Formation of an internal action plan for children of primary school age. Internal plan of action as an indicator of overall personal development What will we do with the material received?
Mastering the ability to use language, and later other sign-symbolic means, in various types of activity and communication, ensures the formation and development of a child’s internal plan of mental action. Often this mental formation in psychology is called consciousness. Mentally, a person can perform actions on ideas and concepts in the absence of real objects or phenomena.
According to S. V. Malanova , while the internal plan of mental actions underlies the totality of all human skills and abilities that are associated with abstract forms of thinking, with arbitrary forms of regulation and planning of one’s behavior and activities, with the ability to acquire various knowledge based on verbal communication, etc. Skill Performing simple actions on the internal, mental plane is considered one of the necessary conditions for a child’s readiness for educational activities.
The content of mental images, ideas, concepts and their mental transformations are generated during the implementation of various types of external objective practical actions, as well as perceptual actions as they move into the internal plane of thinking (consciousness). Both subject content and methods of acting with it can be transformed into mental form. Numerous psychological studies on the formation of visual, auditory, tactile images and ideas have convincingly shown that external practical objective motor-executive actions based on perceptual actions, which are implemented by the senses, seem to be likened to the structural features of perceived objects and phenomena.
Next, the sequence of motor and perceptual actions and operations unfolded in time is collapsed into a simultaneously observable structure - an image. Following this, such a structure, already as a representation, begins to serve as an indicative basis for performing a certain range of actions.
As S.V. Malanov points out, the formed images become the source material for a higher level of psychological orientation in the internal plane of ideas. An abbreviated fixed sequence of perceptual cognitive-orienting actions and operations “to oneself”, voluntarily reproduced by a person, becomes a method of internal mental orientation and is subjectively perceived as a representation.
The formation of sign-symbolic functions and their inclusion in mental orientation leads to the formation and development of an internal plan of action. It is believed that this occurs as a person masters speech. Speech, and later other sign-symbolic means, begin to denote holistic, rather discrete figurative structures and their characteristics, as well as methods of their transformation and ways of establishing connections and relationships. Sign-symbolic means allow:
- 1) abstract individual elements from perceptual experience (images and ideas) and arbitrarily establish connections and relationships between them on various grounds; this leads to the formation of concepts of a higher level of generalization;
- 2) carry out subsequent psychological orientation, organized by sign-symbolic means.
In psychology, there are effective teaching methods, the basis of which is the voluntary and controlled use of sign-symbolic means, and which allow the child to intelligently and purposefully form and develop the ability to perform actions on the internal mental plane. Such methods of teaching various actions were developed under the guidance of P. Ya. Galperina and were called the systematic step-by-step formation of mental actions. The basic principles of this method are used with great success to understand and practice knowledge in the process of teaching children various skills.
The basis of the method is the organization of consistent mental orientation. Such orientation occurs first in an external perceptual-motor form, using either real objects, the knowledge of which students acquire, or relying on sign-symbolic means that replace them.
In this case, the central role is given to speech pronunciation, in which the sequence of perceptual-motor actions performed and the connections and relationships established on their basis are recorded in the most detailed form. When this method of external detailed orientation begins to be performed without difficulty and is quite reliably fixed in speech form, it is gradually replaced by orientation in terms of ideas, removing external objects and sign-symbolic supports, but at the same time maintaining external speech pronunciation.
Mental orientation organized by speech, i.e., a system of speech actions that allows one to establish properties, connections, relationships, is then gradually reduced, comes under the control of speech “to oneself,” and then ceases to require reduced speech control for its implementation. A mental action is formed, which takes on an abbreviated, schematized (simultaneous) form and includes in its composition the methods and results of performing perceptual-motor and speech orientation. Automation of the performance of such a mental action leads to the formation of a mental operation, a mental skill, a mental scheme, which become methods of preliminary orientation in performing certain actions, as well as an intellectual means of performing various other mental actions.
This psychological mechanism for the formation of mental actions is called interiorization. The process of internalization can occur both spontaneously, unorganized, and relatively purposefully regulated by the subjects of educational activity. In connection with this general psychological pattern of the formation of mental actions, already in childhood they usually strive to teach children to use speech as a means of transforming the external form of orientation into mental action. To do this, play and educational interactions with children include joint stories with adults, as well as the child’s independent stories:
- 1) about the various actions performed following their execution;
- 2) about the actions and sequences of their implementation before the implementation of such actions;
- 3) strive to indicate the main, essential guidelines that are important for the correct execution of certain actions (Based on materials from S. V. Malanov).
Admission to school- truly a turning point in a child’s life.
Judge for yourself - his entire way of life, the conditions in which he acts, changes dramatically; he gains a new position in society; he develops completely different relationships with adults and peers.
Have the parents of a future student ever wondered if their child is ready for school?
Psychological readiness for schooling is one of the most important results of a child’s development in the first seven years of his life.
What is the distinctive feature of the student’s position?
Apparently, first of all, the main thing in his life is study - an obligatory, socially significant activity. The teaching itself - both in content and in organization - differs sharply from the forms of activity familiar to a preschool child. Assimilation of knowledge becomes the main goal. It now appears in its pure form, it is not masked, as before, by the game.
The knowledge that children receive at school is already systematized and consistent.
The main form of organizing schoolchildren's educational work is a lesson, the time for which is calculated to the minute. During the lesson, all children need to follow the teacher’s instructions, follow them clearly, not be distracted and not engage in extraneous activities.
All these features of the student’s living conditions and activities place high demands on different aspects of his personality, his mental qualities, knowledge and skills.
The degree of readiness of a child for school is determined by the totality of his general intellectual and psychological preparation.
The main lines of psychological preparation of a child for school include:
Firstly, this is general development. By the time a child becomes a schoolchild, his overall development should reach a certain level. We are talking primarily about the development of memory, attention and especially intelligence. And here we are interested in both his existing stock of knowledge and ideas, and his ability to act internally, or, in other words, to perform certain actions in the mind.
Knowledge. Skills. Skills.
Child's readiness for school in the region mental development includes several interrelated parties. A child entering first grade needs a certain amount of knowledge about the world around him - about objects and their properties, about the phenomena of living and inanimate nature, about people, their work and other phenomena of social life, about “what is good and what is bad.” ", that is, about moral standards of behavior.
But what is important is not so much the volume of this knowledge as its quality: how correct and clear it is, what is the degree of generalization of the ideas developed in preschool childhood.
Imaginative thinking senior preschooler provides sufficiently rich opportunities for assimilation of generalized knowledge, and with well-organized training, children master ideas that reflect the essential patterns of phenomena related to different areas of reality.
Such ideas are the most important acquisition that will help a child in school move on to mastering scientific knowledge.
It is quite enough if, as a result of preschool education, the child gets acquainted with those areas and aspects of phenomena that serve as the subject of study of various sciences, begins to isolate them, begins to distinguish living from nonliving, plants from animals, created by nature from created by human hands, harmful from useful. Systematic familiarization with each area, assimilation of systems of scientific concepts is a matter of the future.
A special place in the psychological readiness of children for school is occupied by the mastery of some special knowledge and skills that traditionally relate to school skills - literacy, counting, and solving arithmetic problems.
