40 thousand barrels per day. About 80% of all oil production in Guatemala comes from the Xsan field in the Petén department. Oil production contributed significantly to the growth of the Guatemalan economy in the 1990s.
In addition to oil reserves, the country has significant hydropower potential. In the 1990s, the government paid special attention to the construction of hydroelectric power plants, achieving an increase in their total capacity from 225 thousand kW in 1989 to 973.5 thousand kW in 1995. Electricity in everyday life in 1997 was used by 6.5 million people (in 1990 there were only 4 million).
Transport.
The total length of state railways, mostly narrow gauge, Guatemala is 884 km; they connect Puerto Barrios and Santo Tomas de Castilla on the Caribbean coast with Guatemala City and the Pacific coast. Minor railway lines approach the northern and southern borders of the country. There is also an extensive network of roads owned by the Del Monte Banana Corporation and serving its plantations. In the 1950s, three highways were built: through the central highlands (Pan American Highway), along the Pacific coast, and another one connecting Guatemala with the Caribbean coast. In the 1990s, the government carried out an intensive road construction program. The total length of trackless roads is 26.4 thousand km, but only a third of them have a hard surface. The least developed road network is in the northern department of Petén, which, although connected by road to the rest of the country, has to rely mainly on air links.
In the capital of the country there is an international airport "La Aurora". The Pacific coast has no natural harbors, but the ports of San Jose and Champerico are traditionally used for cargo transportation. Not far from San Jose, a new port of Puerto Quesal was also built, equipped with modern equipment. The main Caribbean ports are Puerto Barrios and Santo Tomas de Castilla.
International trade.
In 1997, Guatemala's export revenues amounted to $3.2 billion, while import expenditures were $4.2 billion. The main income comes from agricultural exports and tourism. Coffee is the main export, followed by sugar, cotton, bananas, cardamom and oil. Some manufactured goods are also exported, including rubber products, metals, garments and textiles. The bulk of imports (more than 90%) are manufactured goods, the rest is food. Guatemala's leading trading partner is the United States, which accounts for approx. 30% of the value of goods exported from Guatemala and approx. 44% of imports. Guatemala also trades with the CACM countries (usually with a positive trade balance), with Western Europe, Mexico, Venezuela (from where oil is exported) and Japan.
Currency and finance.
The national currency of Guatemala is the Quetzal. By the end of the 1990s, high inflation was reduced to about 10% per year. The State owns the Central Bank of Guatemala and the Development Bank; the rest of the banks are privately owned.
Culture.
The interpenetration of cultural influences of the Maya, Spain and other cultures of Europe and North America has given rise to a rich and diverse culture of Guatemala. The fusion of the cultural heritage of different civilizations is reflected in everything - in modern painting, sculpture, music, dance and literature. Guatemalan artisans continue to use ancient Indian motifs, drawings, and color combinations in their products.
The ruins of Mayan religious centers such as Saculeu, Tikal, Huaxactun and Piedras Negras attract the attention of archaeologists from all over the world. An extensive collection of items of material culture and art of the ancient Indians is collected at the National Museum of Archeology and Ethnography in Guatemala.
Literature.
In the era before the Spanish conquest, the Maya possessed a rich written literature, which was almost completely destroyed by the Spaniards, with the exception of a few manuscripts. As far as can be judged from the surviving hieroglyphic inscriptions, some not yet fully deciphered, the Maya had a complex mythology. Like the Christian Bible, Mayan holy book Popol Vuh, written in the Quiche Latin alphabet (c. 1554–58), tells about the emergence of the world, the origin of good and evil, and sets out the basic principles of morality. Many myths and legends from Popol Vuh organically included in the modern fiction of Guatemala.
Also created in the Quiche language Annals of the kakghickels(recorded in the 17th century) and drama-ballet Rabinal Aghi(record of the 19th century). Of the works of Guatemalan literature created in the 18th century, the most famous poem is the Jesuit Rafael Landivar (1731–1793) Mexican rural life(1781), written in Latin. From the writers of the 19th century. the most famous romantic poet José Batres Montufar (1809-1844), author of the collection Guatemalan traditions. José Milla y Vidaurre (1822–1882) is a popular author of historical novels and essays.
The aesthetics of Spanish-American modernism in national literature was developed by the poet and novelist Maximo Soto Hall (1871–1944); essayist, novelist and short story writer Enrique Gómez Carrillo (1873–1927); novelist Rafael Arevalo Martínez (1884–1973); journalist and essayist José Rodríguez Serna (1885–1952); poet and novelist César Brañas (1899–1976). The poet and prose writer Flavio Herrera (1895-1968) first turned to the image of the Indian world. In the last decades of the 20th century several female poets came to the fore, among them Angelina Acuña, Margherita Carrera Molina, Ana Maria Rodas and Carmen Matute.
In 1967, Miguel Angel Asturias (1899–1974) was the first Latin American writer to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature. His novels expose the cruelty of corrupt dictatorships and the interference of American companies in the affairs of Latin American countries. In his stories and novels, Asturias promotes the cultural heritage of the Indians and often uses Indian myths and legends. Arturo Arias and Francisco Goldman are also major contemporary writers.
Rigoberta Menchu was awarded the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize. In the book My name is Rigoberta Menchu(1983) depicts the suffering of the Mayan Quiche people in vivid colors. This work became a symbol of the revival of Maya literature and caused numerous imitations.
Architecture and painting.
In the pre-Columbian era, the Maya erected pyramids and large stone palaces, which they covered with moldings and carvings, mosaics and paintings depicting kings, ceremonies and mythological figures.
