Minerals are mined. Methods for extracting minerals from our natural environment
Diamonds, the hardest natural material, are mined in Russia
Minerals are Russia's main wealth. The well-being of the people and the solution to many economic issues depend on this area. Natural resources provide both the country’s internal needs for raw materials and the ability to supply them to other countries.
Russia has the most powerful potential of mineral resources in the world, which allows it to occupy a leading place on the planet in terms of explored reserves of the most important minerals. Reserves of natural resources are distributed very unevenly throughout the country. Most of them are concentrated in Siberia, the main storehouse of the country.
Russia is a leading country in terms of reserves of coal, iron ore, potassium salts and phosphates. In addition, it is common knowledge that our country has many oil fields. Oil and natural gas are the basis of the country's fuel and energy balance. Oil and gas fields are concentrated in 37 constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The largest oil reserves are concentrated in the central part of Western Siberia.
Russia is also the world leader in iron ore mining. The world's largest iron ore deposits are located in the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA) region. Just three KMA iron ore mines provide almost half of the total volume of ore mined in Russia. There are smaller iron ore deposits on the Kola Peninsula, Karelia, the Urals, the Angara region, South Yakutia and other areas.
Russia has reserves of various non-ferrous and rare metals. In the north of the Russian Plain and in the mountains of southern Siberia there are deposits of titanomagnetite ores and bauxite. Copper ores are concentrated in the Northern Caucasus, the Middle and Southern Urals, and Eastern Siberia. Copper-nickel ores are mined in the Norilsk ore basin.
Gold is mined in the depths of Yakutia, Kolyma, Chukotka, and the mountains of Southern Siberia. Our country is also rich in sulfur, mica, asbestos, graphite, and various precious, semi-precious and ornamental stones. Table salt is mined in the Caspian region, the Urals, the Altai Territory and the Baikal region. Diamonds are also mined in Russia - the hardest natural material.
Did you know that diamonds and coal have the same chemical formula and are the same in chemical composition? In addition, they vary from colorless to dark gray. In Russia, diamonds were first discovered in the Middle Urals, then in Yakutia and later in the Arkhangelsk region. The Urals are famous for their precious and semi-precious stones. Emeralds, malachites, jasper, aquamarines, rock crystal, alexandrite, topazes and amethysts are found here.
Russia supplies the world market with 30-40% of produced gas, more than 2/3 of oil, 90% of copper and tin, 65% of zinc, and almost all the raw materials for the production of phosphate and potash fertilizers.
Minerals of Russia
Russia is one of the largest powers in the world in terms of total natural resource potential. It is especially rich in minerals. Among the countries of the world, Russia is the leader in reserves of fuel and energy resources.
The mineral resources complex of the Russian Federation provides about 33% of GDP and 60% of federal budget revenues.
Russia receives more than half of its foreign exchange earnings through the export of primary mineral raw materials, primarily oil and natural gas. The Russian Federation contains a significant portion of the world's proven reserves of the most important types of minerals (diamonds, nickel, natural gas, palladium, oil, coal, gold and silver). The population of Russia is only 2.6% of the total population of the Earth, but our country provides more than half of the world's production of palladium, a quarter of nickel, natural gas and diamonds, over 10% of oil and platinum.
Mining and processing of mineral resources forms the basis of the economy of all the most prosperous constituent entities of the Russian Federation. In many peripheral regions of Russia, mining enterprises are city-forming enterprises and, including service organizations, provide up to 75% of jobs. Oil, natural gas, coal, ferrous, non-ferrous and precious metals, diamonds provide a stable socio-economic situation in the regions of the north of the European part of Russia, the Urals, Western Siberia, Kuzbass, the Norilsk mining hub, Eastern Siberia and the Far East.
The distribution of mineral resources throughout the country is associated with the characteristics and differences in tectonic processes and the conditions for the formation of minerals in previous geological eras.
Ore minerals are confined to the mountains and ancient shields. In foothill troughs and on platform troughs, and sometimes in intermountain depressions, there are deposits of sedimentary rocks - oil and gas. The position of coal deposits is approximately the same, but coal and oil rarely occur together. Our country ranks one of the first in the world in terms of reserves of many minerals (and first in terms of natural gas reserves).
The cover of the ancient platform on the East European Plain contains various minerals of sedimentary origin.