Willingness to learn: memory, attention, thinking, speech...
The decisive factor in readiness to master the school curriculum is the extent to which the child's cognitive activity is developed, interest in her.
Such persistent cognitive interests develop gradually, over a long period of time; they cannot arise immediately as soon as the child comes to school, if sufficient attention was not paid to their upbringing before.
Research shows that the greatest difficulties in primary school are experienced not by those children who by the end of preschool age have an insufficient amount of knowledge and skills, but by those who show intellectual passivity, who lack the desire and habit of thinking and solving problems that are not directly related to what -or a gaming or everyday situation that interests the child.
Thus, one first-grader could not answer the question of how much it would be if one were added to one. He answered first “five”, then “three”, then “ten”. But when he was given a purely practical task: “How much money will you have if dad gave you one ruble and mom gave you one ruble?”, the boy, almost without thinking, answered: “Of course, two!”
If you systematically work with a child, educate his mind, encouraging him to search and think, then you can be sure: you have laid a certain foundation for cognitive interests. Of course, when your child comes to school, you will try with all your might to strengthen and support his intellectual activity.
Particularly high demands are placed on schooling, the systematic acquisition of knowledge and the child’s thinking. The child must be able to identify the essential in the phenomena of the surrounding reality, be able to compare them, see similar and different; he must learn to reason, find the causes of phenomena, and draw conclusions. A child entering school must be able to systematically examine objects and phenomena and identify their various properties.
To do this, a preschooler must learn to listen carefully to a book or an adult’s story, to correctly and consistently express his thoughts, and to construct sentences correctly.
After reading, it is important to find out what and how the child understood. This teaches the child to analyze the essence of what he read, and in addition, teaches coherent, consistent speech, and consolidates new words in the dictionary. After all, the more perfect a child’s speech, the more successful his education at school will be.
Good orientation of the child in space and time is important.
Literally from the first days of being at school, the child receives instructions that cannot be followed without taking into account the spatial characteristics of things and knowledge of directions in space. So, for example, the teacher asks to draw a line “obliquely from the upper left to the lower right corner” or “straight down along the right side of the cell”... The idea of time and the sense of time, the ability to determine how much time has passed is an important condition for the student’s organized work in class, completing assignments within a certain time frame.
Another aspect of mental development that determines a child’s readiness for schooling is development of his speech- mastering the ability to coherently, consistently, understandably for others to describe an object, picture, event, explain this or that phenomenon, rule.
Secondly, this is education. ability to control oneself voluntarily.
A preschool child has vivid perceptions, easily switched attention and a good memory, but he still does not know how to control them voluntarily. He can remember for a long time and in detail some event or conversation of adults, perhaps not intended for his ears, if it somehow attracted his attention.
But it is difficult for him to concentrate for any long time on something that does not arouse his immediate interest. Meanwhile, this skill is absolutely necessary to develop by the time you enter school. As well as the ability of a broader plan - to do not only what you want, but also what you need, although, perhaps, you don’t really want it or even don’t want it at all.
Therefore, a necessary element of preparing a child for school should be the development of the skill of managing one’s behavior: the child should be taught to do what is required, and not what he wants. Without such a skill, all further efforts will go to waste.
And this needs to start during preschool childhood.
It is necessary that the child firmly understands what can and cannot be done at home. It is necessary that he learns to immediately follow the instructions of his elders. He must not be allowed to achieve something he wants by shouting and hysterics.
For a future student, to a certain extent, perseverance, the ability to regulate one’s behavior, the ability to carry out a not very attractive task for a long time, and the ability to finish something started without giving up halfway are important. You can train attention, concentration and perseverance in everyday activities. Board games, games with construction kits and Legos, modeling, appliqué, etc., that is, those games that continue for quite a long time, help well in developing perseverance.
It is also important to cultivate in a child curiosity, voluntary attention, and the need to independently search for answers to questions that arise. After all, a preschooler whose interest in knowledge is not sufficiently developed will behave passively in the lesson, it will be difficult for him to direct effort and will to complete tasks
Thirdly, this is what is perhaps the most difficult matter: developing motives that encourage learning. What is meant here is not the natural interest that preschool children show in school. We are talking about cultivating real and deep motivation, which can become an incentive for their desire to acquire knowledge, despite the fact that studying contains not only attractive aspects and that difficulties in learning, large or small, inevitably occur in everyone.
Ability to learn
What does the concept of “learning ability” include?
This is, first of all, the desire to become a schoolchild, to carry out serious activities, to study. This desire appears by the end of preschool age in the vast majority of children. Surveys of children repeatedly conducted in preparatory groups of kindergartens showed that all children, with rare exceptions, want to go to school and do not want to stay in kindergarten. Children justify this desire in different ways. Most refer specifically to academics as an attractive aspect of school.
Here are some typical answers from children when asked why they want to go to school rather than stay in kindergarten:
“I’ve already been to kindergarten, but I haven’t been to school. They give me difficult problems, and I study. My dad also gives me difficult problems, I do them all... no, I don’t solve them all”;
“You study at school, but in kindergarten you only play, you study little. My sister still wants to go to kindergarten, she is in the fourth grade, and I am in school.”
Of course, it’s not just the opportunity to learn that attracts children. For preschoolers, the external attributes of school life have a great attractive force: bells, breaks, grades, the fact that you can sit at a desk, carry a briefcase.
This is evident in the statements of many children:
- “I like it at school, they give grades there”
There’s a teacher at school, and here there’s a teacher.”
Of course, interest in this kind of external moments is less important than the desire to learn, but it also has a positive meaning - it expresses the child’s desire to change his place in society, his position among other people.
An important aspect of psychological readiness for school is a sufficient level of volitional development of the child. This level is different for different children. But in general, in seven-year-old children we can already observe a subordination of motives (that is, the ability to consider more important not what is “wanted”, but what is “needed”). This gives the child the opportunity to control his behavior: upon entering the first grade, he is able to join in general activities and accept the system of requirements imposed by the school and the teacher.
Psychological readiness for school also includes the child’s personality traits, which help him to join the class team, find his place in it, and get involved in common activities. These are social motives of behavior, the rules of behavior learned by the child in relation to other people, the ability to establish and maintain relationships with peers and adults.
Information about your child’s motivation can also be obtained by observing the role-playing game “School”. Children who are ready for school prefer to play the role of students; they write, read, solve problems and answer questions at the board, and receive grades. Unprepared children and those younger in age choose the role of a teacher, and also concentrate on moments of change, the situation of coming and leaving school, and greeting the teacher.
Personal readiness for school also plays an important role. This includes the child’s need to communicate with peers and the ability to communicate, as well as the ability to play the role of a student, as well as the adequacy of the child’s self-esteem. To get an idea of your child’s self-esteem, you can offer him the Ladder technique. Draw a staircase consisting of 11 steps.
Then say that all the people in the world are located on this ladder: from the best to the worst. At the top, on the very top step, is the best person, and at the bottom, at the very bottom step, is the worst person, in the middle are average people.
Invite your child to determine where his place is, on which step. For younger schoolchildren, level 6-7 can be considered the norm, for preschoolers it can be higher, up to 11, but not lower than 4 - this is already a signal of trouble. In addition to all of the above, the child must undoubtedly have social life skills and feel confident when away from home.
