English oak. Common oak (pedunculate oak) - quercus robur l
This, perhaps the largest group of potential objects for food in conditions of autonomous survival, includes forest inhabitants. Moreover, not all of them can be found together at the same time and in the same territory. Our forests are very diverse, and their inhabitants each have their own habits and preferences.
Depending on the composition of soils and underlying soil-forming rocks, moisture regime and many other physical and climatic factors and soil and plant conditions, forests of different types are formed on different landscape surfaces. The common oak (also known as pedunculate oak), which forms floodplain oak forests, for example, prefers fatty, organic-rich soils and can withstand long spring floods in the lower reaches of large rivers, standing “knee-deep” in spring water for 2-3 weeks. Pine forests, on the contrary, grow on the dry sands of dunes and river terraces with deep groundwater. Scots pine, in contrast to oak, does not tolerate flooding, but can withstand long periods of summer drought. Oak belongs to megatrophs - lovers of “hearty meals”, while pine is a real ascetic (well, what kind of humic organic matter can there be on the sands?). Pine vitally needs light, well-aerated soils for the roots to breathe “full chest”, while oak can “hold its breath” for a long time and in this sense it is not afraid of heavy loams (although it prefers drained soils).
The main forest-forming tree species, by which the types of forest complexes are named, determine a special, specific set (species composition) of the rest of the permanent population of “their” forest. Drawing an analogy with human society, we can say that they are a kind of city-forming enterprises that determine the economic, demographic and professional specifics of the forest ecosystem.
Secondary tree and shrub species accompanying the main forest-forming trees also form their own second-order consortial symbiotic relationships with their specific cohabiting species.
It should be taken into account that, unlike the grassy biomes of steppe-meadow formations, forest communities are multi-tiered. Trees and shrubs, depending on the type of forest, its health and the degree of economic intervention and “improvement” by humans, can form a forest canopy in 1-2-3 tiers (biohorizons), with the most shade-tolerant ones located in the lower tier. And at the very bottom of the “forest ocean”, at the level of the ground grass stand and deeper - under the forest floor and in the soil - layering can also be traced. And each consort species is predominantly confined to a specific, favorite tier. It’s not difficult to understand this: what kind of eccentric would start looking for boletus mushrooms on the tops of pine trees or tinder fungi on a grassy edge? Another question is to know what edible species of mushrooms, plants, and animals are confined to a specific tier. Pheasants and nightingales, for example, nest on the ground, under bushes, the fat larvae of cockchafers and beetles are deep underground, and the equally nutritious earthworms rummage through the litter and leaf litter. Etc.
The tiers that interest us are where you can reach with your hand or dig shallowly. By the way, they are precisely filled with the largest reserves of pasture (or “handy”) food.
All components of the consortium - the dominant tree itself, and the shrubs accompanying it, and the grasses growing under it and on the shrub edge, and the insects that eat them, and the birds-animals that eat the leaves, herbs and insects, and the cap mushrooms that form the roots of mycorrhiza trees or tinder fungi drinking tree sap - all this can feed a person dying of hunger. In other words, you won’t die of hunger in the forest!
These consortia with specific consort species, confined to very specific landscape formations, are the main object of our guide to forest “pasture”. That is, our task is to look for “pasture” where it must be located. The second task is to get enough, but not to get poisoned.
Oak forests - oak forests, oak groves and sudubravy
Forests formed by oak (where it is the dominant edificator) are called oak forests. At the same time, pure oak stands = oak forests, mixed oak-pine forests = sudubravy and subori (in first place is the numerically dominant codominant), and multicomponent deciduous oak groves are named according to the accompanying forest-forming tree and shrub species included in the composition = elm, sedge, elm-sedge , hazel, etc. oak forests. In addition, oak forests are also classified according to the herbage that forms the lower ground layer - for example, lily of the valley, lily of the valley, bracken (fern) or dead cover, that is, no significant herbage at all.
This division into subtypes and formations is determined by the characteristics of soil and plant conditions (soil differences, the nature of moisture and lighting) and is essential when describing specific habitats and searching for specific objects of “pasture”.
Common oak and its consortium
Oak is the main forest-forming species. Biologists and foresters distinguish many species and phenotypic varieties of oaks. For us this is not so significant - their consort ties are, by and large, similar.
Latin name -Quercus robur (common oak, or petiolate)
Description and identifying characteristics of oak
In our identification guide, this is a type species, known to everyone for its characteristic leaves and acorns, and therefore does not require a detailed description. Identifying common oak in a leafless state (in winter and early spring) also does not present any particular difficulties:
The crown of mature trees is steep, spreading, tent-shaped, and in open areas flattened ellipsoidal or almost spherical (photos 1 and 1a).
The trunk is thick and begins to branch early. The cork bark on the trunk (photos 2 and 2a) is rough, highly fissured (deeply lined with vertical and horizontal cracks). The color of the cork surface is dark brown, brown when cut. The cork of bark is layered and dense, as if with annual rings, which is clearly visible in the cross section.
The pedunculate oak has a special genetic modification - winter oak, in which the dried brown-brown leaves do not fall off and remain on the crown until spring (photo 3). There are approximately 10% of such individuals in the population. Delayed leaf fall is also typical for young trees.
In Western Europe, the Mediterranean, the Caucasus, the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains, the forest-forming species of oak forests is also a closely related species – sessile oak Quercus petrae. There is a separate short article about it and other types of oaks in Eurasia.
Range and habitat
The temperate zone of Europe, and almost the entire Mediterranean except the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula.
In the southern part of the range, it is confined to river floodplains (forming floodplain oak groves of varying durations of inundation by spring floods), lakeside lowlands and relief depressions, as well as to the slopes and bottoms of steppe ravines, where it forms canopy oak groves. (photos 4 and 4a).
In the northern part of its range and in areas with sufficient atmospheric moisture, it forms mountain oak forests, settling even on watersheds.
In the mountains, the distribution of oak is determined by vertical zonation (it does not rise high) and the exposure of macroslopes, which determines moisture and temperature.
Environmental Features
Photophilous breed. Megatroph - prefers richly humus soils. In river floodplains it occurs on sand, but under the sand deposits there is always a buried layer of chernozem or brown forest soils. Such a soil “layer cake” may have several sandy layers - like a Napoleon cake.
The pedunculate oak has two generations of leaves - spring (as expected) and summer (blooming is timed to coincide with the summer solstice). This is an evolutionary adaptation when small oak budworm caterpillars or other consort pests completely eat the leaves that bloom in the spring.