The Spaniards brought to Guatemala the architectural styles common in their own country. In the 17-18 centuries. dominated by the baroque style. To avoid the devastating earthquakes that hit Guatemala, colonial architects preferred to build wide, squat buildings with low arcades. The cathedral in the city of Guatemala and several churches in the colonial capital of the country, Antigua, belong to this time.
In the colonial era, it was customary to place paintings or sculptures on religious subjects in special decorated niches, not only in churches, but also in houses. The Antigua Colonial Museum contains many such paintings, sculptures and wooden figures, as well as intricate metal or leather items that once adorned the homes of the Spaniards.
At the beginning of the 20th century the art of Guatemala experienced a noticeable influence of Mexican monumental painting, in which the motifs of Indian folklore were strong. The most famous among artists are Carlos Merida (1891-1984), Alfredo Galvez Suarez (1899-1946), Humberto Garavito (b. 1897), Valentin Abascal, Manolo Gallardo, Miguel Angel Ceballos Millan. The sculptural works of Roberto Goyri attract attention.
Music and dancing.
Among the Maya Indians, the main (soloist) singer occupied a prominent position in society. Mayan music, played on flutes, drums and tambourines, was mainly religious hymns and war songs. Many instruments from the pre-Columbian era are still in use in Guatemala, such as the caracol, a large twisted shell that is blown like a horn; shul, a small longitudinal flute; ciholach, a small Indian wind instrument resembling a piccolo; ocarina, a wind instrument made of clay; chirimiya clarinet; Finally, the marimba is a wooden xylophone common throughout the Caribbean.
In the colonial era, choirmasters and organists were specially ordered from Europe to perform church music. The Spaniards brought folk Christmas carols villancico and other common musical genres, as well as European instruments - guitar, violin, harp and the ancient bowed instrument rebec.
The composer E. Samayoa was the first to write symphonic music in Guatemala. In 1932, an orchestra was created, later transformed into the Philharmonic Orchestra of Guatemala, and in 1943 the Coro Guatemala choir was formed, performing classical European choral music and folk melodies. The National Opera Company, founded in 1948, gives opera performances with the participation of the Guatemalan choir and invited foreign artists. The National Conservatory has its own symphony orchestra and military brass band.
Ballet Guatemala was created in 1948, at the same time as the National School of Dance. The troupe performs both classical ballets and variations on the themes of Guatemalan folk tales. In 1964, a ballet troupe of modern and folk dance was created.
Education.
In the first twenty years of Spanish rule in Guatemala, the Spanish clergy established primary and secondary schools here, where only boys from aristocratic families studied. In 1776, the Guatemalan University of San Carlos was founded, where one of the main Indian languages, kakchikel, was included in the number of subjects studied. However, despite such an early start of education, Guatemala has one of the lowest literacy rates in Latin America: according to 1995 data, the illiterate was approx. 44.4% of the adult population, with 37.5% for men and 51.7% for women. Expenditure on education in 1995 amounted to only 1.2% of the budget of Guatemala. Education is free and compulsory for children aged 7 to 14, but in 1998 only 41% of children attended primary and secondary school.
Guatemala has 5 large universities and numerous smaller institutions of higher education, as well as the School of Music and Dramatic Arts and the Academy of Fine Arts. Higher education is received by 5 to 10% of the population. There is also an opportunity to receive vocational and technical education.
Seal.
The most influential newspapers are the moderately progressive Siglo XXI and the conservative Prensa Libre, as well as the centrist Grafico and the evening daily Ora. In addition, the Government publishes the Bulletin "Diario de Centroamerica", which publishes laws, decrees, decrees and other government documents.
STORY
Mayan civilization.
During the I millennium BC. in the mountainous region of Guatemala, several city-states arose, the influence and trade relations of which extended far beyond the borders of modern Guatemala. Around 300 AD overcrowding or some natural disaster forced a large group of Maya to move further north, to the Peten Plain. This area became the center of the classical Maya civilization, which reached its peak in the 4th-6th centuries. and gradually spread to the borders of modern Mexico, Belize and Honduras. Many monuments of this culture have been found here, for example, amazing structures in Tikal, Huaxactun and Quirigua.
The Maya never had a centralized state; other cities arose around large cities, with their rulers, who relied on priests, nobility and the military. The main Mayan crops were maize (corn) and cocoa. Cocoa beans were used as money, as well as in the manufacture of the ceremonial drink chocolatl, i.e. chocolate. Pumpkins, fruits and cotton were also grown. The Maya religion included as a necessary element human sacrifice, which was seen as a means to delay the catastrophe, which (according to the belief common to all cultures of Mesoamerica) had already destroyed the world four times.
In the 9th-10th centuries. most of the Mayan city-states were destroyed. Scientists put forward various hypotheses, including the invasion of the Toltec tribes, peasant uprisings, hostility within the ruling class, or catastrophic soil erosion that could not feed the growing population. However, although the Mayan civilization disappeared from the plains of Guatemala, it continued to exist on the Yucatan Peninsula and in the mountains of southern Guatemala. By the 11th century in the Yucatan, a Maya-Toltec state with its capital in Chichen Itza developed. This culture preserved the traditions of erecting monumental architectural structures for religious and ceremonial purposes and the practice of human sacrifice. The groups of Maya that remained in the mountains of Guatemala, although not as advanced in science or architecture as the Yucatan Maya of the classical period, managed to survive in their well-organized city-states until the arrival of the Spaniards in the early 16th century.
Scholars differ in their estimate of Maya numbers by the start of the Spanish conquest; presumably lived here ca. 5 million people speaking 35 dialects.