You need to be able to dress and undress yourself, change your shoes, tie your shoelaces, deal with buttons and zippers on clothes, and be able to use a public toilet.
- 1. Concept of educational activity 2. Structure of educational activity 3. Age and individual psychological characteristics of the formation of educational activity 4. Educational activity as the leading type of activity in primary school age
1. Concept of educational activities
- 1.1. Interpretations of the concept of “learning activity” 1.2. The essence of educational activities 1.3. Features of educational activities
1.1. Interpretations of the concept of "learning activity"
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“Learning activity” (AL) is a rather ambiguous concept. We can distinguish three main interpretations of this concept, accepted both in psychology and in pedagogy.
1. Sometimes UD is considered as a synonym for learning, teaching, learning.
2. In “classical” Soviet psychology and pedagogy, UD is defined as the leading type of activity in primary school age. It is understood as a special form of social activity, manifesting itself through objective and cognitive actions.
3. In the interpretation of direction - educational activities
- this is one of the types of activities of schoolchildren and students, aimed at their assimilation through dialogues (polylogues) and discussions of theoretical knowledge and related skills in such spheres of social consciousness as science, art, morality, law and religion.
Below we consider the interpretation of educational activities according to Elkonin - Davydov.
1.2. The essence of educational activities
cognitive activity as if from the outside. The main source of the formation and development of cognitive activity is not the student himself, but organized learning. The student is assigned the role of exploring the world in conditions specially organized for this. The better the learning conditions are created, the more optimally the student will develop. Recognizing the student's right to be a subject of knowledge, the authors of this concept essentially transfer the implementation of this right to the organizers of learning, who determine all forms of cognitive activity.
Organization of training based on a theoretical type, according to the opinion. and his followers, is most favorable for the mental development of the child, which is why the authors of such training called developing
(, 1986; abstract). The source of this development lies outside the child himself - in training, which is specially designed for these purposes.
- Indicators characterizing theoretical thinking are taken as the standard of development:
o reflexivity, goal setting, planning;
o the ability to act internally;
o the ability to exchange products of knowledge.
In the concept, the purpose of education is presented more broadly, and most importantly, more psychologically. This is not just knowledge of the surrounding world, which exists according to its own objective laws, but the appropriation by the student of socio-historical experience accumulated by previous generations of people, the reproduction of educational culture, which includes not only knowledge, but also socially developed values, standards, and socially significant guidelines.
The formation of basic concepts of an educational subject in students in the process of educational activities is constructed as spiral movement from center to periphery, where in the center there is an abstract general idea of the concept being formed, and on the periphery this general idea is concretized, enriched with private ideas and thereby turns into a genuine scientific and theoretical concept.
This structuring of educational material is fundamentally different from the usually used linear method (inductive), when learning proceeds from the consideration of particular facts and phenomena to their subsequent empirical generalization at the final stage of studying a particular concept. This general idea, which appears at the final stage, does not guide or help him in the study of particular ideas and concepts and, moreover, it cannot be developed and enriched, since it appears at the end of the learning process.
Otherwise, the learning process occurs through learning activities. Introduced at the initial stage of studying a fundamental concept, an abstract-general idea of this concept in further training is enriched and concretized by particular facts and knowledge, serves as a guide for students throughout the entire process of studying this concept and helps to comprehend all particular concepts introduced in the future from the point of view of existing general idea.
The essence of UD is that its result is a change in the student himself, and the content of UD is the mastery of generalized methods of action in the field of scientific concepts. This theory was further developed as a result of many years of experimental research carried out under the guidance of and, which proved that the capabilities of younger schoolchildren in mastering scientific and theoretical knowledge were underestimated, and that such knowledge was quite accessible to them. Therefore, the main content of training should be scientific, not empirical knowledge; training should be aimed at developing theoretical thinking in students.
The systematic implementation of educational activities contributes to the intensive development of its subjects theoretical thinking, the main components of which are content abstractions, generalizations, analysis, planning and reflection. Educational activity cannot be identified with those processes of learning and assimilation that are included in any other types of activity (game, work, sports, etc.). Educational activities involve the assimilation of theoretical knowledge through discussions carried out by schoolchildren and students with the help of teachers and lecturers. UD is implemented in those educational institutions (schools, institutes, universities) that are capable of providing their graduates with a fairly comprehensive education and which are aimed at developing their abilities to navigate various spheres of public consciousness (UD is still poorly represented in many Russian educational institutions).
1.3. Features of educational activities
According to him, who was one of the first to develop the theory of UD,
- educational activity is:
- public in its content(in it the assimilation of all the riches of culture and science accumulated by humanity takes place); public in its meaning(it is socially significant and publicly valued); public in the form of its implementation(it is carried out in accordance with socially developed norms).
Educational activity is, first of all, an activity that results in changes in the student himself. This is an activity of self-change, that is, the product is the changes that occurred during its implementation in the subject himself.
Educational activity, as already indicated, is a directed activity, which has as its content the mastery of generalized methods of action in the sphere of scientific concepts. She must be encouraged by adequate motives. They can only be motives directly related to its content, that is, motives for acquiring generalized methods of action, or, more simply, motives for one’s own growth, one’s own improvement. Personal success and personal improvement thereby acquire a deep social meaning ( , 1974. pp. 18-46).
It is known that a person will acquire knowledge, skills and abilities not only at school and not only as a result of educational activities, but also by independently reading books, magazines, from radio and television programs, by watching films and visiting the theater, from the stories of parents and peers, and also in play and work activities. Consequently, it is legitimate to raise the question of what knowledge, in what way and under what conditions should be acquired by a child at school, under the guidance of a teacher organizing educational activities.
The assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities within the educational system has a number of characteristic features.
Firstly, the content of UD consists of scientific concepts and laws, universal methods of solving cognitive problems corresponding to them
Secondly, the assimilation of such content acts as the main goal and main result of the activity (in other types of activity, the assimilation of knowledge and skills acts as a by-product).
Thirdly, in the process of educational learning, a change occurs in the student himself as its subject, the mental development of the child occurs due to the acquisition of such a basic new formation as a theoretical attitude to reality. The product of educational activity is the changes that occurred in the subject itself during its implementation (see Fig. 5).
The task of the school is not just to develop the mental activity of schoolchildren, but to educate them to a level of thinking that most contributes to a person’s orientation in modern forms of consciousness. This requirement corresponds to the theoretical level of thinking. The latter is not ensured in traditional education, when students learn only individual ways of solving specific problems and when for this they are given a ready-made sum of private knowledge. The thinking of schoolchildren rises to the theoretical level during the formation of their educational activities, as it is understood in the concept of educational achievement. This activity, aimed at solving an educational task, has its own special needs and motives, its own special structure, in which the most important place belongs to specific educational tasks and actions.
5.2. Structure of educational activities
2.1. Determining the structure of educational activities
The structure of the management system is determined by the nature of the interaction of its elements. There is still no consensus in educational psychology regarding the main structural elements of UD. Below are some points of view.
- By, the structure of educational activities includes:
- actualization of existing theoretical-cognitive interest; determination of the final educational goal - motives; preliminary determination of a system of intermediate goals and ways to achieve them; implementation of a system of actual educational actions, the central place of which is occupied by specific transformations of the subject and the construction of a model; control actions; assessment actions (Repkin, 1997; abstract).