Edible parts and recipes for processing and preparation
Can be used for food acorns, inflorescence-catkins and young ones just blossoming leaves(light green or reddish tint), and also, in limited quantities - kidneys and leafy Gauls"ink nuts"
Ripe acorns can be collected from autumn (September) until spring, but the most “delicious” are those collected after the first frost. Acorns are stored well and for a long time in a humid environment, so they can be harvested for future use. Often, in litter and dry pits under trees, acorns themselves are preserved for a whole year.
Oak wakes up late. Earring inflorescences appear in April-May, and their flowering period is short. It is necessary to collect those whose anthers have not opened.
The leaves begin to bloom in April-May simultaneously with flowering, and from the second half of June their second generation appears (see above). In addition, the leaves do not bloom simultaneously, but are spread out over 2-3 weeks. Thus, young oak leaves can be constantly present on your forest table from April to July inclusive.
Oak buds are spring food. Inknut galls remain on fallen leaves until spring. True, as they become obsolete, their beneficial qualities (food and medicinal) weaken. The most suitable are “green and unripe” galls - on living leaves and whitish in color.
Acorns
Acorns(photo 5) contain a lot of carbohydrates - up to 47% (including 30-35% starch), more than 3% fats and up to 3.5% proteins. Due to the presence of tannins and bitter substances in acorns, the taste is poor. Soaking or frying eliminates this bitterness and astringent taste.
Peeled and halved acorns should be soaked for two to three days, and the water should be changed three times every day. The survival website Survival.com.ua also mentions another method: acorns are buried in cooled ash or ashes and watered from time to time. Apparently the method is based on the absorptive properties of charcoal and should be quite effective, but we haven't tried it.
Acorns are best eaten in crushed form (cereals) or powder (flour). You can bake bread cakes from acorn flour, and make porridge from crushed flour. Below are recipes for preparing acorn dishes only from pasture, even without fat. But in the presence of milk, sugar, starch and other “civilized” products, the acorn menu can be significantly diversified.
Acorn bread
To prepare it, it is better to collect acorns after the first frost. After soaking, they are boiled in boiling water, finely chopped (it would be better to put them through a meat grinder), then dried in air and then fried over low heat, like seeds, until they begin to crunch. Acorns dried in this way are ground in a mortar or ground into flour in any way (photos 6 and 6a).
Next, the resulting flour is mixed into a dough with water, small flat cakes are formed (photo 7), which are fried in a frying pan, baking sheet or in a camp oven on both sides. You should know that acorn dough does not contain gluten, so the cakes turn out fragile, crumble and burn (photo 7a).
To avoid breaking the tortillas when turning them over, it is recommended to cover the frying pan with a second identical frying pan and turn them both over - the tortilla simply falls from one frying pan to the other, where it finishes frying. If you have potato starch or other sticky ingredients on hand, the problem, of course, disappears (there will also be articles in this section about natural “wild” substitutes for starch and gluten). In particular, it is good to knead acorn dough using a thick decoction or even a honeycomb of butter mushrooms, honey mushrooms, flammulins and other mushrooms that produce sticky juice.
Acorn crumbly porridge
Can serve as a side dish for meat, fish, “worm”, “larvae”, mushroom and vegetable dishes, as well as as an independent food. But the best use is mixed with mushroom sauté. Preliminary preparation is the same as for acorn bread, but fine grinding is not required. It is cooked in the same way as all other porridges. If it is made with milk, you will get a milk soup like rice soup.
Acorn bread and porridge are not food for gourmets or those with a sweet tooth, but they provide calories.
For gourmets - " acorn coffee " And cake . Oak acorns have long been used to make coffee substitutes. Roasted, shelled and ground, ground into powder, acorns are brewed in the same way as ground coffee. The taste is specific, generally pleasant, more reminiscent of cocoa than coffee. Moreover, a lot here depends on the degree of frying of the acorns - as they say, it depends on taste. Like natural coffee, our acorn coffee is an excellent tonic drink, but more nutritious. In light of the above, it would be more appropriate to call this drink not a coffee surrogate, but acorn cocoa.
If tasteless thin acorn cakes are greased with jam or condensed milk and stacked on top of each other, you will get a delicious dessert. And coarse toasted pieces sprinkled on top can easily replace nut crumbs here.
Oak buds
Oak buds(photos 8 and 8a) - medicinal raw materials in folk and official medicine. They are edible raw, but it should be remembered that this is, first of all, a medicine. You won’t get enough of them, but they are vitamin-rich “pasture”. April buds are swollen with easily detachable scales, while May buds, saturated with juice and ready to open, peel off on their own. The taste is bitter.
Male inflorescences-catkins
Male earring inflorescences (photo 9) are rich in pollen, which determines their nutritional and medicinal value. Suffice it to say that bees extract bee bread mainly from male oak inflorescences. Edible raw, both on their own and in salads - but when young, with unopened anthers (photos 9a and 9b). They have no taste.
9b. These earrings are no longer suitable - the pollen has flown out
Young leaves
Young leaves (photo 10) are edible on their own raw. But it is better to use it in lean or green borscht as a substitute for cabbage or sorrel. Also suitable for vitamin salads in finely chopped form. Moreover, as mentioned above, the massive appearance of edible young leaves of the oak tree is observed 2 times. The colder the spring, the more anthocyanin in spring leaves, which gives the leaves a red tint and a slightly bitter taste. The summer generation does not have this (photos 10a and 10b).
10a. The large leaves on the left side of the frame have already become leathery, and on the right, at the tip of the branch, they are quite suitable for soup or salad
10b. Chilled spring leaves - already covered with pimples
The leaves of the summer generation contain significantly more tannins and in large quantities can cause constipation. They are dangerous for indigestion. At the same time, spring leaves have a pronounced healing effect.
Gauls
Galls - “ink nuts” or “oak apples” (photo 11) - are spherical formations on leaves that are white, green or with a red side, like the apple of paradise (photos 11a and 11b).
These balls are up to three centimeters in diameter, which grow on the leaf blade due to the activity of the small “fly” oak gallworm. Oak Consort oakleaf gallworm Cynips quercusfolii (photo 12), an insect from the order Hymenoptera, the size of the well-known fruit fly Drosophila, is a good example of the symbiotic consortium relationships discussed above.
By piercing the skin of a young leaf with its ovipositor, it lays an egg in the leaf parenchyma, from which a larva soon emerges. By feeding on leaf sap and secreting special chemicals, the larva causes the cells of the leaf parenchyma to rapidly divide, as a result of which this tissue grows and a gall with porous and elastic contents is formed. In this way, the gallworm larva creates a safe refuge for itself until next summer (photo 13).