Limestone, glass and construction sands, chalk, gypsum and other mineral resources are mined in the Central Russian and Volga Uplands. Coal and oil are mined in the Pechora River basin (Komi Republic). There are brown coals in the Moscow region (west and south of Moscow) and other minerals (including phosphorites).
Iron ore deposits are confined to the crystalline foundation of ancient platforms.
Their reserves are especially large in the area of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, where high-quality ore is mined in quarries (Mikhailovo deposit, Belgorod group of deposits). A variety of ores are confined to the Baltic Shield on the Kola Peninsula (in the Khibiny Mountains). These are deposits of iron ore (in the Murmansk region - Olenegorskoye and Kovdorskoye, and in Karelia - Kostomuksha), copper-nickel ores (in the Murmansk region - Monchegorskoye). There are also deposits of non-metallic minerals - apatite-nepheline ores (Khibinskoe near Kirovsk).
The Urals still remains one of the important iron ore regions of Russia, although its reserves have already been severely depleted (Kachkanarskaya, Vysokogorskaya, Goroblagodatskaya groups of deposits in the Middle Urals, as well as Magnitogorsk, Khalilovskoye, Novo-Bakalskoye in the Southern Urals, etc.).
Siberia and the Far East are rich in iron ores (Abakanskoye, Nizhneangarskoye, Rudnogorskoye, Korshunovskoye deposits, as well as deposits in the Neryungri region in the south of Yakutia, in the Zeya River basin in the Far East, etc.).
Copper ore deposits are concentrated mainly in the Urals (Krasnoturinskoye, Krasnouralskoye, Sibaevskoye, Blavinskoye, etc.) and, as noted earlier, on the Kola Peninsula (copper-nickel ores), as well as in the mountains of southern Siberia (Udokan), etc.
In the area of development of deposits of copper-nickel ores, as well as cobalt, platinum and other metals in the north of Eastern Siberia, a large city of the Arctic grew - Norilsk.
Recently (after the collapse of the USSR), in different regions of Russia it is necessary to begin the development of deposits of manganese, titanium-zirconium and chromium ores, the concentrates of which were previously completely imported from Georgia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan.
Siberia and the Far East are regions of the Russian Federation exceptionally rich in ore and non-metallic minerals.
The granite intrusions of the Aldan Shield are associated with reserves of gold (placer deposits in the basins of the Vitim, Aldan, Yenisei, and Kolyma rivers) and iron ores, mica, asbestos and a number of rare metals.
Industrial diamond mining has been organized in Yakutia. Tin ores are present in the Yana Highlands (Verkhoyansk), in the region of Pevek, Omsukchan (on the Kolyma Highlands), and in the Far East (Dalnegorsk).
Polymetallic ores (Dalnegorskoe, Nerchinsk deposits, etc.), copper-lead-zinc ores (in Rudny Altai), etc. are widely represented. Deposits of non-ferrous metals are also represented in the Caucasus Mountains - the Sadonskoye lead-pink deposit (Republic of North Ossetia) and the tungsten-molybdenum deposit in Tyrnyauz (Republic of Kabardino-Balkaria). Among the deposits and areas of distribution of raw materials for the chemical industry (nonmetallic) it should be noted: Kingiseppskoye in the Leningrad region and Vyatsko-Kamaskoye in the Kirov region (phosphorites), in lakes Elton, Baskunchak and Kulundinskoye, as well as in Usolye-Sibirskoye (table salt), Verkhnekamskoye deposit - Solikamsk, Berezniki (potassium salt) and many others.
In the south of Western Siberia there are large reserves of coal.
The vast Kuznetsk coal basin is located in the spurs of the Kuznetsk Alatau. It is this pool that is currently the most used in Russia.
Russia also owns the southeastern part of the Donetsk coal basin (most of which is located on the territory of Ukraine) and coal is mined there (Rostov region).
In the northeast of the European part of the country there is the Pechora coal basin (Vorkuta, Inta - Komi Republic). There are huge reserves of coal on the Central Siberian Plateau (Tunguska Basin) and in Yakutia (Lena Basin), but these deposits are practically not used due to difficult natural and climatic conditions and poor development of the territory.