- educational tasks and actions aimed at solving them; the nature of the emotional coloring of the UD; UD goal; means (methods, methods) for implementing UD; the result of educational attainment (mastery of educational material and general methods of action in the studied area of reality); the nature of the DM process as the content and sequence of implementation of the actions included in it ( et al., 1985).
- At the end of the 50s. XX century ( , 1974
) put forward a general hypothesis about the structure of UD and its significance in the mental development of a child. In his opinion, the structure of the management system includes:
- learning goal; learning activities; actions to control the assimilation process; actions to assess the degree of assimilation.
- learning situations (or tasks); learning activities; actions of control and evaluation (Davydov, 1986; abstract).
Let's look at the point of view in more detail. In his opinion, one of the most important components of educational activities is student’s understanding of educational tasks (UZ). Learning task is closely related to substantive (theoretical) generalization; it leads the student to mastering generalized relationships in the field of knowledge being studied, to mastering new methods of action. Schoolchildren’s acceptance of learning “for themselves” and independent development are closely related to the motivation of learning, to the transformation of the child into a subject of activity.
The next component is implementation of educational activities by the student. With the correct organization of teaching, the student’s educational actions are aimed at identifying universal relations, leading principles, key ideas of a given field of knowledge, at modeling these relations, at mastering methods of transition from universal relations to their specification and back, methods of transition from model to object and back, etc. .d.
No less important, in my opinion, is performance of control and evaluation actions by the student himself. The control part monitors the progress of the action, compares the results obtained with given samples and, if necessary, provides correction of both the indicative and executive parts of the action.
2.2. Characteristics of UD components
- In accordance with the general psychological theory of activity (2001; abstract), the structure of UD includes:
- need; learning task; motives for educational activities; training activities and operations.
By need UD is the desire of students to master theoretical knowledge from a particular subject area (this knowledge reflects the patterns of the origin, formation and development of objects in the corresponding field; empirical-utilitarian knowledge, unlike theoretical knowledge, records only the characteristics of already established objects).
Learning task . The specificity of an educational task is that when solving it, students, through educational actions, discover and master the general method (principle) of solving a whole class of homogeneous particular problems. To set a learning task for students means to introduce them into a problem situation that requires orientation towards a meaningfully general way of solving it in all possible particular and specific conditions.
Learning task- not just a task that a student completes in class or at home, it is a goal for mastering generalized methods of action, a task that is set before students in the form of a problem. An educational task differs from a specific practical task in that the goal of the second is to obtain a result-answer, and the goal of the first is for the student to master a general method of solving all problems of a given type.
Students' work on solving educational problems is carried out with the help of special educational tasks that require students to explicitly conduct research, analysis, independent study of some phenomena, construct some methods of studying or recording the results in the form of models of these phenomena and methods of studying them. The work of students on these tasks is theoretical in nature and thereby introduces them to the laboratory of scientific thought, helps them gain the experience of truly creative thinking and at the same time brings them the joy of learning, emotional satisfaction from overcoming all the difficulties that they encountered along the way these tasks.
Motives for educational activities. The motives for educational actions specify the need for learning, when the general desire of students to master theoretical knowledge is aimed at mastering a well-defined general method of solving a certain class of particular problems.
Learning activities , with the help of which educational tasks are solved, are carried out using many different educational operations. In order for students to master the methods of performing educational actions, it is necessary to first perform these actions with the full deployment of all operations included in this action. Moreover, these operations must first be carried out either materially with the help of some objects, or materialized with the help of their symbolic substitutes, images. Only gradually, as certain operations are practiced, the process of performing an action is curtailed and, in the end, is performed immediately as a single action.
Let's consider the essence of educational actions in more detail.
2.3. Learning activities
- The training operations included in the action correspond to the specific conditions for solving individual subject problems. Such learning actions are: the action of identifying a problem (learning goal) from a given learning task; the action of identifying a general method of solving a problem based on an analysis of general relationships in the educational material being studied, i.e., a general method of solving problems of a given type; the action of modeling general relationships of educational material and general ways of solving educational problems; the action of concretizing and enriching general relationships and general modes of action with particular manifestations; the action of monitoring the progress and results of educational activities; the action of assessing the compliance of the progress and results of students’ activities with the learning task assigned to them.
3. Psychological and pedagogical features of the formation of educational activities
- 3.1. Features of the formation of UD 3.2. Age-related features of the formation of UD
3.1. Features of the formation of UD
Analysis of any type of activity involves isolating and describing the relationship of the following structural components - needs, motives, tasks, actions and operations. At the same time, psychology has established the following patterns of formation and functioning of various types of activities (1986; abstract):
Firstly, there is a process of emergence, formation and collapse of any specific type of activity (for example, educational).
Secondly, its structural components constantly change their functions, turning into each other (for example, needs are specified in motives, an action can become an operation and vice versa).
Thirdly, various private activities are interconnected with each other in a single stream of human behavior (therefore, for example, a true understanding of educational activity involves revealing its relationship with play and work, with sports and social and organizational activities, etc.).
Fourth, each type of activity initially arises and develops in its external form as a network of expanded relationships between people using various material and materialized means of organizing their communication and sharing experience; only on this basis are the internal forms of activity of an individual formed, folded in their structure and based on images and concepts.
- To develop educational activity in students, it is necessary to:
- so that they master the learning activities mentioned above; so that their activity becomes an activity to solve educational problems and at the same time they realize that they are not just completing the teacher’s tasks, not just writing, drawing, counting, but rather solving the next educational problem. “The most important thing in the formation of educational activity,” he noted, “is to transfer the student from focusing on obtaining the correct result when solving a specific problem to focusing on the correct application of the learned general method of action” ( Elkonin, 1974. P.49). and finally, it is necessary to structure the educational process in such a way, to organize it, that gradually the elements of self-study, amateur performance, self-development, self-education begin to occupy more and more of a place in this process. To do this, from the first days of classes, the educational process should be built on the principle of role-playing participation of schoolchildren in its organization and conduct. This means that gradually many of the teacher’s functions should be transferred to student government. “The formation of educational activity,” he wrote, “is the process of gradually transferring the implementation of individual elements of this activity to the student himself for independent implementation without the intervention of a teacher.” And further: “There is reason to think that it is most rational to start with the formation of independent control. Children, first of all, must learn to control each other and themselves” (Ibid. p. 49).
The action that should be transferred to the students themselves for independent implementation is assessment, i.e. “establishing whether a particular educational action has been mastered or not yet mastered” ( Right there. pp. 53-54)
- Formation of UD
- This:
- improvement of each component of management, their interrelation and mutual transitions; improving the motivational and operational aspects of learning; turning the student into a subject of the educational process he carries out; the need for developmental and educational effects of UD.
Full management of the learning process always involves:
- training the student in each component of learning achievement; interrelation of UD components; gradual transfer of individual components of this activity to the student himself for independent implementation without the help of a teacher.
- specific content; forms of organizing interaction between its participants; features of their communication; the nature of psychological neoplasms.
Therefore, the maturity levels of educational learning as a whole and its individual components are important qualities that characterize the effectiveness of the work of teachers and students.