The tannin-rich galls of the oak gallworm are used medicinally and were previously used to make ink (hence the “ink nuts”).
To solve food problems, we are not interested in tannins, but the overgrown spongy parenchyma in the galls (photo 14) can be used as an additive to salads, raw or boiled. Before cooking, the galls should be soaked in water to reduce the tannin content.
14. The visible sponginess of the spongy parenchyma of the oak apple is visible on the fault. In the center of the frame is a male gall moth sleeping until spring.
When using in hot dishes with other wild vegetables (stews or vegetarian side dishes), it is advisable to lightly boil them a couple of times before draining the water. You can also add pieces or whole galls with cut skins to field soups and borscht (in this case, the edible larva will also be used). There is no taste, but it will do to fill the stomach.
We have not tried stewing and frying (like cabbage or eggplant) as an independent dish in the field, but it seems promising. During culinary processing, spongy parenchyma “absorbs” the taste and aroma of other ingredients well. Therefore, it is good to stew and fry it, for example, with mushrooms and “wild” spices - garlic, thyme, oregano, etc.
If galls are prepared at home, that is, using fats and spices, then the result will be a completely acceptable addition to vegetable side dishes.
In addition, lightly soaked galls can be used as tea by brewing them whole and infusing them. The taste is specific astringent, medicinal.
You should know that oak galls, having a lot of healing properties for many ailments, are strictly contraindicated for people with bladder diseases. You also can’t eat in large quantities - it will lead to colic and vomiting.
Other utilities for autonomous survival
Young oak bark, collected in the spring from small branches and thin stems, and Gauls are one of the most common materials with tanning properties and used in medicine - they have an astringent, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, hemostatic and reparative effect, which is important for self-medication in conditions of autonomous field stay. This property is primarily used for stomach disorders to “fix” the intestines, as well as for rinsing the mouth with inflammation of the gums and oral cavity. A decoction of oak bark also helps with mushroom poisoning.
Used as an infusion or decoction , prepared from crushed pieces. A decoction of oak bark as a lotion and bath is recommended for eye inflammation, frostbite, and burns. Compresses with oak infusion treat eczema and leg ulcers, as well as cracks in the skin.
Gauls have medicinal properties similar to oak bark. Fresh or dried and powdered galls are also used to relieve scurvy. The powder is sprinkled on purulent wounds. They have a particularly strong effect as a hemostatic agent for open wounds (powder powder) and internal bleeding (infusion, decoction, tea).
From oak bast– the inner part of the bark with bast can be woven into boxes and baskets. And also bast shoes or shoe covers. Quite long bast fibers are removed from young branches and trunks. Bast shoes made from the shingles of young oak trees used to be called “oak trees”, and from the bark of an old oak tree - “oak trees”.
Oak firewood give a hot and even flame, do not spark, but coals They turn out large and don’t cool down for a long time. Therefore, it is the best fuel for cooking kebabs and other food on a spit, grill, frying pan and baking sheet.
Dried green leaves ( oak broom) Gives a very tasty aroma when burning! Fallen dry leaves do not provide such an aromatic effect, or almost none. We strongly recommend using this property for preparing a variety of dishes - from barbecue and smoked meats to fish soup and vegetable stews. Smoke from oak brooms should be forced into cauldrons and frying pans using a lid or plank.
Oak cork– a good ornamental material, easy to cut with a knife. To avoid burning your hands on a hot lid or a hot metal mug, insert a piece of oak cork into the handle of the lid or mug. Due to its buoyancy and water resistance, cork is used to make floats. You can also use it as a pin cushion. And much more - necessity will force and teach.
Young heavy acorns can be used as cannonballs when shooting from a slingshot at small targets (at short distances). For example, when hunting wood mice or gophers. They stun them.
Other types of oaks and their features
In the genus Oak there are up to 600 deciduous and evergreen species, mainly trees, common in the temperate and tropical zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Moreover, in the temperate zone of Europe, where oak forests dominate other forests, there are not many species of oak. This genus reached its greatest species diversity in North and Central America, then in East and Southeast Asia and the Mediterranean (photo 15).
15. The habitat of the oak genus is natural forests (map from megabook.ru)
Due to their economic and decorative value, many American and other foreign oaks were introduced into Europe and brought into cultivation in the 18th-19th centuries and are still popular among landscape architects and gardeners. Therefore, in city parks and suburban forests you can find many overseas and overseas representatives of the oak tribe.
The oaks described below are the main ones forest-forming species of our natural broadleaf forests. And most often it is from them that foresters create artificial tree plantations.
Although biologists distinguish many species and phenotypic varieties of oaks (for example, there are shrub and even elfin forms that form not forests, but sparse shrub thickets on hillsides), for us this is not so significant - their consortial connections are, by and large, similar. For example, in all oak trees, the roots form mycorrhiza with fungi, in particular with edible ones - oakberry, hedgehog mushroom, etc.
Not all oak trees produce edible acorns, leaves, buds and, especially, galls. This property - edibility - is found only in the group (section) of white oaks, which includes our English oak, sessile oak, downy oak, Georgian and Mongolian. In other species (especially in the red oak section), removing bitterness by soaking or boiling requires a lot of time, or the bitterness is completely ineradicable.
Sessile oak
Sessile oak or winter – Quercus petrae(photo 16)
It is the second main forest-forming species of European forests after English oak. Distributed mainly in Western European countries from Spain and the Mediterranean to the North Caucasus and Scandinavia (the range is sporadic, broken up by “spots”; for example, it is almost never found in Belarus). This is the edifier of forests in the lower zone of the mountains - the Crimean, Carpathian, Alps and Caucasus. In the Baltic states, Poland, Right Bank Ukraine and Moldova, the range overlaps with pedunculate oak, so here both species can be found in the same forest area.
Sessile oak is genetically and morphologically very close to pedunculate oak, but has some differences in the shape of the crown, bark, leaves (the lower surface of the leaves are pubescent) and acorns.
It is more thermophilic, but not as demanding on soil richness and moisture. Sessile oak is able to survive in very dry, sun-baked areas of the southern slopes of the chalk mountains, forming a unique xerophilic ecosystem (photo 16a). In such extreme positions, its thickets serve as a place for nesting birds, hibernation of cold-blooded animals, and resting places for mountain ungulates.
Eating is the same as that of pedunculate oak. But due to the pubescence of the lower part of the leaf blade, only the youngest leaves, those that have barely blossomed, can be eaten (photo 16b).