These are promising deposits. Many coal deposits are being developed in Siberia and the Far East (South Yakutskoye - in Yakutia, Uglegorskoye - on Sakhalin, Partizanskoye - near Vladivostok, Urgalskoye - on the Bureya River, Cheremkhovskoye - near Irkutsk, etc.). Coal deposits in the Urals (Kizelovskoye) have not yet lost their importance, although brown coal is still represented here to a greater extent (deposits - Karpinskoye, Kopeiskoye, etc.). The largest, most famous and currently developed brown coal deposit is the Kansko-Achinskoye deposit in the Krasnoyarsk Territory.
Since the last century, oil has been extracted in the North Caucasus (Grozny and Maikop oil and gas regions - the Republics of Chechnya and Adygea).
These fields are closely connected with the oil-bearing basins of the northern part of the Caspian region in Kazakhstan, as well as on the Absheron Peninsula in Azerbaijan.
In the 1940s, oil and gas fields of the Volga region and the Urals began to be developed (Romashkinskoye, Arlanskoye, Tuymazinskoye, Buguruslanskoye, Ishimbayskoye, Mukhanovskoye, etc.), and then the fields of the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province in the northeast of European Russia (oil fields - Usinskoye , Pashninskoye, gas condensate – Voyvozhskoye, Vuktylskoye).
And only in the 60s, the fields of the West Siberian Basin, which is now the largest oil and gas production region in Russia, began to be rapidly developed.
In the north of Western Siberia (Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug) the largest gas fields of Russia (Yamburgskoye, Urengoyskoye, Medvezhye, Balakhninskoye, Kharasaveyskoye, etc.) are concentrated, and in the middle part of the West Siberian region (Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug) - oil fields (Samotlorskoye , Megionskoye, Ust-Balykskoye, Surgutskoye and other fields). From here, oil and gas are supplied through pipelines to other regions of Russia, neighboring countries, as well as to European countries.
There is also oil in Yakutia, and it is being extracted on Sakhalin Island. It should be noted the discovery of the first industrial accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Khabarovsk Territory (Adnikanovo field). For the Far East, with its chronic shortage of energy resources, this event is very important.
The volume of proven mineral reserves in Russia is estimated at $10 trillion, and undiscovered resources - at least $200 trillion.
According to this indicator, Russia is approximately 4 times ahead of the United States.
Until now, it was generally accepted that all or almost all of Russia’s mineral resources are located in the Urals, the Far East and Siberia, and the European part of the country, especially its Northwestern region, is a poor region in this regard. But the North-West region is also a unique territory in terms of mineral resources.
In recent years, new fields have been discovered in the Russian Federation: natural gas on the shelf of the Barents Sea (Shtokman), gas condensate fields on the shelf of the Kara Sea (Leningradskoye), oil fields on the shelf of the Pechora Bay.
The first diamond deposits associated with kimberlite pipes were found first near St. Petersburg and only 10–15 years later in the Arkhangelsk region (the famous Lomonosov pipes).
In addition, in the North-West there are large reserves of non-metallic minerals (especially in Karelia and in the north of the Leningrad region). Large reserves of uranium ores have been found in the Kursk-Ladoga crater.
In the field of mining, the following problems can be identified.
The country's mineral resource base has a relatively low investment attractiveness due to the unfavorable geographical and economic location of many mineral deposits and the relatively low quality of mineral raw materials, their low competitiveness in modern economic conditions.
Therefore, it is necessary to implement an effective policy aimed at the rational use of the mineral resource base. For these purposes, the “Energy Strategy of Russia for the period until 2020” was developed, which reflects the state policy on the main issues of development of the fuel and energy complex, its raw materials (primarily oil and gas) component.
In the Russian Federation, the problem of replenishing reserves at mining enterprises in the main mining regions of the country has sharply worsened.
According to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, for the period from 1994 to 1999, the replenishment of reserves extracted from the subsoil with their increases amounted to 73% for oil, 47% for gas, 33% for copper, 57% for zinc, and 41% for lead.
Over 70% of oil companies' reserves are on the verge of profitability.
If ten years ago the share of oil reserves with a well flow rate of 25 tons/day involved in the development was 55%, now this share is made up of reserves with a well flow rate of up to 10 tons/day, and the oil reserves of highly productive fields, providing about 60% of production, have been depleted by more than than 50%.