The extensive process of teaching complex educational actions is also applied to teaching actions to solve a class of specific problems. This method of teaching actions allows for monitoring the correctness and completeness of the operations included in the actions. But we will especially consider the issue of monitoring and assessing students’ academic work in the next section.
3.2. Age-related features of the formation of UD
At the first stage corresponding to primary education, the main components of the structure arise and are formed UD(preschoolers have only their prerequisites). At primary school age, UD is the main and leading activity among other activities. The systematic implementation of UD by junior schoolchildren contributes to the emergence and development of their main psychological new formations of this age.
Already in the 1st grade, it is necessary to introduce elementary theoretical knowledge into the content of educational activities - the concepts of number and words, which were absent in the experience of children’s preschool life, as well as the concept of composition, which is important for children’s subsequent mastery of the basics of fine art. The assimilation of these and other concepts in the process of collective solving educational problems contributes to the entry of children into the system of educational activities, allows them to master the methods and norms of participation in disputes and discussions, and to show initiative in inviting peers and teachers to educational dialogue. Throughout primary education, in the conditions of a full-fledged and expanded learning environment, it remains collectively distributed, but at the same time, the majority of junior schoolchildren develop skills on their own initiative, pose various meaningful questions to peers and teachers, the ability not only to participate in discussions, but also to be their initiators and even organizers. Children develop stable and generalized educational and cognitive skills. motives(the main indicator of this is the children’s orientation not towards the result of solving the problem, but towards the general method of obtaining it), which indicates the formation of the very need for UD. By the end of primary education, children acquire the ability to consciously control their learning activities and critically evaluate their results.
At the second stage formation of educational activities (grades 6-9) loses its leading character, but retains significant importance in the development of students’ theoretical thinking, which occurs in the process of reflective assimilation, etc., allowing them, along with teachers, to take a certain part in organizing their educational activities peers. At this age, the content of educational activities becomes more complex - the subject of assimilation becomes integral systems of theoretical concepts, presented in abstract language using graphs, tables, and models. The presence of a sufficiently high level of theoretical thinking, achieved by teenagers in the lower grades, contributes to their mastery of complex material. There are significant changes in the implementation of educational activities. In grades 5-7, students still collectively solve educational problems and at the same time master various symbolic models of fixing their conditions and orientation in them, in order to subsequently use these models independently, for individual problem solving. In grades 8-9, students gradually begin to independently set educational tasks and independently evaluate their solutions. Each student becomes an individual subject of learning. His educational activities takes the form of an internal dialogue with the authors of the educational material, and the discussion of the results in the class becomes a discussion in which each participant can make adjustments to the proposed understanding of the educational task and to the ways of solving it.
In the process of internalization of educational activities in adolescents, when they assimilate theoretical material, all educational actions are practiced and polished (control and evaluation, which turn into self-control and self-esteem, are of particular importance) and all meaningful mental actions functioning in them are developed, among which a special role is acquired by reflection. Thus, in adolescence, the process of development of theoretical thinking continues, which began in the elementary grades. At this age, the UD loses its leading character; Socially significant activities in all types (art, sports, work) acquire a major role in the mental development of adolescents. But in the field of mental development in adolescence, it is UD that plays a decisive role.
Third stage. At high school age, the UD again becomes the leader, but with a professional bias, allowing high school students to carry out vocational guidance and outline their life path.
During the student years, educational activities acquire a truly research character and can be called an educational and cognitive activity. The assimilation of already accumulated theoretical knowledge is woven into the process of independently formulating the results of individual or collective research, design and construction, produced in accordance with the requirements of various forms of cognition, which leads students to clarify scientific concepts, improve artistic images, deepen moral values, etc. UD for students becomes the basis for the development of predictive and research theoretical thinking.
Age-related features of the formation of educational activities |
|
Age | Features of educational activities |
Junior school age | It is marked by the student’s introduction to DL, mastery of all its components; UD has a leading role here |
Middle school age | The development of arbitrariness of DL is underway, the child masters its general structure, becomes aware of the individual characteristics of his educational work, and uses DL as a means of organizing his interaction with other schoolchildren. |
Senior school age | Characterized by the use of UD as a means career guidance and professional training, mastery of methods of independent learning and self-education, as well as the transition from the assimilation of socially developed experience of learning to its enrichment, i.e. creative research cognitive activity |
4. Educational activity as the leading activity in primary school age
- 4.1. The concept of leading activity 4.2. The leading nature of educational activity in primary school age 4.3. Diagnostics of educational activities
4.1. The concept of leading activity
The mental development of a person at all age levels is carried out in the process of various types of activities. It is in activity that he masters the social and historical experience accumulated by humanity - he assimilates knowledge, skills And skills and what a worker, teacher, etc. is like.") and, on the other hand, learns to establish relationships with peers and coordinate his actions with them.
At the beginning of its formation educational activities is possible only on the basis of setting educational tasks for teachers, who also carry out the functions of control and evaluation. Developed forms UD imply the transition of control and assessment into self-control and self-assessment, independent specification of goals set from outside.
4.2. The leading nature of educational activities in primary school age
The structure of UD is formed in children of primary school age (preschoolers have only its prerequisites, one of which is preschool cognitive interest). At this age, UD is the main and leading activity among other types of activities (art, play, sports, etc.).
- The systematic implementation of UD by younger schoolchildren determines the emergence and development of their psychological new formations of a given age:
- the subject of this activity; fundamentals of theoretical thinking; arbitrariness of educational and cognitive actions.
- The primary form of UD is its collectively distributed implementation by the entire class or its individual groups. In progress interiorization an individual UD is formed, the indicators of which are:
- the ability of its subject to proactively and independently distinguish between known and unknown theoretical knowledge in the subject being mastered; the ability to ask meaningful questions to peers and teachers; the ability not only to constantly participate in discussions, but also to be their initiator and organizer.
Psychological and pedagogical research shows that, under the existing system of primary education in Russia, by the time of graduation from primary school (i.e., by the age of 9-10 of a child’s life), UD has not yet acquired a truly individual form. The problem arises of prolonging it for one to two years so that at the end of primary school age the child develops the desire and ability to learn, that is, the need for learning and the possibility of its individual implementation.
At subsequent ages, which correspond to certain stages of education (adolescence - primary school; early adolescence - high school; adolescence - higher school), learning experiences undergo qualitative changes in the content of theoretical knowledge acquired by students, in the nature of its implementation by them, in the methods of organization UD by teachers and instructors, according to their role in the formation of psychological new formations inherent in each age.
4.3. Diagnostics of educational activities
control works.
Resume
“Learning activity” (AL) is a rather ambiguous concept. We can distinguish three main interpretations of this concept, accepted both in psychology and in pedagogy: as a synonym for learning, teaching, teaching; as the leading type of activity in primary school age; as one of the activities of schoolchildren.
The concept of educational activity is one of the approaches to the learning process in psychology, implementing the position about the socio-historical conditionality of mental development. It developed on the basis of the fundamental dialectical-materialist principle of psychology - the principle of the unity of the psyche and activity in the context of psychological activity () and in close connection with the theory of the gradual formation of mental activity and types of learning (,).