Conquest and the era of Spanish rule.
The Spanish conquerors - the conquistadors, who came under the command of Pedro de Alvarado from Mexico, captured Guatemala in 1524 with the help of their allies - the Indians from Central Mexico. The conquest was facilitated by the fragmentation of the Mayan city-states, as well as epidemics of diseases introduced by Europeans. Alvarado first made an alliance with the Kaqchikels and defeated their Quiche rivals, and then was forced to pacify his recent allies who rebelled against Spanish domination for 4 years. After several years of fierce resistance, the Maya eventually submitted to the Spanish. The Spanish king granted the conquistadors vast land holdings, haciendas, and issued laws obliging the Indians to pay tribute (tax) and work on haciendas. The Spanish colonists established a plantation economy that produced cocoa, indigo and leather for export and food for domestic consumption. Gold and silver were also exported.
In administrative terms, Guatemala was part of the viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) in the status of "audience", then in 1560 the captaincy general of Guatemala was created, which included part of the territory of modern Mexico and Belize, as well as the territories of Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras and Costa Rica. The capital of the captaincy general, Antigua, was one of the most magnificent cities in the New World, second in size only to Mexico City and Lima. After the city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1773, the capital was moved to a new place in 1776, where it is now (Guatemala). Administratively, Guatemala was subordinate to the Viceroy of New Spain, whose residence was in Mexico City, but practically enjoyed considerable autonomy.
By the end of the 18th century the Spaniards and their descendants were a minority of the population of the country, dominated by Indians and mestizos. The Maya could not accept the fate of the vanquished and several times unsuccessfully rebelled against Spanish domination. Nevertheless, they continued to be kept in slavery, using various methods, primarily debt slavery - peonage, legalized by the government. Unrest also began among the Creoles (descendants of Europeans who migrated to America), who were burdened by control from Spain.
Independence.
The capture of Spain by Napoleon in 1808 created a crisis in the colonies. Guatemala remained loyal to the Spanish government, which led the resistance while in exile in Cadiz. In 1812, the government adopted a constitution that, while proclaiming the monarchical system and the power of the crown over overseas possessions unshakable, provided for the representation of the colonies in the Cortes and the election of their representatives.
Beginning in 1811, several attempts were made to end Spanish rule. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1814 and the restoration of the Bourbon monarch Ferdinand VII to the throne, many of the liberal innovations provided for by the constitution of 1812 were canceled and came into force again only after the revolutionary events of 1820 in the metropolis; then elections of a representative government in the colonies were allowed and the rights of municipal authorities were significantly expanded. On September 15, 1821, a meeting of prominent citizens of the city of Guatemala adopted a declaration of independence for the country. In 1822, the junta in power, led by conservatives, decided to join the Mexican Empire, proclaimed by Colonel Agustín de Iturbide, and accept the "Plan of Iguala" developed by him, which meant the end of Spanish rule. In June 1822 Mexican troops entered the capital of Guatemala. Not all Central American provinces were willing to join Mexico; El Salvador and Nicaragua resisted this particularly stubbornly, which led to civil war. However, under pressure from the leaders of Guatemala, the accession nevertheless took place, although it turned out to be very short-lived. In 1823 Emperor Iturbide was overthrown, and delegates from the Central American countries gathered in Guatemala to draw up a constitution for their federation. On July 1, 1823, the delegates of the National Constituent Assembly proclaimed the complete independence of Central America from both Spain and Mexico and announced the creation of the United Provinces of Central America, with Guatemala as its capital. The constitution of the new republic was adopted, the main provisions of which were borrowed from the Spanish constitution of 1812.
From the very beginning, the policy of the federation was marked by a struggle between the conservatives, who expressed the interests of the wealthy Spanish landowners and the Roman Catholic Church, and the liberals, who were inspired by the ideas of the European Enlightenment. The first president of the federation was Manuel José Arce, a liberal from El Salvador. Having taken the presidency, he entered into a coalition with the top of the Guatemalan conservatives; perhaps he was trying to secure broader support for his government by this, but as a result he aroused the indignation of his liberal supporters. When in 1826 he replaced the governor of Guatemala, a liberal, with his power, a civil war broke out between supporters of liberals and conservatives, which engulfed the entire region. At the head of the liberal forces stood the Honduran Francisco Morazan, who managed to win, and in April 1829 the liberal troops occupied the city of Guatemala. The expulsion of conservative leaders from the government and the reorganization of the administration of both the Federation and Guatemala followed. The development of trade began, reforms were carried out in the field of education and judicial reform, which introduced the institution of the jury. The government was sympathetic to foreign investment and immigration, but limited the power of the Catholic Church (in particular, freedom of religion was proclaimed). The reformist activity of the government met many obstacles both at the federal level and in each of the states. The head of the government of Guatemala, Mariano Galvez, faced strong opposition not only from conservatives, but also from rural residents. In 1837, a peasant uprising broke out, led by Rafael Carrera. Galvez failed to cope with the rebels and in 1838 was forced to leave his post. The federation began to gradually disintegrate and finally ceased to exist on February 1, 1839.
Rafael Carrera, a professional soldier, an Indian by origin, defended the interests of the church and landowners and enjoyed the support of the peasantry. Carrera ruled Guatemala from 1838 to 1865, except for a brief interval in 1848, when a liberal-dominated congress removed him from his presidency. Attempts were made to restore the federation, but in March 1847 Guatemala was the first of the Central American countries to proclaim its absolute sovereignty, declaring itself a republic. Carrera established a tough and conservative dictatorship in the country, repealed all previously adopted liberal laws, and in every way incited the hatred of the Indian peasants for the urban elite. In many ways, colonial orders were restored. The country's economy was still dependent on exports, the main item of which for a long time was cochineal (dye), and later, when the price of it fell, coffee took the first place.