The share of reserves with depletion over 80% exceeds 25%, and the share with a water cut of 70% makes up over a third of developed reserves. Hard-to-recover reserves continue to grow, the share of which has already reached 55-60% of those being developed.
The development of coal raw materials is carried out at a pace that does not correspond to their potential.
The development of coal production and growth in coal consumption must occur in a rational combination with the production and consumption of other energy resources, taking into account the reserves of each of them, their distribution throughout the country, the cost of production and transportation to the consumer, etc.
Large mining and processing plants (GOK), which form the basis of the Russian iron ore industry - Lebedinsky, Mikhailovsky, Stoilensky, Kachkanarsky, Kostomushsky, Kovdorsky - are provided with reserves for 25-35 years or more.
The underground mines of Siberia and the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly are sufficiently supplied with reserves.
Minerals in Russia
At the same time, a number of iron ore enterprises have unfavorable raw material bases. Thus, at the Olenegorsk mining and processing plant, the main quarry - Olenegorsky - is provided with reserves for only 15 years, Kirovogorsky - for 20 years.
In 12-13 years, the rich ores in the quarries of the Mikhailovsky and Stoilensky mining and processing plants will be completely mined.
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia was left with virtually no industrial deposits of manganese ores.
Their explored reserves amount to 146 million tons; production on an industrial scale is not carried out. The largest known deposit, Usinskoye in the Kemerovo region, with reserves of 98.5 million tons of poor, difficult-to-process carbonate ores, is classified as a reserve deposit; the remaining deposits are not planned for development. The predominant type of ore is difficult-to-process carbonate, which accounts for about 91% of balance reserves, the rest is easy-to-process oxide and oxidized ores.
Our country still ranks first in the world in terms of explored reserves and production of nickel.
In the early 90s, Russia accounted for 95% of proven reserves and 91% of nickel production in the CIS countries. Since the main type of nickel deposits is sulfide copper-nickel, many of the problems of development of the mineral resource base and nickel production indicated above for copper are also true for nickel, especially in the Norilsk region.
In order to expand the mineral resource base of nickel, it is necessary to strengthen geological exploration in the areas of existing enterprises, as well as searches for deposits in promising areas of Karelia, Arkhangelsk, Voronezh, Irkutsk and Chita regions, as well as Buryatia.
As scientists predict, in the coming years the situation with our own production of lead and zinc will worsen even more.
In addition to the retirement of zinc mining capacity at the Ural copper-zinc deposits, reserves at developed lead-zinc deposits in other areas will decrease by 2010.
by 80-85%. An analysis of the state of the raw material bases of mining enterprises shows that by 2005, 11 mines in the regions of the North Caucasus, Western and Eastern Siberia were withdrawn from the number of operating mines. It remains relevant to carry out geological exploration work in the areas of existing enterprises for additional exploration of flanks and deep horizons at the exploited deposits of the Nerchinsky, Sadonsky, Altai Mining and Processing Plant, PA Dalpolimetal, as well as to identify new deposits of rich lead-zinc ores in these and other promising areas - Buryatia, Primorye , Krasnoyarsk Territory, Altai.
The demand for tin exceeds its production by almost a third, and the difference was previously covered by imports.
The current situation in the tin mining industry seems quite difficult. A number of enterprises are poorly supplied with proven reserves. These include enterprises developing reserves of tin primary and alluvial deposits in the Magadan region and the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, where a number of mining—enrichmentfactories.
The situation on the global tin market will become increasingly unfavorable for consumers in the future. The price of refined tin on the London Metal Exchange is constantly increasing. The further deterioration of the situation on the world market is explained by the fact that the countries that are the main consumers of tin (USA, Western European countries, Japan) do not have their own raw material resources, and its needs are forecast to increase.
It is estimated that tungsten mines have reserves for an average of 34 years, but for individual mines the duration of production ranges from 8 to 40 years.
At the same time, large reserves of low-grade ores in the Tyrnyauz and Inkur deposits account for 76% of all reserves of developed deposits. The supply of reserves for five mines with rich deposits and one with average quality ores is 8-14 years.
This means that in 10-15 years, reserves will be exhausted at half of the tungsten mining enterprises, and the remaining mines will develop mainly low-grade ores.
Russia, unfortunately, lags significantly behind advanced industrialized countries in terms of consumption of tantalum, niobium, strontium and other rare and rare earth metals.