The concept of educational learning (as opposed to didactic concepts) contains the prerequisites for understanding the student as a subject of cognition. The educational process itself is interpreted not as the transmission of scientific knowledge, its assimilation, reproduction, but as the development of cognitive abilities and basic mental formations.
Organization of training based on a theoretical type, according to the opinion. and his followers, is most favorable for the mental development of the child, therefore the authors call such training developmental.
According to him, who was one of the first to develop the theory of educational learning, educational activity is: social in its content; public in its meaning; social in the form of its implementation.
Educational activity is, first of all, an activity that results in changes in the student himself. This is an activity of self-change, i.e. its product is the changes that occurred during its implementation in the subject himself.
The structure of the management system is determined by the nature of the interaction of its elements. There is still no consensus regarding the main structural elements of educational psychology in educational psychology. According to the opinion, the structure of UD includes: learning situations (or tasks); learning activities; control and evaluation activities.
Formation of UD- This:
§ improvement of each component of the management system, their relationship and mutual transitions;
§ improving the motivational and operational aspects of teaching;
§ turning the student into a subject of the educational process he carries out;
§ the need for developmental and educational effects of UD.
Formation of UD there is management by an adult (teacher, parent, psychologist) of the process of developing a student’s educational attainment. Full management of the learning process always involves:
training the student in each component of learning achievement;
interrelation of UD components;
gradual transfer of individual components of this activity to the student himself for independent implementation without the help of a teacher.
The structure of UD is formed in children of primary school age. At this age, UD is the main and leading activity among other types of activities (art, play, sports, etc.).
The state of a student’s activities can be identified by criterion-oriented tests, activity tests, long-term observation, as well as during a psychologically thoughtful oral survey and written tests.
Self-test questions
What interpretations of the concept of “learning activity” exist? How is educational activity in the Elkonin-Davydov direction interpreted? What is the essence of educational activity? Name the authors of the concept of educational activity. How is the concept of “subject of activity” interpreted in the concept of educational activity? Name the main features of educational activities. Name the characteristic features of assimilation of knowledge and skills within the educational system. How does one determine the structure of educational activities? Compare points of view on the structure of UD and. What components of UD have been identified? What is the specificity of the learning task? What educational activities in the structure of educational learning are identified by I. Lompscher and A. Kossakowski? Name the patterns of formation and functioning of various types of activities. What is meant by the formation of UD? How does the formation of UD differ from its formation? Name the main age-related features of the formation of UD. What is characteristic of the formation of UD in early adolescence? What is leading activity? At what age is educational activity the leading activity? What is the leading nature of educational activity at primary school age? Name the main aspects of diagnosing educational activities. What signs can be used to study the degree of formation of educational actions?
References
1. , Vardanyan educational activities in the formation of creative thinking of students // Formation of creative thinking of schoolchildren in educational activities. Ufa, 1985.
2. Vygotsky psychology. M., 1996.
3. Gabay activity and its means. M., 1988.
4. Halperin learning and mental development of the child. M., 1985.
5. Davydov of developmental training: Experience of theoretical and experimental psychological research. M., 1986.
6. Davydov of developmental education. M., 1996.
7. Ilyasov's learning process. M., 1986.
8. Leontiev on general psychology. M., 2001.
9. Orlov motivation teachings. M., 1990.
10. Psychological features of personality formation in the pedagogical process / Ed. A. Kossakowski, I. Lompshera et al.: Trans. with him. M., 1981.
11. Repkin training: theory and practice. Tomsk, 1997.
12. Rubinstein of general psychology. SPb. 1999.
13. Selevko educational technologies: Proc. allowance. M., 1998.
14. Formation of educational activities of schoolchildren / Ed. . M., 1982.
15. Elkonin teaching primary schoolchildren. M., 1974.
16. Elkonin development: Textbook. aid for students higher textbook establishments. M., 2001.
- Cherdyntseva Evgeniya Valerievna, Candidate of Sciences, Associate Professor, Associate Professor
- Omsk State Pedagogical University
- LEARNING ACTIVITIES
- JUNIOR SCHOOLCHILDREN
- PLANNING ABILITY
The article reveals scientific approaches to the formation of planning skills in primary schoolchildren in educational activities. The characteristics of the main methods are given, the systematic use of which in lessons will contribute to the gradual formation of planning skills among students in primary school.
- Implementation of health-saving technologies in extracurricular activities
- Formation of communicative universal educational actions among junior schoolchildren in the learning process
- Cultivating a value attitude towards the small homeland among junior schoolchildren in a children's association
- Development of logical educational actions in younger schoolchildren during the learning process
- Comparison of programming languages using the example of array sorting
For successful socialization in a modern post-industrial, highly dynamic society, it is necessary to develop in the younger generation the ability to clearly distribute a variety of activities to perform them within a limited time, to design various options for performing activities and to select the optimal one. At the same time, the successful implementation of an individual’s activity will ensure a high level of development of his planning skills.
The purposeful development of the ability to plan in younger schoolchildren is associated with the beginning of the child’s education at school. According to the Federal State Educational Standard for Primary General Education, the development of planning skills in students is necessary for them to achieve high educational results in educational activities, since it helps children organize and systematize learning activities, timely forecast possible difficulties and ways to overcome them.
The problem of developing planning skills in younger schoolchildren is revealed in the works of A.G. Asmolova, P.Ya. Galperina, N.F. Talyzina, V.V. Davydova, V.Kh. Magkaeva. According to A.G. Asmolov, planning is a universal learning activity of a student, ensuring his ability to organize the process of mastering new knowledge and methods of action and to interact productively with peers and adults. The formation of planning skills in younger schoolchildren is carried out in stages: acquisition of primary experience in performing actions and motivation; formation of a new method (algorithm) of action, establishment of primary connections with existing methods; training, clarification of connections, self-control, correction; control .
V.V. Davydov views planning as determining the sequence of intermediate goals, taking into account the final result; drawing up a plan and sequence of actions. He notes that the success of planning activities by a junior schoolchild depends on the number of step-by-step actions provided for him and their careful comparison with each other. The author points out that the formation of planning in junior schoolchildren is associated with the development of theoretical thinking.
P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzin believe that the basis of planning skills is the development of a student’s internal plan of action. These researchers identify five stages in the development of an internal plan of action in younger schoolchildren. At the first stage, planning is external in nature: children, with the help of a teacher, voice the sequence of their actions. At the second stage, when drawing up a plan, primary schoolchildren rely on the set goal and the final result; in the process of carrying out actions to implement the plan, they experience errors and discrepancies with the required result. At the third stage, younger schoolchildren demonstrate the ability to mentally formulate a plan of action and present intermediate results. Students perform an action in the internal plan, and then implement it in practical activities, regulate their activities in accordance with the plan. At the fourth stage, when constructing a solution plan, primary schoolchildren transform a practical problem into a theoretical one. The result is assessed on the basis of reflection and the logic of achieving the goal. At the fifth stage, students demonstrate independence in the process of forming an internal action plan. Actions in internal and external terms are coordinated, consistent, and logical. The construction of a plan is preceded by an analysis of the task’s own structure.