An infusion of bark is used for poisoning - it is considered even more effective than an infusion of pedunculate oak bark.
Fluffy oak
Fluffy oak – Quercus pubescens(photo 17)
It got its name from the fact that young shoots, leaves and acorns are heavily pubescent (photos 17a, 17b and 17c).
Heat-loving resident of the Mediterranean. Within the former USSR, it is distributed in Moldova, Crimea and Transcaucasia. It grows wild in the foothills and lower mountain belt - no higher than 400 meters above sea level. In Moldova, fluffy oak forests are mainly of coppice origin - such low crooked-trunk groves, framed by bushes and alternating with clearings, are called gyrnets. This oak is also often used in silvicultural plantations and urban landscaping.
Downy oak is even more extremophile than sessile oak. It grows almost exclusively on carbonate soils (chalk, limestone, marls, etc.) - with a high calcium content (photo 17d).
On very dry soils of the southern slopes of the Crimean Mountains and Transcaucasia, it forms low-trunked woodlands - the height of the trees here does not exceed 8-10 meters (photo 17d); and on the wetter soils of the limestone plateaus, this oak sometimes reaches 20-25 meters.
Eating is the same as sessile oak.
Georgian oak
Georgian oak, or large-fruited – Quercus iberica
Forest-forming species of the North Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Talysh, northern Iran and Asia Minor. Occupies the middle mountain belt (from 400 to 1000 meters), prefers southern slopes. Moreover, on steep slopes it forms pure oak forests.
“Adult” leaves are shiny green and leathery (photo 18). Earrings are dense, slightly pubescent (photo 18a). Acorns are very large, up to 5 cm in length and “sweeter” than those of pedunculate oak.
Eating is the same as that of pedunculate oak.
Long-legged oak
Long-legged oak, or floodplain – Quercus longipes(photo 19)
The main species of mountain-valley and floodplain forests of Eastern Transcaucasia. For example, in Azerbaijan, on the river terraces of the Kura and its tributaries, long-legged oak, together with accompanying deciduous species, forms tugai forests, rising into the mountains to a kilometer height.
It is close in its characteristics and nutritional properties to sessile and pedunculate oak.
Mongolian oak
Mongolian oak – Quercus mongolica(photo 20)
Far Eastern species with a wide range. Naturally grows in the middle and southern parts of the Far East (in the Amur region, Primorsky Territory, Sakhalin), in Manchuria, Korea and mountain coniferous-deciduous forests of East Asia, where it is an edificator, as well as in the Chita region of the Russian Federation. But in Mongolia this oak tree is not found (there is an overlay with the name). Introduced into cultivation and found in experimental forest plantations throughout the European part of the former USSR.
Low-growing tree (up to 10 meters tall). It has smooth gray bark (unlike other oaks with fissured and imbricated brown-brown bark).
Like the previous species, it belongs to the white oak section, and the content of tannins in the bark is small, less than 1%. In this connection, its pre-culinary processing is easier than others.
The buds are large, up to 1 cm in length. Acorns are relatively small - 1.5-2 cm long, ripen in mid-September (photos 20a and 20b). They are “sweeter” than those of pedunculate oak.
Large anther oak
Large anther oak, or Oriental – Quercus macranthera
Alpine view of the Caucasus, Transcaucasia, Iran and Asia Minor; rises into the mountains up to 2650 meters above sea level. It grows on a wide variety of substrates - from almost bare rocks to soils rich in humus. Very drought resistant. However, this is a species rarely found in the wild. In Europe (Germany, Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, etc.) it was introduced into culture.
Young shoots are densely pubescent. The leaves are highly variable and vary from “typically oak” entire crenate to serrated lobed. But inedible or inedible acorns are practically indistinguishable from acorns of the common oak.
Belongs to the bitter oak section – Mesobalanus.
Its densely pubescent oak catkins are the largest and most “appetizing” among all other oaks (which is why it got its name “large-anthered”). Their length is 10-15 cm (photo 21). When fresh, they taste bitter and rough due to the pubescence. It is necessary to soak, boil, add salt or add vinegar.
Acorns are too bitter, they say that soaking does not help (we did not conduct experiments with these acorns). However, there are indications (S.V. Obruchev “Handbook of Traveler and Local Historian”) that acorn bread is also made from them.
Inedible oak species
Austrian oak, or Turkish (Quercus cerris). Widely distributed in Europe. The range occupies Central and South-Eastern Europe, where it overlaps with the other above-mentioned species of European lowland oaks, as well as Asia Minor. It differs from other species in appearance by the color of the branches - they are yellow-brown, and the shoots of the first year appear dull and gray-green due to pubescence. Young leaves are also pubescent, while mature leaves are shiny and leathery on top (photo 22).
Acorns are easily distinguished from other species by their shaggy-scaly cap (photo 22a).
Belongs to the section of the most bitter - red oaks. Counts inedible.
Since the 17th century, North American species such as red oak (Quercus rubra) and swamp oak (Quercus palustris) have often been used in cultivated forest plantations and urban landscaping throughout central Europe. Externally similar to each other, they are clearly distinguished from European oaks by their smooth bark (in young trees) and red autumn leaves (photo 23). Their newly opened and young leaves are also red. Foresters have reasons for their special love for these two species - for example, they are very resistant to industrial smoke and gases, and are not affected by powdery mildew. But they are inedible due to their ineradicably bitter taste.
The remaining types of local or introduced “overseas” oaks are either rarely found (relicts and endemics of the Mediterranean, Caucasus, Transcaucasia), or are used in plantations (cork oaks) or as decorative park species (evergreen exotics). Most of them belong to the bitter section and are not suitable for food.
However, the leaves of almost all oaks - both “bitter” and “sweet” species are used for salting, pickling and fermenting vegetables and mushrooms, and oak bark and branches are excellent flavoring agents for homemade cognacs and smoked meats. In addition, it is believed that an oak broom in a steam bath is even better than a birch broom in its healing and invigorating qualities.
Consorts of English oak and related species
And many other species of fungi, plants, animals, as well as oak consort trees and shrubs, forming their own symbiotic and secondary consort relationships.
Consort species that are widely known as food items (such as traditional mushrooms or game species of animals) are not considered in our reference book (only mentioned) or are discussed briefly.