After the death of Carrera in 1865, a new struggle for power began. Carrera's own chosen successor, General Vincente Serna, remained in office until 1871, when the liberals, under the leadership of Miguel Garcia Granados and Justo Rufino Barrios, carried out a coup d'état. For some time, Garcia Granados held the presidency, and in 1973 he was replaced by Barrios. The liberal government launched large-scale reforms aimed at the economic development of the country, based primarily on the export of coffee, and the creation of the necessary infrastructure. At the same time, some United States corporations began to operate in Guatemala, primarily the United Fruit Company.
One of the first measures taken by Barrios was the legal separation of church and state and the confiscation of church lands. In 1876 he ended the church's control of the public education system by expelling the Jesuits from the country. Barrios sought to make coffee the main export crop, and encouraged landowners to grow coffee, exempting them from taxes. The Barrios government was engaged in the construction of railways and the laying of telegraph lines, an education system was created.
In 1883, Barrios began to interfere in the internal affairs of Honduras and El Salvador, helping his supporters come to power. In February 1885, he announced the reunification of Central America into a single republic, and when El Salvador did not agree to this plan, he began hostilities. On April 2, 1885, Barrios fell on the battlefield, and the attempt to unite Central America again failed.
After the death of Barrios, several governments succeeded each other, but none of them could long remain in power. In 1898, Manuel Estrada Cabrera seized power with the support of the military, who needed a leader who could maintain political and economic stability. Coffee producers also stood on his side. As for American investors, Estrada Cabrera quickly gained their confidence by granting them extensive land concessions. The main production of bananas was soon concentrated in the hands of the United Fruit Company, which began to exert a strong influence on the politics of Guatemala.
Several attempts were made to overthrow Estrada Cabrera, including with the support of the governments of other Central American countries. To stay in power, he resorted to constitutional change, electoral fraud, an effective propaganda mechanism, and frequent increases in payouts and quick promotions ensured him the support of the military. Estrada Cabrera kept Barrios' tough labor laws in place by granting tax breaks to coffee and banana plantation owners. In 1920, however, he was overthrown.
The period of political and economic turmoil that followed the fall of the government of Estrada Cabrera ended only in 1931, with the advent of a strong personality among the military - General Jorge Ubico Castañeda, who became president. Ubico first of all drastically reduced public spending on social needs by granting new privileges to coffee producers and the United Fruit Company.
With a strong army and powerful secret police, Ubiko established a reign of terror. His methods of government suited the landowners, who feared and hated the Indians, but they turned against him the emerging middle class in the cities. The Ubico regime was opposed by students and a younger generation of politicians, many of whom, themselves the sons of planters, had been educated abroad.
Guatemalan Revolution of 1944 and the modern period.
In 1941, Guatemala entered the war against Germany, Italy and Japan, and many coffee plantations belonging to German entrepreneurs were confiscated, although Ubico had previously provided them with all possible support. In 1944, dissatisfaction with the government culminated in student demonstrations in Guatemala and a general strike. Unable to cope with the strikers, Ubiko announced his resignation on July 1, 1944, leaving power in the hands of the military triumvirate. However, on October 20, 1944, an armed uprising took place in the country, which marked the beginning of the Guatemalan Revolution. The December 1944 elections were easily won by Professor Juan José Arevalo, the leader of the People's Liberation Front party founded in 1944.
Thus began the Spring Decade (1944–1954), a period of progressive and democratic transformations. The revolution of 1944 was led by a coalition of progressive forces - university students, highly qualified specialists, urban intelligentsia and trade union leaders.
The 1945 constitution limited the power of the president, who could be elected for only one 6-year term, and established the accountability of the government to the National Congress and the accountability of the army to the president and congress. The powers of the judiciary were expanded to ensure its independence, and guarantees were made for democratic elections. The constitution made the government responsible for the economic development of the country, social security and education of citizens.
During Arévalo's presidential term (1945–1951), many peasants received land, education, and social benefits. The activity of trade unions was allowed. During Arevalo's time in power, 24 armed attacks were carried out against him and members of his cabinet.
Arevalo's successor, Colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán, was elected in 1950 with an overwhelming majority and took office as president in March 1951. Árbenz was an even more radical politician than Arevalo. The implementation of his program led to serious clashes with the country's largest landowner, the United Fruit Company, from which he demanded higher taxes. Even greater friction with this company was caused by the law on agrarian reform, adopted in 1952, according to which all unused land holdings with an area of more than 90 hectares were subject to expropriation. The owners of such lands received compensation in the form of government bonds with a maturity of 25 years. Arbenz first distributed 200,000 hectares of state land among the landless peasants, and by 1954 almost 400,000 more hectares were expropriated, most of which belonged to the United Fruit Company.
As reforms progressed, the US became increasingly uneasy. Not only were the significant investments in banana plantations under threat, but also large American loans. Using its close ties with the US State Department, the United Fruit Company made every effort to organize an armed invasion of Guatemala.
In June 1954, detachments under the command of Colonel Carlos Castillo Armas of the Guatemalan army invaded the territory of Guatemala from Honduras, which led to the resignation of Arbenz. Various juntas succeeded each other, until finally a government led by Castillo Armas came to power.