In particular, in terms of consumption of niobium and rare earths, our country lags behind the United States by 4 and 6 times, respectively. Meanwhile, Russia has a fairly large raw material base of rare and rare earth metals, but it is poorly developed. In recent years, rare earth and tantalum production has practically ceased, and niobium production has been reduced by 70% compared to 1990. At the same time, of those produced by Lovozersky plant(Murmansk region) of tantalum and niobium concentrates, more than half of the metallic niobium and all the tantalum were produced at factories in Estonia and Kazakhstan.
The crisis state of the Russian economy is manifested in the ongoing decline in production and domestic consumption of almost all strategic types of raw materials and primary products from them.
Oil and coal production, steel production, production of aluminum, nickel, lead, zinc, other non-ferrous and precious metals, diamonds, phosphate and potash fertilizers decreased in the 90s to a critical level (by 30-60%), and rare and rare earth minerals by 90-100%. The situation is also aggravated by the extremely insufficient, and for most types of raw materials, the complete absence of new mining capacities and the catastrophic curtailment of geological exploration work.
Russia lags behind other developed countries in terms of consumption of mineral resources per capita.
Thus, in per capita consumption of the most important minerals - copper, lead, zinc, tin - Russia ranks 9-11th in the world, in molybdenum, nickel, aluminum, zirconium and tantalum - 4-6th place, in phosphate concentrate and fluorspar, respectively, are 7th and 6th in the world.
But it is precisely these indicators that characterize the level of economic development of the country, and, as a final result, the national independence and authority of the state in the international arena.
When developing a strategy for the development of the mineral resource base, the time factor should be taken into account as a determining factor.
The experience of developing Russian territories shows that preparing a resource base in volumes that are profitable for industrial development requires 10-15 years, subject to the concentration of significant funds. The modern resource base, even in developed areas, is characterized by a complex structure, and under the current tax system, at least 50% of prepared reserves turn out to be unprofitable for industrial development.
It’s sad, but we have to admit that the state has withdrawn itself from both the development of the mineral resource base and the management of the fuel and energy complex, which leads to the development of negative processes throughout the economy.
Thus, the problem of the development of the fuel and energy complex and its mineral resource base is one of the most important for the Russian economy, on the solution of which both the country’s development prospects and its national security depend.
ORE DEPOSITS
Rocks surrounding a deposit or included in it, containing no metal (useful mineral) at all or containing it, but in an amount insufficient for industrial processing, are called waste rock.
The boundary between ore and non-metallic minerals is arbitrary.
Many minerals that were previously used immediately after extraction are now undergoing complex processing to extract all their useful components. Sometimes a mineral, such as limestone, is not processed; sometimes it is used as a chemical raw material. Therefore, now the term “ore” is losing its original meaning. It is also applied to many non-metallic minerals. In this sense, we will continue to use the concept of “ore”.
The choice of development system and technology from the characteristics characterizing a deposit is most influenced by its shape (morphology), size and occurrence conditions.
Based on their shape, ore bodies can be divided into three groups:
isometric, i.e.
i.e. equally developed in all three directions in space;
columnar, i.e. elongated in one direction;
vein type - elongated in two directions.
The first type of isometric ore bodies includes rods and nests. Often they have an irregular shape, but all three dimensions in space are more or less equal. Rods differ from nests in their large sizes, measured in tens and hundreds of meters.
A typical nest-shaped deposit is the Khaidarkan mercury deposit (Central Asia).
Many primary diamond deposits have a columnar shape. In South Africa, diamond tubes extend several kilometers deep with transverse dimensions measuring hundreds of meters.
In the Krivoy Rog basin, ore bodies with a length exceeding the thickness by more than six times are classified as columnar.
Lentils and lenses are transitional forms from the first to the third group.
A typical representative of this type of ore bodies are the Ural copper-pyrite deposits. The lens-shaped Rio Tinto copper pyrite deposit (Spain) consists of lenses with a length of 300 to 1700 m and a thickness of up to 100 - 250 m.
Ore bodies of the third group - sheet and vein - are limited by more or less parallel planes (surfaces) and have a thickness that varies within relatively small limits.
The veins are often irregular in shape and have variable thickness.
Ore deposits of the same group, which differ from the layers in a less consistent shape and thickness, are called sheet-like.