Anatoly Levin
- Demanding on soil fertility. Grows best in deep, fertile, fresh loams LOAM - sandy-clayey soil containing 10-30% clay particles less than 0.005 mm in size (or 30-50% particles less than 0.01 mm) and a significant amount of sand (50-70%). A ball rolled from loam is crushed into a cake, along the edges of which cracks form. Loams are divided into light, medium and heavy. They hold water and nutrients well, accumulate heat; light and medium loams are considered the most successful soils for farming. And sandy loam LOAM (sandy loam soil) – loose sandy-clayey soil containing no more than 10% clay particles less than 0.005 mm in size and a lot of sand. Sandy loam is the least plastic of all clay soils; when you rub it between your fingers, grains of sand are felt, and it does not roll well into a cord. A ball rolled from sandy loam will crumble if you put a little pressure on it. Sandy loam soil is well aerated, heats up quickly and cools down quickly, does not hold water and nutrients well, and is easy to cultivate.. Loves moist soils, but does not tolerate excessive waterlogging.
- In nature it grows on gray forest GRAY FOREST SOILS - are formed in the forest-steppe zone under conditions of periodic leaching water regime under the canopy of broad-leaved, mixed or small-leaved forests with diverse and abundant herbaceous vegetation. The upper humus layer is gray in color, with a lumpy-grained structure, no more than 20-25 cm thick. They are usually quite fertile, but require protection from water erosion. loams, podzolic soils PODZOL SOILS are typical soils of coniferous and northern (“boreal”) forests. The name comes from the words “under” and “ash” and apparently appeared from Russian peasants who discovered a layer that resembled ash when plowing. These soils are formed in damp and cold areas, which are characterized by: depletion of plant litter in nitrogen and ash elements, leaching of nutrients from the soil, slow soil life with a predominance of fungi, long-term decomposition of organic matter with a tendency to oxidize the soil., degraded chernozems CHERNOZEM (“black earth”) is a humus-rich, dark-colored soil formed on loams or clays in subboreal and temperate continental climates with periodically leaching or non-flushing water regime under perennial herbaceous vegetation. Chernozems are distinguished by good water-air properties, a cloddy-grained structure and increased fertility., on brown soils BUROZEMS (brown forest soils) - soil formed under broad-leaved, mixed and, less often, coniferous forests in conditions of a moderately warm, humid climate with leaching water regime. Brown soils are characterized by a brown color, a lumpy structure, a high humus content, and a slightly acidic or acidic reaction. Fertile, valued in forestry and agriculture.(in the mountains), on dry rocky calcareous soils CALIMIC SOIL – soil containing at least 50% lime. Calcareous soils are loose, easy to cultivate, heat up quickly, form a crust after rain, do not retain water well, and plants often suffer from drought and lack of oxygen. They have an alkaline reaction and are moderately fertile.(in the mountains), on sandy loam, solonetzic SOLONETZES are soils containing a large amount of water-soluble sodium salts. They form in arid areas of the temperate, tropical and subtropical zones under conditions of non-flushing water regime. Unlike salt marshes, solonetzes contain salts not in the very top layer, but at some depth. Solonetzes are viscous and sticky when wet, when dry they become hard and difficult to process, they have a highly compacted subsurface horizon, an alkaline reaction, and often form a crust on the surface. SALONETSIC SOILS have similar properties, but in terms of quantitative indicators they are not classified as solonetzes.(in the steppes), alluvial ALLUVIAL (FLOODWAY) SOILS - a group of soils located in river floodplains. Their distinctive feature is periodic flooding by flood waters, accompanied by the introduction and deposition of new mineral and organic material on the soil surface. In addition, these soils are characterized by close occurrence of groundwater. Most alluvial soils contain silt, sand and gravel and are very fertile.(in floodplains of large rivers) soils.
- Can grow on medium (loamy) and heavy ( clayey CLAY SOIL – soil containing more than 30% clay particles (less than 0.005 mm in size). Clay soil is very plastic and rolls well into a cord. A ball rolled from clay is compressed into a flat cake without cracks forming at the edges. Clay soils are heavy, dense, viscous, difficult to cultivate, very rich in minerals and microelements, and poorly permeable to water and air. When it rains, water stagnates on the clay, and during drought the earth becomes hard as brick.) soils.
- Can grow on acidic, neutral and alkaline soils. Does not like acidic soils. When the soil reacts strongly, which usually occurs under the influence of spruce, the oak dies, giving way to the dominance of spruce.
- Thanks to its powerful root system, it can grow on dry, poor, rocky soils.
- Tolerates soil compaction. But excessive compaction in places with excessive recreational load or overgrazing of animals leads to a dry crown.
Woody plant with a powerful trunk. Also known as pedunculate oak, it is used for food (coffee surrogate), household (construction, tanning and feed raw materials) and medicinal purposes as an astringent, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, hemostatic and wound-healing agent.
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Flower formula
Formula of common oak flowers: male flowers - *O(4-8)T4-12, female flowers - *O(8)P(3).In medicine
A decoction of the bark of young oak trunks and branches is used in medicine for diseases of the oral cavity, pharynx and larynx (gingivitis, stomatitis, chronic tonsillitis, pharyngitis) in the form of rinses, and externally for the treatment of burns. It is also effective for diarrhea, dysentery, gastrointestinal bleeding, bad breath, heavy menstruation, bedsores, calluses.
Classification
Common oak (lat. Quercus robur L.) - belongs to the beech family (lat. Fagaceae). The genus Oak (lat. Quercus) unites 350-400 species, mainly distributed in the subtropical and tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In Europe, the most famous oak (Quercus robur L.) is one of the most frost-resistant (up to 30 degrees and below) woody plants. There are two varieties of common oak: Quercus robur var. Praecox Czern. and Q. Robur var. Tardiflora Czern., differing in their phenology.
Botanical description
Common oak is a tree reaching a height of 20–30 m and a trunk thickness of several girths, with a powerful tap root and a deep root system. The bark of young shoots is olive-brown, becoming silver-gray with age, and on old trunks it is brown-gray, deeply furrowed with cracks. The leaves are alternate, short-petiolate, pinnately lobed, obovate in outline (7-15 cm long), with ears at the base. The blade blades are unequal, entire, and usually blunt. The flowers are dioecious: pistillate - 1-3 on elongated peduncles, staminate flowers are collected in sparse pendulous earrings. The plant is monoecious: both male and female inflorescences develop on the same tree. Each flower has an involucre that grows into a plus as the fruit grows. The fruit is an acorn, brownish-yellow in color with longitudinal stripes, surrounded by a plus up to 1/3 of the length. The plus is covered with bristles or bare, shallowly cupped, with a short tip. It blooms simultaneously with the leaves blooming in April-May, starting from 40-60 years of age. Formula of common oak flowers: male flowers - *O(4-8)T4-12, female flowers - *O(8)P(3). Fruits in late September - early October. Light-loving and not very picky about soil composition. In favorable habitats it grows quite quickly and lives up to several hundred years.