Having taken the presidency, Castillo Armas sought to crack down on everyone who advocated revolutionary changes. The government of Castillo Armas abolished all the democratic laws and progressive reforms adopted by the previous regime, providing generous concessions to foreign investors. All left-wing political parties were banned, workers' and peasants' organizations were persecuted, and their leaders were thrown into prison or fled the country.
Castillo Armas was killed by a soldier of his guard in 1957, and in 1958 the presidency was taken by General Manuel Ydigoras Fuentes, former Minister of Public Works in the Ubico government and a member of the conspiracy against Árbenz. At the end of 1960, Idigoras crushed an armed uprising organized, as reported, with the help of the Cuban government of Fidel Castro; defeated rebel units managed to escape into the mountains and continued the guerrilla war against the government, which ended only in 1996. Convinced that Idigoras was unable to cope with the growing movement against the military regime, and fearing that Arevalo could return to Guatemala and win the next elections, the military in 1963, the elite carried out a coup and established a military dictatorship headed by Colonel Enrique Peralta Asurdia, who remained in power until 1966. Meanwhile, back in 1962, some army officers, dissatisfied with the abolition of land reform and dictatorial rule, united with militant students and began armed resistance dictatorship, using the tactics of guerrilla warfare.
Partisan detachments posed a serious threat to the regime. In 1966, President Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro was elected president, but he was allowed to take this post only after he gave the army complete freedom to organize a mass campaign against the rebels. This campaign took place under the direct supervision of US military advisers involved in the reorganization and training of regular army units; paramilitary "death battalions", the basis of which were the security forces, participated in the hostilities. Together, they managed to temporarily suppress the partisan movement, and more than 8 thousand civilians died during the hostilities.
The middle class, concerned only with its economic benefits, in 1970 actively contributed to the election victory of Colonel Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, who led punitive operations against the rebels. His chosen successor, General C. Eugenio Garcia, took the presidency after the 1974 elections. In 1976, Guatemala suffered from a severe earthquake, which aggravated the already difficult situation in the country, which led to a new surge of discontent. There were several new revolutionary organizations that had strong support among the Indian population. An unprecedented event in the history of Guatemala was the uprisings of the Indians in the late 1970s and early 1980s, in which up to half a million people participated. The army responded with massive reprisals. In 1977, after Amnesty International published data on 20,000 Guatemalan citizens killed by the government over the past 10 years, the United States stopped providing military assistance to Guatemala.
In 1978, General Romeo Lucas Garcia became president. His regime was marked by widespread corruption and a new wave of repression, this time targeting not only trade union activists and those suspected of leftist beliefs, but also more moderate middle-class factions. Paramilitary terrorist groups killed the leaders of the Social Democrats and the Christian Democratic Party. In early 1982, the main revolutionary organizations merged into the Guatemalan Revolutionary National Unity (URNG).
In March 1982, another election was held, after which General Efrain Rios Montt, an "established Christian" who was associated with a sect of fundamentalist Protestants in California, came to power. He suspended the constitution, declared martial law, and ruled like a dictator. His promise to uphold human rights brought a temporary halt to the massacre in the capital. However, at the same time, the fight against the insurgents intensified significantly, and Indian villages continued to be exterminated. Between mid-1981 and 1983, approx. 15 thousand mountain Indians, 450 villages were completely destroyed, more than a million people lost their homes. In August 1983, after General Ríos Montt attempted to bolster the public finances by raising taxes, which was fiercely resisted by the middle class, the military overthrew him and installed General Oscar Mejia Víctores as president.
Mejia Victores continued to repress the Indians, many of whom - from 150 thousand to 200 thousand people - had already fled to Mexico; the rest were forcibly relocated to the newly created "model villages". During the presidency of Mejia Victores, the system of "civil defense units" was further developed, and about a million Indians were forced to participate in army operations to combat guerrilla formations and eradicate political opposition.
In 1984, a Legislative Assembly was elected, tasked with drafting a new constitution; this constitution came into force in January 1986. In November-December 1985, presidential elections were held, which were won by a supporter of reforms, a candidate from the centrist Christian Democratic Party, Vinicio Cerezo. Many of Cerezo's associates were eliminated by the death squads, and he himself was in danger during the election campaign and even after he assumed the presidency.
The high hopes placed on a civilian government, which was expected to restore democracy, stability and prosperity, did not materialize; the economic crisis deepened, hitting not only the poorest majority of the population, but also the middle class. Instead of the promised socio-economic reforms, Cerezo began to pursue a policy of austerity. Cerezo failed to put an end to the civil war and related human rights violations, or to put an end to the growing drug business, but played an important role in the peaceful settlement of armed conflicts; an agreement signed in Guatemala by the five states of Central America in 1987 initiated a process that ended the civil war not only in Guatemala, but also in Nicaragua and El Salvador.
The beginning of the reign of Cerezo was marked by a short period of "thaw" in political life, however, as soon as various movements tried to exercise their political rights, repression resumed with renewed vigor. Despite the harsh suppression measures used by the military to "pacify" the population, especially the rural ones, the rebel groups of the Guatemalan Revolutionary National Unity began to reappear in the "scorched earth" left after the punitive operations of the 1980s.