V.Kh. Magkaev believes that the ability to plan in younger schoolchildren is manifested in the ability to build a sequence of mental actions and implement these actions in practical activities. The basis of planning is foresight and intentionality. V.X. Magkaev identified four types of implementation of the planning function of thinking in primary schoolchildren: manipulative type (lack of planning), step-by-step (determining the method of action based on the analysis of the previous action), immediate planning (representation of a partial solution to the problem in the internal plan), rational planning (choice in the internal plan of the most optimal way to solve a problem from several options).
In the works of O.V. Yakubenko notes that the formation of the ability to plan educational activities in younger schoolchildren is influenced by the organization of cooperation between students in the classroom. In this regard, the teacher needs to create optimal conditions for the development of humanistic interpersonal relationships of children, and actively use technologies of group and collective teaching methods in the classroom. At the same time, in order to prevent aggressive, conflict behavior in children, the researcher recommends the use of art therapy. Developing the ability to plan educational activities in younger schoolchildren will help prevent their disadaptation to the conditions of school education.
In the works of P.I. Frolova examines pedagogical technologies that contribute to the formation of planning skills in elementary school students: problem-based learning, case technology, gaming technologies, technology for organizing educational cooperation. According to the researcher, the systematic use of these technologies in elementary school lessons will ensure that primary school students actively comprehend the structure and content of educational tasks and create universal algorithms for solving them.
Based on these studies, we will consider methods for developing planning skills in primary schoolchildren in educational activities. At the initial stage of teaching students planning, the teacher needs to use the method of discussing a ready-made plan for solving an educational problem. At the same time, the teacher pronounces all stages of the action and organizes a collective analysis by the children of the sequence of actions. In the process of analysis, younger schoolchildren develop the ability to correlate completed actions, their intermediate results, and determine the sequence of actions leading to the desired result.
The formation of planning skills in students of educational activities is also facilitated by the teacher’s use of the method of analyzing a deformed plan for solving an educational problem, which is based on the teacher’s discussion with younger schoolchildren of the existing plan in order to identify typical errors and irrational actions and subsequent correction.
In the process of developing planning skills in children in primary school, an effective method is also for the teacher to use a plan with missing or redundant actions. The teacher can invite students to detail a plan for solving a learning problem drawn up in a general form, or to supplement a plan in which some actions are missing.
After primary schoolchildren have mastered the methods of planning educational activities discussed above, the teacher needs to invite them to independently draw up their own plan for solving the educational problem. First, the teacher offers the children an approximate basis for the activity - an algorithm for drawing up a plan. Students draw up a plan for solving a learning problem using an algorithm, and the teacher provides them with the necessary assistance. As children master this activity to the level of automation, they acquire the ability to plan independently, without relying on an algorithm. At this stage, junior schoolchildren develop rational planning of educational activities.
Thus, the formation of planning skills in younger schoolchildren must be carried out purposefully and step by step. At the same time, it is necessary to offer children an indicative basis for activities, samples of various types of ready-made plans for solving a learning task, and provide the necessary assistance.
References
- Asmolov A. G., Burmenskaya G. V., Volodarskaya I. A. Formation of universal educational actions in primary school: from action to thought. System of tasks: a manual for teachers. - M.: Education, 2011. – 257 p.
- Davydov V.V. Theory of developmental training. – M.: INTERO, 2006. – 174 p.
- Magkaev V.X. Experimental study of the planning function of thinking in primary school age // Questions of psychology. 2014. - No. 5. - P. 17-25.
- Talyzina N. F. Formation of cognitive activity of junior schoolchildren. – M.: Education, 2008. – 175 p.
- Psychology and pedagogy of primary education: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in the direction of "Pedagogical education" / N.P. Murzina, E.V. Cherdyntseva, M.V. Myakisheva, E.G. Ozhogova, E.V. Namsink, I.N. Rasskazova, E.V. Chukhina, O.V. Yakubenko. Under the general editorship of N.P. Murzina. – Omsk: Omsk State Pedagogical University Publishing House, 2015. – 484 p.
- Federal state educational standard for primary general education. – 2nd ed. – M.: Education, 2011. – 41 p.
- Frolova P.I., Gorina A.V., Dubynina M.G. Psychology and pedagogy: textbook. – Omsk: SibADI Publishing House, 2015. – 429 p.
- Yakubenko O.V. Art tools in the prevention of conflict behavior of younger schoolchildren // Teacher 3.0: teacher training for the school of the future: a collection of articles based on the materials of the All-Russian scientific and practical conference. – N. Novgorod: Minin University Publishing House, 2016. – P. 292-294.
- Yakubenko O.V.. 2016. – T. 2. – No. 55. – P. 371-374.
- Yakubenko O.V. Technologies for the development of interpersonal relationships in children of primary school age in extracurricular activities // website. 2016. – T. 4. – No. 56. – P. 365-368.
The central concept that determines the direction of modernization of the education system in the modern world is competence, which combines knowledge, skill and intellectual components. Representing an opposition to traditional authoritarian-reproductive teaching methods, the competency-based approach is focused on the formation of such characteristics of the student’s thinking as initiative, innovation, mobility, flexibility, dynamism and constructivity.
In personal and activity terms, the goals are considered to be: developing the desire for self-education throughout life, the ability to make independent decisions, expanding adaptive capabilities and increasing the communicative level of the individual. An important feature of the competency-based approach is also that, within its framework, educational activities acquire a research and practice-oriented character and themselves become the subject of assimilation.
key, formed on the meta-subject content of education;
interdisciplinary and general subject related to a specific group of academic subjects and educational areas;
subject, having a private nature associated with the characteristics of specific objects.
The key ones are multifunctional and universal in nature and degree of applicability; they are cross-subject and interdisciplinary. Mastering them allows you to solve various problems when carrying out activities in the field of education, in everyday, professional or social life.
The application of a competency-based approach in a specific educational institution requires certain organizational decisions. Thus, an indispensable condition is the development of school-wide methodological standards for the development of educational and cognitive competence within the boundaries of basic and specialized general education disciplines. It is necessary to look differently at the process of planning a lesson system on an educational topic. Thematic planning allows teachers to record the process of development of general educational skills within the boundaries of traditional academic disciplines.
The competency-based approach, like other innovative approaches to teaching, requires phased implementation. To begin with, you can form the elementary general educational competencies of schoolchildren:
extracting the main content of what was read or heard;
precise formulation of thoughts, construction of original statements on a given question or topic;
researching various options for solving problems, choosing the best one, taking into account various criteria;
cooperation with other people (students and teacher) in completing a common task;
planning activities and time;
assessment of the results of their activities, etc.
The listed characteristics of the competency-based approach to teaching make it possible to identify the psychological foundations and mechanisms for the formation of students’ competencies. Developed by domestic psychologists D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov’s theory of educational activity (AL) takes into account, first of all, the child’s subjectivity.
The idea of educational learning (as opposed to didactic concepts) contains the prerequisites for understanding the student as a subject of knowledge. The educational process itself is interpreted not as the transmission of scientific knowledge, its assimilation, reproduction, but as the development of cognitive abilities. The subjective activity of a schoolchild is determined by the way of organizing cognitive activity. The child is assigned the role of exploring the world in conditions specially organized for this.