Spreading
Oak is one of the longest-living trees in Russia; it can be considered the most important of the broad-leaved trees - it is the most durable and resistant to various adverse environmental factors. The distribution area of the common oak extends north of 60 degrees north latitude and reaches the Urals in the east. In the zone of broad-leaved forests and forest-steppe of the European part of Russia, it is one of the main forest-forming species, forming oak forests (oak groves). In the zone of mixed forests it grows more often along river valleys, to the south it reaches watersheds, and in the steppe zone - along ravines and ravines. It is also found in the Caucasus, Ukraine and Belarus.
Regions of distribution on the map of Russia.
Procurement of raw materials
The bark of young trunks and branches is used as a medicinal raw material in medicine. The bark is collected during the period of sap flow, which approximately coincides with bud break. The leaves and fruits are also used for medicinal purposes.
Chemical composition
Oak bark contains: tannins (10-20%), organic acids (gallic and ellagic), pectins, sugars, flabophen, pentosans, flavone compounds - quercetin. Acorns contain: starch (40%), tannins (5-8%) and protein substances, sugars, fatty oil (5%). The leaves contain quercetin, tannins and pentosans.
Pharmacological properties
The complex of biologically active substances of oak bark has an enveloping, astringent, immunostimulating, antacid, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effect. The action is mainly due to the presence of tannins (pyrogallic group), which interact with proteins, forming a protective film that protects tissues from local irritation. Tannins denature the protoplasmic proteins of pathogenic microorganisms, preventing their development.
Use in folk medicine
In folk medicine, a decoction of oak bark is used internally for diarrhea, scurvy, poisoning with mushrooms, heavy metal salts, diseases of the liver, spleen, inflammation of the kidneys, and gastritis. The decoction is used to gargle for sore throats and gums to strengthen teeth, wash festering wounds, and for hair diseases. Powder from dried galls - pathological growths on oak leaves - is used to treat eczema, lichen, and purulent wounds. Fresh crushed leaves are applied to cuts and wounds for rapid healing.
Historical background
The healing properties of oak have long been known - especially tinctures on oak leaves. In ancient times, people dedicated oak trees to their most powerful gods: the Greeks - to Apollo; Romans - Jupiter; Slavs - Perun. The oldest center of the cult of Zeus was a centuries-old oak tree in Dodona with a spring gushing from under the roots. Here the Dodon sanctuary arose, which in classical times became the richest temple with its own oracle. The oracle interpreted the rustling of oak leaves, and later predicted events by the clinking of vessels that were struck with a flexible oak branch. Neither the ancient Greeks and Romans, nor the ancient Germans and Slavs cut down oaks for fear of angering the thunder gods. Perhaps this is why the mighty representatives of the oak tribe have survived to this day. In pagan times, the Carpathian Slavs were convinced that oak trees had existed since the creation of the world. In Rus', the oak also acted as a guardian: oak trees were used to create abatis - chains of fallen trees spread over hundreds of miles. The abatis became an insurmountable obstacle to the movement of Baty's cavalry, and centuries later - German tank divisions.
Literature
1. State Pharmacopoeia of the USSR. Eleventh edition. Issue 1 (1987), issue 2 (1990).
2. State Register of Medicines. Moscow 2004.
3. Medicinal plants of the state pharmacopoeia. Pharmacognosy. (Ed. I.A. Samylina, V.A. Severtsev). - M., “AMNI”, 1999.
4. Ilyina T.A. Medicinal plants of Russia (Illustrated encyclopedia). - M., "EXMO" 2006.
5. Zamyatina N.G. Medicinal plants. Encyclopedia of Russian nature. M. 1998.
6. Mashkovsky M.D. "Medicines." In 2 volumes - M., Novaya Volna Publishing House LLC, 2000.
7. “Herbal medicine with the basics of clinical pharmacology”, ed. V.G. Kukesa. - M.: Medicine, 1999.
8. P.S. Chikov. “Medicinal plants” M.: Medicine, 2002.
9. Sokolov S.Ya., Zamotaev I.P. Handbook of medicinal plants (herbal medicine). - M.: VITA, 1993.
10. Mannfried Palov. "Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants". Ed. Ph.D. biol. Sciences I.A. Gubanova. Moscow, "Mir", 1998.
11. Turova A.D. "Medicinal plants of the USSR and their use." Moscow. "Medicine". 1974.
12. Lesiovskaya E.E., Pastushenkov L.V. "Pharmacotherapy with the basics of herbal medicine." Study guide. - M.: GEOTAR-MED, 2003.
13. Medicinal plants: Reference manual. / N.I. Grinkevich, I.A. Balandina, V.A. Ermakova and others; Ed. N.I. Grinkevich - M.: Higher School, 1991. - 398 p.
14. Plants for us. Reference manual / Ed. G.P. Yakovleva, K.F. Blinova. - Publishing house "Educational Book", 1996. - 654 p.
15. Medicinal plant raw materials. Pharmacognosy: Textbook. allowance / Ed. G.P. Yakovlev and K.F. Blinova. - St. Petersburg: SpetsLit, 2004. - 765 p.
16. Tsitsin N.V. Atlas of medicinal plants of the USSR. M. 1962.
17. Shantser I.A. Plants of central European Russia. Field atlas. M. 2007.
Currently, the range of pedunculate oak is much smaller than in its heyday. The northern border of the pedunculate oak range in Russia is currently delineated by a line that starts from the coast of the Gulf of Finland, passes through the city of Tosno (Leningrad region), goes to the source of the river. Sukhona, descends to Kostroma, then through the city of Kirov and the city of Okhansk (south of Perm) passes to the upper reaches of the river. Ufa (the foothills of the Urals), from there. Sakmara reaches the river. Ural (near Orsk), on the right bank of the river. The Urals descends to the south, then against the river. Ilek rises along the General Syrt and along the river. Irgiz reaches the river. Volga (opposite the city of Volsk), along the Volga it descends to the city of Krasnoarmeysk, then goes to the Arkhangelsk region, turns sharply west to the river. Don, reaches the mouth of the river. Northern Donets and further to Novocherkassk, then through the steppe it reaches the river. The Dnieper also flows through Ukraine into Moldova (Lositsky, 1981).