The result of the 1990 elections was a regrouping of political forces in Guatemala. Left-wing parties remained banned, and the CDA, with its leader Cerezo, was largely discredited by its failures, but many parties, from the centrist to the far right, appeared in the vacated political space. The CDA's main rival was the Union of the National Center (SNC), with leader J. Carpio Nicolle; however, Ríos Montt, who enjoyed wide support among the rural electorate, challenged the constitutional ban on his candidacy (due to the fact that he had already been elected to the presidency in 1982). This issue was considered in court, and he was still forbidden to participate in the elections. Most of his supporters backed the relatively obscure Jorge Serrano Elias, a conservative businessman and evangelical close to Ríos Montt. Serrano managed not only to secure the votes of the majority of supporters of Ríos Montt in the countryside, but also to attract many citizens who were disillusioned with Carpio and had no illusions about the CDA candidate Alfonso Cabrera. In the first round of elections in November 1990, Carpio won the majority of votes, ahead of Serrano, but in January 1991, in the second round, where only the two of them participated, Serrano won by a wide margin, receiving 69% of the vote.
The Serrano government recognized in August 1991 the right of the neighboring state of Belize to self-determination, although it continued to put forward a number of territorial claims against this former British colony. In November of the same year, the two countries established diplomatic relations.
Under Serrano's rule, massive human rights violations continued in Guatemala. During 1991, at least 550 people (employees of church organizations, trade union and party activists, soldiers and policemen) were killed for political reasons, mostly by members of the ultra-right "death squads". In 1992, at least 387 political assassinations were committed, 99 people went missing. Human rights organizations in Guatemala, prominent activists Rigoberta Menchú (received the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1992) and Ramiro de Leon Carpio denounced violations and repression, which caused discontent among the authorities. President Serrano threatened to take action against newspapers publishing such reports.
In February 1992, the government resumed negotiations in Mexico City with representatives of the left-wing rebels from the URNG, but almost immediately they broke off again. Serrano announced his readiness to continue the dialogue under UN supervision. In August 1992, negotiations resumed through the mediation of the Archbishop of Guatemala, Rodolfo Quesada. A partial agreement was reached on human rights issues, including forced recruitment into armed groups. A new round took place in February 1993 and was again unsuccessful. The guerrillas refused to negotiate a ceasefire until other issues, including human rights, were agreed, but the authorities did not agree to the participation of the UN in the work of the commission of inquiry into violations in this area.
Serrano's neoliberal economic policies caused widespread popular discontent. In May 1993, protests and demonstrations began against cuts in subsidies that kept electricity and public transport fares low. Trade unions went on strike, and 10,000 demonstrators in the capital demanded Serrano's resignation. In response, on May 25, the president dissolved parliament and the Supreme Court, limited the operation of constitutional guarantees, introduced censorship of the press; the presidents of Congress and the Supreme Court, as well as R. de Leon Carpio, were placed under house arrest. Troops entered the capital. However, the crisis grew, and the leadership of the armed forces refused to support Serrano. On June 1, 1993, the military removed him and replaced him with Vice President Gustavo Espina. The continuation of mass protests forced him to leave the presidency. On June 5, Congress elected the popular human rights activist R. de Leon Carpio, one of the leaders of the SNC party, as interim president. Serrano and Espina, who fled the country, were accused of high treason in connection with the recognition of the independence of Belize.
The new president, R. de Leon Carpio, appointed a representative of the Maya Indians, S. Tai Koyoya, as Minister of Education. He became the first minister from the indigenous population of the country. In July 1993, de Leon Carpio put forward a new plan to end the civil war and bring peace to the country.
However, the state crisis in the country continued. De Leon Carpio soon came into conflict with the Christian Democrats and Congress. He accused MPs and members of the Supreme Court of corruption and demanded their resignations. He promised constitutional reforms, including streamlining political funding, ensuring the independence of the prosecutor's office, and making the budget transparent. But the referendum he called was overturned by the Supreme Court. Finally, in November 1993, through the Conference of Bishops, the government and parliament agreed to reform the constitution, reduce the term of office of the president and parliament to four years, reduce the number of deputies, and form a new Supreme Court. On January 30, 1994, 68% of the referendum participants approved amendments to the constitution of Guatemala (trade unions, leftist and student organizations called for abstaining from voting, since the constitution opened up opportunities for privatization).
In January 1994, the government of Guatemala and the URNG agreed to resume peace talks. Under President de Leon Carpio, the process of dialogue moved forward rapidly. During 1994, the parties agreed on sending a UN mission to study the situation of human rights, the return of refugees, the creation of a "truth commission". In March 1995, the government and left-wing guerrillas signed an agreement on the rights of the indigenous population. In particular, the government committed to change five provisions of the constitution, including the recognition of the identity of the Indian peoples and the equality of their languages. On September 17, 1995, a temporary ceasefire was declared.
Despite the new government's human rights efforts, far-right forces continued to terrorize their opponents. In the first half of 1994 alone, 166 people were killed, including the President of the Constitutional Court E. Epamindos Gonzalez, in 1995 - 450 people. Kidnappings were a common fact (in total, according to human rights organizations, since 1960 more than 50,000 people have “disappeared”). In March 1995, Congress introduced the death penalty for kidnapping. In September 1995, a decision was made to dissolve the right-wing paramilitary formations, whose number at the height of the civil war reached 50,000 people. In 1996, the first groups of 15,000 fighters from these forces began to hand over their weapons. The Guatemalan army was also accused of terror. In October 1995, government soldiers killed 11 Indians in a remote village. As a result of the scandal that broke out, the Minister of Defense resigned.