According to Davydov and his followers, the organization of training based on a theoretical type is most favorable for mental development, which is why the authors call it developmental. Indicators characterizing theoretical thinking are taken as the standard of development:
reflexivity, goal setting, planning;
the ability to act internally;
the ability to exchange products of knowledge.
As research shows, the systematic implementation of properly organized educational activities contributes to the intensive development of theoretical thinking among its subjects, the main components of which are meaningful abstractions, generalizations, analysis, planning and reflection.
From a psychological point of view, the essence of UD is that its result is a change not in the object with which the student is dealing (be it a piece of paper or a mathematical problem), but in the child himself. If yesterday he did not know, did not know how, did not perform, then today he has become different: now he knows something new or performs certain new actions.
Davydov described the structure of UD as follows:
learning situations (or tasks);
learning activities;
control and evaluation activities.
One of the most important components of educational activity is the student’s understanding of educational tasks (TL). Children’s acceptance of them “for themselves” and their independent production are closely related to the motivation of learning, to the child’s transformation into a subject of activity.
The next component is the implementation of educational activities. They should be aimed at identifying universal relations, leading principles, key ideas of a given field of knowledge, at modeling these relations, at mastering ways of moving from the general to the specific and back.
No less important, as V.V. believed. Davydov, has the student himself perform the actions of control and evaluation. At the same time, the child monitors the progress of execution, compares the results obtained with given samples and, if necessary, ensures correction of both the indicative and executive parts of the action.
We emphasize that the described patterns make it possible to develop in the student the ability to independently determine the possibility of applying one or another general principle and to freely move from one method of solving a problem to another. This is considered one of the goals of education, as formulated within the competency-based approach.
According to the description of A.N. Leontyev, the specificity of KZ is that it is not just a task that a student performs in class or at home, but a task that is posed to students in the form of a problem. The goal of its implementation is to master the general method of solving all problems of a given type, while the goal of a specific practical task is to obtain a result-answer.
In the concept under consideration, the main means of developing educational attainment is a set of special educational tasks that require research, analysis, independent study of certain phenomena, construction of methods for studying or recording results in the form of models of these phenomena and methods for studying them.
In order to develop learning skills among students, it is necessary that their work becomes an activity aimed at solving educational problems, and at the same time, the children realize that they are not only completing the teacher’s assignments, writing, drawing, counting, but also solving the next educational problem. “The most important thing in the formation of educational activities,” noted D.B. Elkonin, is to transfer the student from focusing on obtaining the correct result when solving a specific problem to focusing on the correct application of the learned general method of action.”
At the same time, it is recognized that it is necessary to structure the educational process in such a way that gradually the elements of self-study, amateur performance, self-development, and self-education begin to occupy more and more of a place in it. “The formation of educational activity,” wrote Elkonin, “is the process of gradually transferring the implementation of individual elements of this activity to the student himself for independent implementation without the intervention of a teacher.” The activity that should be handed over to the students themselves to perform independently is assessment, i.e. establishing whether a certain learning action has been mastered or not. Thus, one of the fundamental provisions of the competency-based approach – the focus on the formation of independence and initiative – finds its justification in the psychological theory of UD.
Research psychologists have described some age-related features of the formation of UD. So, at the first stage of training, in junior school, the main components of UD arise and form for the first time, since the child entering school simply does not have them. However, the development of a fully-fledged UD in its structure is possible only with the creation of special conditions that take into account the described psychological patterns.
Already in the 1st grade, the assimilation of elementary theoretical concepts in the process of collective solving educational problems contributes to the entry of children into the system of educational activities, allows them to master the methods and norms of participation in disputes and discussions, and take the initiative in inviting peers and the teacher to educational dialogue. Throughout primary education, in conditions of a full-fledged and expanded educational learning, it remains collectively distributed, however, at the same time, the majority of junior schoolchildren develop the ability, on their own initiative, to pose various meaningful questions to peers and teachers, the ability not only to participate in discussions, but also to be their initiators and even organizers.
Children develop stable and generalized educational and cognitive motives. This indicates the formation of the very need for UD. By the end of initial training, the ability to consciously control one’s learning activities and critically evaluate their results appears.
It can be seen that in the concept under consideration, the communicative component is both a condition and a product of the development of a full-fledged UD. Consequently, communicative competencies can be considered as components of general educational skills developed in primary school.
Another topic that may be of interest when discussing psychological aspects is related to the system of psychological assessment of the level of development of students’ learning activity developed within the framework of the concept of educational activity. A.K. Markova suggests using several diagnostic indicators.
State of the learning task and indicative basis:
the student’s understanding of the teacher’s task, the meaning of the activity and active acceptance of the teaching for himself;
the child’s independent setting of educational tasks;
independent choice of action guidelines in new educational material.
Status of training activities:
what UD the student performs (change, comparison, modeling, etc.);
in what form does he do this (material, materialized, loud-speech, mental plane), expanded (in the full range of operations) or collapsed, independently or after promptings from an adult;
whether individual actions are combined into larger blocks - methods, techniques, methods; does the student distinguish between the method and the result of actions;
Does he know several techniques to achieve one result?
State of self-control and self-esteem:
whether the child knows how to check himself after finishing work (final self-control);
can he check himself in the middle and during work (step-by-step self-control);
is he able to plan work before it begins (planning self-control);
has adequate self-esteem;
is a differentiated self-assessment of individual parts of his work available to the student or can he assess himself only in general terms?
What is the result of the educational activity:
objective (correctness of the solution, number of actions to achieve the result, time spent, solving problems of varying difficulty);
subjective (significance, meaning of this educational work for the student himself, subjective satisfaction, psychological cost - expenditure of time and effort, contribution of personal efforts).
In our education center, competency-based approach strategies are implemented in accordance with the psychological mechanisms that determine the effectiveness of developmental education. The task of forming an integral system of primary education is methodically solved through participation in experimental programs using integrative methodological complexes - for example, the educational complex “Planet of Knowledge”.
Such forms as group work and interaction in pairs, focused, in particular, on the development of communicative competencies, are actively being introduced into educational activities. Much attention is paid to student projects and the development of subjectivity in relation to the material being studied. As part of the development of the English language using the educational complex “English in Focus”, thanks to the features of the program, the task of developing intercultural competencies of junior schoolchildren is achieved.
In organizational terms, the systematic nature of educational work acquires a new quality thanks to the transition of primary schools to electronic journals, which make it possible to quickly collect and analyze information regarding the effectiveness of individual educational activities and their complex as a whole. An in-school set of requirements for teachers has been developed, which includes general parameters of the educational process, including criteria for assessing oral and written answers, rules for conducting tests, etc.
The center is introducing a unified system of psychological diagnostics for students using L.A. programs. Yasyukova, ensuring integrativeness and continuity of diagnostic criteria throughout the entire period of training.
We think it is important and useful to include in the discussion on the characteristics and effectiveness of the competency-based approach in education some ideas from the field of psychological science, since they make it possible to take into account aspects that are often present in a hidden form in the real pedagogical process.
It should be emphasized that the competency-based approach turns out to be the most psychologically justified means of achieving the goals facing the modern education system: the formation of a mature personality capable of making and implementing independent responsible decisions in rapidly changing conditions, having a pro-social orientation and highly valuing the spiritual, moral and intellectual spheres life.