2.1.3 Sanitary condition of oak forests in the Middle Volga region.
Degradation and massive drying out of oak forests in the Northern Volga region were noted already in the middle and end of the 19th century, but they were not of such a massive and widespread nature.
The second, very severe drying out of oak forests in almost the entire forest-steppe and steppe zones of the European part of Russia - from Moscow to the Urals - occurred in 1940-1942. It was caused by repeated late spring frosts of 1938-1941. and the subsequent severe droughts of 1939-1940.
The third wave of drying out occurred in 1966-1969. During this period, most of the steppe and southern forest-steppe oak forests in Russia dried out. It was caused by severe, recurring summer droughts and lasted for five years.
The fourth, most significant, wave of drying out of oak forests in Russia began in 1979 with interruptions and attenuation in certain areas and continues almost to our time.
The subsequent invasion of gypsy moths on weakened trees and the intensive spread of powdery mildew on growing leaves led to an intense outbreak and a single death of oak trees in the plantations.
In 1991-1993 In the oak forests, pockets of green oak moths, leaf rollers, winter moths, etc. appeared, which led to another massive drying out of oak forests of all ages in 1994. Intensive destruction of oak plantations began.
A comprehensive forest pathological examination of oak plantations in the Chuvash Republic in 1997 confirmed the unfavorable sanitary condition of oak forests. The unsatisfactory condition of oak forests was revealed in 61% of the surveyed areas (). Despite the relative stabilization of the state of oak forests, their stability is significantly reduced, even among young forests.
Thus, without taking effective measures to preserve and restore oak forests, there is a real possibility of complete loss of the region’s oak forests as a natural formation.
The condition of oak forests in Chuvashia is unsatisfactory. Their current state has been largely affected by economic impacts in the past. The cutting down of the best trees, which does not always ensure their regeneration, has led to the impoverishment of the oak genetic fund. The condition of the oak forests was constantly deteriorating due to periodically recurring climatic stresses: severe frosts (1941/42 and 1978/79), droughts (1971, 1972, etc.), periodic invasions of leaf-eating insects (1990....1992 ., etc.), epiphytoties of diseases, etc. All this ultimately led to significant degradation of oak forests. According to the Bryansk Forest Pathological Party of the Western State Forestry Enterprise, the share of degraded oak forests in Chuvashia is 78% or 154.6 thousand hectares. Only from 1974 to 1983. they died on an area of 5.3 thousand hectares, and from 1984 to 1994. - on an area of 17.8 thousand hectares. If in 1973 the share of tall tree stands was 41% (completeness 0.8...1.0), medium density - 48% (0.6-0.7) and low density -11% (0.3... 0.5), then already in 1983 the share of high-density tree stands decreased to 22%, with a simultaneous decrease in the share of medium-density and low-density forest stands, respectively, to 32.4 and 45.0%.
In general, in accordance with Article 58 of the “Law on the Protection of the Natural Environment” and the “Criteria for assessing the ecological situation of territories to identify zones of environmental emergency and zones of environmental disaster” adopted by the Russian Ministry of Natural Resources on November 30, 1992, the state of the oak forests of Chuvashia is assessed as an environmental emergency situation" (Report..., 1998).
Simultaneously with reforestation work, a study was carried out of the sanitary condition of the oak forests of the republic. In 1932, the work of A.T. was published. Vakina (1932), later on the same issue D.G. Guryev (1970) and others. Large-scale studies of the state of oak forests were carried out by the Voronezh forest pathological expedition in 1971, 1974 and 1975; in the last two years, work was carried out under the leadership of Professor P.A. Polozhentseva. They noted that a massive deterioration in oak growth in Chuvashia occurred in 1969...1971. due to significant damage by leaf-eating insects: by 1974, 91.7% were healthy, 8% were sick and only 0.3% were dying and dead. The condition of oak forests had deteriorated sharply by 1998: the proportion of weakened stands in upland oak forests was 18%, severely weakened - 44, drying out - 29, dead - 9, degraded oak forests in the experimental forestry enterprise was 39%. The main reasons for the degradation of the Chuvash oak forests are both abiotic factors (associated with severe winters, damaging not only oak trees, but also Norway maple, common ash, common hazel; late spring and early autumn frosts, often damaging the assimilation apparatus of the oak), and biotic (massive spread of leaf-eating insects and fungal diseases), etc. The sharp deterioration in the condition of oak forests over the past quarter century was caused by a complex of the factors listed above (Petrov, 2004).
The continuing drying out of oak forests indicates that foresters in Chuvashia are unable to prevent their death. Their task is to create new, more sustainable plantings in place of dead ones, taking into account many years of accumulated experience in growing oak.
COMMON OAK (PEDUNCULATA OAK) - QUERCUS ROBUR L. (QUERCUS PEDUNCULATA EHRH.). FAMILY FAGACEAE
Description.
Deciduous tree up to 40 m high with a trunk 1-1.5 m in diameter and a powerful spreading tent-shaped crown. The bark of young shoots is smooth, olive-brown, later silver-gray (“mirror-like”), in old trees (from the age of about 30 years) it is deeply fissured, brown-gray, up to 10 cm thick. The buds are broadly oval or hemispherical, light-colored. brown, with cilia along the edges of the scales.
Leaves are close together at the ends of the shoots, 7-15 cm long, 3-7 cm wide (on shoots up to 30 cm long, up to 10 cm wide), alternate, short-petiolate, glabrous, shiny green, paler colored below, elongated obovate, with clearly defined ears at the base; blades unequal, entire, obtuse, 4-6 (8) on each side of the leaf. Petioles are 5-10 mm long.
Flowers are dioecious; pistillate - 1-3, sessile, on an elongated peduncle; ovary inferior, trilocular; staminate flowers in sparse pendulous catkins. The fruit is an ovoid acorn, 1.5-3.5 cm long, brownish-yellow with longitudinal greenish stripes and a spine at the apex, 1/3 of the length surrounded by a shallow cup-shaped plus, with wide-oval grey-pubescent, short-pointed scales. 1000 acorns weigh 3-4 kg. Flowering begins from 40-60 years of age and occurs simultaneously with the blossoming of leaves. The oak tree lives up to 400-500 years, sometimes up to 1000-1500 years, reaching 4 m in diameter (6).
Blooms in late April - early May; The fruits ripen in September - early October.
There are two ecological races - summer and winter oak. The leaves of the first bloom in April and fall off in the winter; the leaves of the second bloom 2-4 weeks later (in May) and, before they have time to fall, remain in a dried-out state for the winter.
In medicine, the smooth young bark of branches and young trunks is used.