Early parliamentary elections in August 1994 (only 20% of voters took part in them) brought victory to the new right-wing parties. First of all, the Guatemalan Republican Front (FRG) of the former dictator Rios Montt (33%) and the National Vanguard Party (26%). The centrist parties CDA and SNC suffered a crushing defeat. In December 1994, the Congress, with the votes of deputies from the FRG, the SNC and the Christian Democrats, elected Rios Montt as its chairman. He tried to stand as a candidate in the upcoming presidential elections, but the electoral commission refused to register him, since the constitution forbids the nomination of former putschists. The presidential and parliamentary elections in November 1995 ended with the victory of the National Vanguard Party, which won the absolute majority of seats in Congress. Alvaro Arsu Yrigoyen, the leader of the PNA, needed a second round of elections in January 1996 to be elected president. Arsu formed a government of 6 representatives of his own party, 3 entrepreneurs, 2 independents and one general. He promised to continue peace talks, improve the financial situation, fight crime and drug trafficking, and ensure the non-interference of the army in politics. In September 1996, the authorities launched operations against corruption, smuggling, illegal trade and racketeering. As a result, many employees of the army, police and customs were dismissed. The Deputy Minister of Defense and eight senior officers were arrested for ties to the mafia.
President Arcu brought the peace process in Guatemala to a close. In March 1996, an agreement was reached on a permanent ceasefire, in May - on agrarian reform and improving the living conditions of the Indian population, in September - on limiting the role of the army, in December - on a final ceasefire, constitutional and electoral reform, etc. . URNG leaders Pablo Monsanto, Rolando Moran, Carlos Gonzalez and Jorge Rosal returned to Guatemala from Mexico. On December 29, 1996, in the presence of President Arsu and UN Secretary General Boutros Ghali, a peace agreement was signed in Guatemala, ending the longest armed and political conflict in Central America. As a result of terror and civil war since 1960, more than 200 thousand people have died or “disappeared”, and 1.5 million have become refugees. More than 80% of the victims are representatives of the Maya and other indigenous groups accused of supporting the guerrillas. According to a later report of the international "Commission for the Establishment of Historical Truth" (1999), 93% of recorded acts of violence were committed by the army and right-wing paramilitary groups, 3% by left-wing rebels.
The terms of the peace treaty included, inter alia, a ceasefire, broad political and economic reforms, empowerment of the Indian majority population, the return of refugees, the integration of left-wing guerrillas into public life, the disbandment of paramilitaries, the reduction of the armed forces and the control of human rights. The Guatemalan army, as well as military spending, was to be reduced by a third during 1997-1999, the police were removed from the control of the military, the army secret services were subordinate to parliament, and the military courts were deprived of the right to consider non-military issues. International organizations and creditor countries declared their readiness to provide Guatemala with loans and subsidies in the amount of $1.9 billion for the implementation of the peace treaty. The UN sent observers to monitor its implementation In March 1999, US President Clinton issued a formal apology for his country's role in the armed conflict in Guatemala (the United States provided extensive support to the Guatemalan armed forces and secret services).
The agreement began to be implemented in early 1997. By May, 3,000 left-wing guerrillas had been disarmed and the first UN observers were able to leave the country. By September 1998, the reduction of the army was completed, from which 15.5 thousand out of 47 thousand military personnel were demobilized. However, human rights activists criticized the measures to limit the political role of the army as insufficient. According to a UN report in January 1999, the practice of extrajudicial killings continued: 60 people were killed in this way in 13 months. After the Bureau of Human Rights of the Archbishop of Guatemala presented a report on human rights violations during the civil war in April 1998, the archbishop of the capital, Juan Gerardi Condera, was assassinated. In May 1999, Roberto Gonzalez, a prominent member of the New Guatemala Democratic Front, was shot dead.
Despite the protests of human rights organizations, the authorities announced an amnesty for officials who committed political and other crimes in connection with the armed conflict. However, the amnesty did not apply to cases related to the violation of human rights. In July 1997, former Interior Minister D. Parrinello and former police chief C. V. Escobar Fernandez were sentenced for human rights violations to 10 and 30 years in prison. In November 1998, a court sentenced to death three former members of the far-right militias who killed 130 Indians in 1982, including women and children. However, in March 1999, President Arcu rejected the recommendations of an international "historical truth commission" that called for an investigation into the role of the army in the Guatemalan conflict and the dismissal of all officers involved in the killings. In June 1999, the authorities appointed General Tulio Espinosa as the new Minister of Defense, despite being accused of involvement in the assassination of Archbishop Gherardi.
The Arsu government faced difficult economic problems. It tried to invest in road construction and other projects related to the country's backward infrastructure. The desire to carry out a broad privatization of state enterprises, primarily the telephone company, ran into resistance from the opposition, which referred to the fact that the constitution forbids the formation of private monopolies. The reform of the tax system, which was provided for by the 1996 agreement, also stalled. In addition, the press, the public and opposition circles accused President Arsu of authoritarianism and arrogance.
On May 16, 1999, a referendum was held on the government's proposed draft constitutional changes provided for by the 1996 peace agreement, including improving the legal status of the indigenous population, limiting the power of the military, and conducting judicial reform. These measures were supported by the majority of political parties and the parliament of the country. Only 18.5% of voters took part in the voting. 55% of those who voted were against the project.
The first general elections after the end of the civil war in November 1999 brought the triumph of the right-wing party of Rios Montt of Germany, which won an absolute majority of seats in parliament. Germany's candidate Alfonso Portillo was elected president of Guatemala in December 1999. Alfonso Antonio Portillo Cabrera was born in 1951, studied economics in Mexico, legal and social sciences, worked at various Latin American universities, and in the early 1990s - in the Guatemalan finance department. In 1992-1994 he was the general secretary of the Christian Democratic Party, in 1994 he was elected from it to parliament, where he headed the Christian Democratic Party faction. In 1995, he left the ranks of Christian Democracy and moved to Germany, from which he ran for president in 1995 and 1999.