There are also more complex forms of ore bodies - saddle-shaped, dome-shaped, etc.
In most cases, a deposit is represented not by one, but by several ore bodies.
These co-occurring ore bodies are separated from one another by waste rock; sometimes they intersect, join together and separate again. In this case, one ore body is the main one, and the rest are its branches.
Deposits are often disturbed by faults and shifts; they are bent, crushed, or fragmented, as a result of which their development becomes more complicated.
The more irregular the deposit is in shape, the more tectonic disturbances it has, the more difficult its development, the greater the loss of ore it occurs.
In addition to the shape of the deposit, an important feature is the nature of its contact with the host rocks.
In some cases, the contact is sharply expressed, and the ore body is clearly separated from the host rocks. In other cases, the transition from ore to gangue occurs gradually, and the boundaries of commercial mineralization can only be determined by sampling.
Development of deposits with distinct contacts is usually easier. Sometimes the presence of mineralization in the host rocks, on the contrary, has a beneficial effect on development, since the ore during mining is clogged not with empty rocks, but with ore-bearing rocks.
Depending on the nature of the distribution of ore minerals, they are distinguished: solid ores, consisting of ore minerals mixed with a certain amount of rock, and usually having sharp boundaries with the host rocks; disseminated ores are relatively rare inclusions of ore minerals in an ore rock, usually having distinct boundaries with the host rock.
In many deposits both types of ores occur; Usually in the middle part of the ore body the ores are continuous, and at the periphery they are disseminated. In the Leninogorsk lead-zinc mines, continuous sulfide ores, as they approach the contact of the recumbent side, gradually become poorer and turn into hornfels disseminated ores. At the Degtyar copper deposit, solid copper-pyrite ore ores in places transform into disseminated lead ores.
Some deposits of Krivbass in their central part or on one side are represented by continuous rich ores, which are gradually replaced in the direction of the lying side by disseminated ores and then by weakly ferruginous side rocks.
One of the main factors determining the choice of system is the angle of incidence.
Based on the angle of incidence, deposits are divided into horizontal and gently dipping with an angle of incidence from 0 to 25°; inclined with an incidence angle from 25 to 45° and steeply inclined with an incidence angle of more than 45°. This division is associated with a significant change in development conditions and the use of different methods of mining and ore delivery at different angles of incidence.
The thickness of an ore body is measured as the distance between the hanging and footwalls of the deposit.
If this distance is measured along the normal, then the power is called true, but if it is measured vertically or horizontally, then the power is called vertical and horizontal, respectively. Vertical thickness is used for gently dipping ore bodies, horizontal thickness for steeply dipping ones.
In a stock-shaped deposit, the thickness is considered to be the smaller of its horizontal dimensions.
The larger horizontal dimension is called the rod length. Sometimes the power of a rod is considered to be its vertical dimension, and the horizontal power is called its width. The latter is appropriate when the rod (array) has significant dimensions horizontally and relatively small dimensions vertically.
The thickness of ore bodies can change along strike and with depth gradually or abruptly, naturally or randomly.
Inconstancy of thickness is typical for ore deposits. Sudden changes in power make development difficult.
For deposits with variable thickness of ore bodies, the extreme limits of its fluctuations are indicated, as well as the average thickness for individual sections of the deposit.
Based on their thickness, ore bodies can be divided into five groups.
Very thin, less than 0.6 m thick, during the development of which the mining excavation is accompanied by the blasting of the host rocks.
Safety rules allow a minimum width of the treatment space of 0.6 m, and a height (if the ore bodies are gently sloping) of 0.8 m.
Thin - with a thickness of 0.6 to 2 m, during the development of which the production excavation can be carried out without blasting the host rocks, but carrying out horizontal development workings in most cases requires their blasting.
Average thickness - from 2 to 5 m. The upper limit of thickness corresponds to the maximum length of the simplest type of support during a mining excavation - spacers, racks.
The development of medium-thickness deposits can be carried out without blasting the host rocks, both during production excavation and during development workings.
Thick - from 5 to 20 m, the excavation in which, with a steep drop, can be carried out along the strike to the full thickness.
Very thick - more than 20 - 25 m. Mining in these ore bodies is usually carried out across the strike.
The depth of the deposit also largely determines the choice of development method.