Area. The common oak has a continuous European range. In the USSR it grows in the middle and, partly, southern zone of the European part of the country, in the Crimea and the Caucasus.
The northern border of the distribution of oak from the Karelian Isthmus and the southern shore of Lake Ladoga goes to Vologda, Kirov, passes somewhat north of Izhevsk and Krasnoufimsk, and from here goes south - to the river. the Urals, leaving Zlatoust, Beloretsk and the upper reaches of the river in the east. Samara. It goes west along the Ural valley and descends to almost 50° 15" N latitude.
The southern border of the oak range from the mouth of the river. The Irtek passes through the river basin. Samara, and then along the left bank of the Volga descends south to 48° N. w. and from here it goes west through Rostov-on-Don - Zhdanov almost to the mouth of the Dnieper, then along the river. The Ingulets rises north to 47° 30 "N latitude and, skirting the dry steppes, heads to the mouths of the Dniester and Prut. The southern border of the oak range is strongly dissected, sometimes island-like. The border of its continuous distribution coincides with the northern border of the forest-steppe, but along the floodplains of rivers oak penetrates much further south.
The eastern limit of oak distribution is the Urals.
The largest isolated areas of the common oak range are known in the Caucasus (Pre-Caucasus, Dagestan) and in the mountainous Crimea.
Ecology.
Common oak is one of the main forest-forming species in the strip of broad-leaved and coniferous-deciduous forests of the European part of the USSR. It forms forests with an admixture of other broad-leaved species: linden, elm, maple and ash. These forests are most widespread in the southern part of the forest zone and in the northern part of the forest-steppe subzone. In the northern and eastern parts of its range, the common oak is also found in coniferous forests. Oak rarely forms pure stands, usually only in river floodplains. It grows best on moderately moist gray forest loams, degraded chernozems, brown soils (in the mountains) and on alluvial soils (in the floodplains of large rivers). It grows on a variety of soils in the mountains, on the chalk slopes of river valleys, in the steppe zone - in ravine forests on saline soils, on steep slopes of ravines and their bottoms.
In the northern part of the range, oak grows along river valleys; in its middle part it forms mixed forests with spruce on the watersheds, and to the south - a strip of broad-leaved forests in which it predominates. At the southern limit of its distribution it forms small forests along ravines, ravines and in river floodplains.
In the mountains of Crimea and the Caucasus it grows on rocky, sometimes quite dry, lime-rich soils; It is also found on chalk slopes, and in the northern regions of the Caucasus - even on saline soils.
Oak is a heat-loving species. It is relatively photophilous, picky about soil conditions, has little demand for moisture, but does not tolerate excessively moist soils; sometimes grows on alluvial soils, in places briefly flooded by spring waters.
Oak is regenerating well. In the first years it grows relatively slowly, by 10 years it reaches a height of 0.5-1 m, and with lateral shading and lighting from above, by this time it grows to 2-4 m. Oak growth in height continues up to 150 - 200 years.
Resources.
The largest harvests of oak bark are carried out in Bashkiria; Oak raw materials are also harvested in large quantities in the Zhitomir, Khmelnitsky, Chernigov, Chernivtsi regions and Krasnodar Territory. 1-10 tons of oak bark are collected annually in the Ivano-Frankivsk, Kyiv, Lvov, Brest, Gomel, Minsk, Mogilev and Rivne regions, as well as in the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
Procurement of raw materials near the northern, southern and eastern borders of oak distribution is inappropriate, since in these areas it is subject to especially careful protection.
Oak bark is collected during the sap flow period, from April to June. To remove smooth (“mirror”) bark on thin trunks and young branches, make deep circular cuts with a knife at a distance of about 30 cm from each other and then connect them with one or two deep longitudinal cuts. Dry the bark under sheds or in well-ventilated attics, spreading it in a thin layer on paper or cloth and stirring daily. In good weather, raw materials can be dried in the sun. Dry bark must contain at least 8% tannins and no more than 15% moisture; when bent, it breaks with a crash (3).
In many areas, and especially in the steppe zone, common oak usually grows together with other forest crops. It is included in many state forest belts and protective plantings.
Chemical composition.
Common oak bark contains: 10-20% tannins, 1.6% gallic and ellagic acid, 13-14% pentosans, 6% pectins, the flavone compound quercetin, as well as quercite, levulin, starch, mucus, phlobafen, etc. Acorns contain up to 40% starch, 5-8% tannins, up to 5% fatty oil, sugar and protein substances. Found in the leaves: quercitrin, quercetin, tannins and pentosans (1). As the age of the tree increases, the content of tannins in its bark decreases (2).
Usage.
In medicine, an aqueous decoction of oak bark (1:10) is used as an astringent and anti-inflammatory rinse for gingivitis, stomatitis and other inflammatory processes in the oral cavity, pharynx, pharynx and larynx. Sometimes a 20% decoction in the form of compresses and washes is used externally to treat burns (1, 5). Oak bark is included in some medicinal infusions (teas). It is used in significant quantities in veterinary medicine. The old bark is used as tanning raw material (2). Oak wood is used in carpentry, furniture, parquet, plywood, cooperage and other industries.
Other types.
Sessile oak - Quercus petraea Liebl. (Q. sessiliflora Salisb.). It has 1-5 pistillate flowers and fruits (usually 2-3), sessile or on very short stalks; leaves are deeply irregularly lobed, with curved or non-parallel lateral veins; 1-2 intermediate veins, mainly in the lower part of the plate. It grows in the North Caucasus (reaching in the south to Tuapse), in the Crimea and in some regions of Ukraine. It is found mainly on mountain slopes, less often on plains (4).
Sessile oak bark is allowed for medical use, being an additional source of oak bark.
Literature
1. Atlas of medicinal plants of the USSR. M., Med publishing house. lit., 1962.
2. Zemlinsky S.E. Medicinal plants of the USSR. Ed. 3rd. M., Med publishing house. lit., 1958.
3. Instructions for collecting and drying oak bark. - In the collection: Instructional materials. Vol.
4. M., Ed. All opportunistic-inform. Bureau of the USSR Ministry of Health, 1971. 4. Maleev V.P. Oak - Quercus L. - In the book: Flora of the USSR. T. 5. M.-L., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1936.
5. Mashkovsky M. D. Medicines. A manual for doctors. Ed. 7th. M., “Medicine”, 1972.
6. Sokolov S. Ya. Quercus robur L. - English oak - In the book: Trees and shrubs of the USSR. T 2. M.-L., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1952.