Guatemala in the 21st century
Portillo promised to help the poor, protect human rights and respect the 1996 peace agreements, and announced his intention to continue constitutional reforms, with particular emphasis on preparing a law on the army.
However, political opponents accused Portillo of serving as just a "cover" for the real leader - Ríos Montt. Moreover, in 2010 he was accused of embezzling $15 million destined for the national defense ministry and laundering it through personal bank accounts in Europe and the United States.
In 2003, Rios Montt claimed victory in the presidential election. Since the country's constitution forbids former dictators and organizers of coups from running, an attempt was made to exclude him from the election marathon. "Right" actively supported their candidate. The political situation in the country escalated, in July 2003 a particularly large action, known as "Black Thursday", took place. It was timed to coincide with the final session of the Supreme Court, which was supposed to declare the incompetence of Montt's candidacy. Crowds of supporters of the FRG rioted in the central quarters of the capital, and in the end, despite the fact that three lower courts rejected Montt's application, the Supreme Court nevertheless approved it. It is believed that President Portillo put pressure on the Supreme Court to make this decision.
In the 2003 presidential election, in the second round, held on December 28, Oscar Berger Perdomo, the candidate of the Grand National Alliance, won.
Perdomo was born in 1946. He comes from a wealthy plantation family. Graduated from a private Jesuit university. From January 1991 to June 1999 - Mayor of Guatemala City.
In the first round, which took place on November 9, Berger scored 34%, left-wing candidate Alvaro Colom - 26%, the candidate of the Republican Front of Guatemala, ex-president Efrain Rios Montt - 19%. In the second round on December 28, Berger scored 54% and won.
The program of the new president was aimed at creating an integral public security system, stimulating production, social investment and environmental protection. One of his first steps was to conclude an agreement with the heads of municipalities on the strengthening of local authorities, the implementation of peace agreements and the transparency of public administration.
The presidential elections of 2007 brought victory to the representative of the "left" forces, businessman and politician Alvaro Colom. He won 52.7% of the vote in that election. Retired army general Otto Pérez Molina was the main challenger and lost to him in the second round by a narrow margin. Supporting Alvaro Colom Caballeros, the National Union of Hope bloc positions itself as a follower of the social-Christian and social-democratic line in politics.
On January 14, 2008, Alvaro Colom Caballeros took the oath and became President of the Republic of Guatemala.
He was born in 1951. He studied at the Liceo Guatemala College and at the Faculty of Industrial Engineering at the Universidad de San Carlos. One of the significant milestones of his career was the post of Deputy Minister of Economy of Guatemala (1991), and later the post of President of the National Peace Fund (FONAPAZ), which dealt with the aftermath of the civil war and the repatriation of refugees.
President Colom took office with a promise to prioritize education, health and rural development: in April 2008, he approved education and health care funding programs for low-income families, modeled on similar programs in Brazil and Mexico. However, the distribution of income in the country remained highly unequal, with the wealthy 10% accounting for more than 40% of total consumption in Guatemala. More than half of the population lives below the poverty line, and 15% lives in extreme poverty. Poverty among indigenous groups, which make up 38% of the population, averages 76%, and approx. 28%. 43% of children under the age of five are chronically malnourished, one of the highest rates of malnutrition in the world.
In May 2009, a scandal broke out in connection with the publication of a video in which 47-year-old lawyer Rodrigo Rosenberg predicted that he would soon be killed and his murder would take place allegedly on behalf of or with the consent of Alvaro Coloma and his wife Sandra Torres. Rosenberg was indeed killed soon after, although the circumstances of the murder remained unclear for some time. However, representatives of the opposition parties and opposition leader Otto Pérez Molina immediately demanded the president's departure. President Colom refused to step down and denied allegations of his involvement in the assassination. In January 2010, the results of investigations into the death of Rosenberg, which were conducted by the prosecutor's office and a special international commission under the auspices of the UN, were made public. According to these investigations, Rodrigo Rosenberg himself orchestrated his assassination, finding no better way to resolve his tangled personal issues. however, the president's reputation suffered significantly. The fact that he was the highest paid president in Latin America did not add to Coloma's popularity either. The Coloma government, according to critics, did not take sufficiently effective actions to combat poverty and crime.
Otto Pérez Molina, as leader of the opposition, advocated tougher measures against crime.
November 7, 2011 Otto Pérez Molina, with 55% of the vote, won the second round of voting in the presidential elections in Guatemala.
The main internal problems of Guatemala today are poverty, a high level of crime, in particular, related to drug trafficking.
The beginning of the presidency of Otto Perez Molina was overshadowed by unusually strong tropical downpours for this season, which caused powerful floods and landslides, accompanied by destruction and loss of human life in the countries of Central America. Guatemala suffered the most, where on October 18, 2011 a state of emergency was declared for a period of 30 days.
Pérez's rule was marked by corruption scandals, and on September 3, 2015, the Guatemalan Congress accepted the president's resignation. He was accused of involvement in the creation of a corruption scheme in the country's customs service, fraud and criminal conspiracy.
In the Guatemalan presidential election held on October 25, 2015, right-wing National Unity Front candidate Jimmy Morales, a comedian and director with no political experience, won with approx. 70% of the votes. His rival, former first lady and candidate for the social democratic National Hope Alliance, Sandra Torres, has conceded defeat.
Literature:
Diaz Rossotto H. Character of the Guatemalan Revolution. M., 1962
History of Latin America, t 1. M., 1991; v. 2. M., 1993
Guatemala in the modern world. - Latin America, 1997, No. 7