Depth is indicated from the surface vertically to the upper and lower boundaries of the deposit. The distance between the lower and upper boundaries of the deposit vertically or along the slope of the formation determines the depth of its distribution.
Deposits with a depth of more than 800 m are considered deep. At this depth, peculiar manifestations of rock pressure begin, expressed in the shooting of rocks and rock bursts.
The ore area of a deposit is the area of its horizontal section.
The depth of occurrence and distribution of the deposit, the ore area, the length along the strike, as well as the angle of incidence, may be different in different areas of the deposit.
Therefore, different development systems are often used in separate areas of the same field.
Of all the physical and mechanical properties of ores and host rocks, strength and stability have the greatest influence on the choice of development system and mining technology.
The strength of rocks, determined by the combination of many of their physical and mechanical properties (hardness, viscosity, fracturing, layering, the presence of foreign inclusions and interlayers), affects the choice of mining system, machines and tools used in mining, the productivity of mining machines and the productivity of miners , on the consumption of materials and the cost of production.
For the first time, the classification of rocks by “strength coefficient” was created by the famous Russian scientist prof.
MM. Protodyakonov (senior). It is still widely used in domestic practice and literature.
Indicators of rock stability that would make it possible to determine the amount of permissible exposure have not yet been established. Therefore, when choosing a development system, a method for maintaining mined-out space and the area of permissible exposure, approximate characteristics of rocks in terms of their stability are used.
Based on their stability, ores and host rocks can be divided into the following five groups.
Very unstable - they do not allow the roof and sides of the mine to be exposed at all without fastening and, as a rule, require the use of advanced support.
Minerals
When developing ore deposits, such rocks (quicksand, loose and loose rocks saturated with water) are very rare.
Unstable - allow a slight exposure of the roof, but require strong support after the excavation.
Medium stability - they allow the roof to be exposed over a relatively large area, but with prolonged exposure they require maintenance.
Stable - allow very significant exposure of the roof and sides and need to be maintained only in certain places.
Very stable - they allow a huge exposure both from below and from the sides and can stand for a long time without collapsing, without support.
Breeds of this group are less common than the two previous groups. Rocks of the 3rd and 4th groups are most common during the development of ore deposits.
The lumpiness of broken ore (the size of the pieces obtained during breaking) is characterized by its granulometric composition, i.e.
e. the quantitative ratio of pieces of various sizes in the total mass of broken ore. The size of irregularly shaped pieces is usually expressed as the average size in three mutually perpendicular directions.
There are different gradations of lumpiness. The following gradation is the simplest and most convenient.
Ore fines - from ore dust to pieces with transverse dimensions of 100 mm. When developing vein deposits, ore is sometimes sorted and waste rock is removed from it; in this case, a special gradation is distinguished - unsorted fines with piece sizes less than 50 mm.
Medium size ore - from 100 to 300 mm.
The ore is coarse - from 300 to 600 mm.
The ore is very coarse - more than 600 mm.
The lumpiness of ore during breaking depends, on the one hand, on the physical and mechanical properties of the ore in the massif, in particular on its structure, and on the other hand, on the breaking method used, the diameter of blast holes and wells, their location, type of explosive, blasting method and etc.
A qualified piece of ore is a piece with the maximum allowable size that can be released from a mined block for loading into haulage vessels.
During underground mining of ore deposits, it ranges on average from 300 to 600 mm and sometimes reaches 1000 mm.
The size of the standard piece has a great influence on the choice of equipment for all production processes of mining, delivery, loading, and transportation.
Pieces of ore exceeding standard sizes are usually called oversized.
The weight amount of oversized pieces in the total mass of broken ore, expressed as a percentage, is called the oversized yield.
Ore deposits, compared to coal deposits, have a number of features arising from their geological origin.
They significantly influence the content and technological solutions when developing an ore deposit.
The main features are:
high strength and abrasiveness of ores, most of which have a strength coefficient of 8 - 12, and stronger ones - 15 - 20.
This necessitates the use of explosive breaking in underground work in most cases associated with drilling and charging holes and wells;
variety of sizes and variability of ore body occurrence elements, which significantly influences the adoption of technological decisions, stripping and preparation schemes, as well as the choice of development systems;
variability in the content of useful components and the mineralogical composition of ores over the volume of the deposit, which necessitates averaging the quality of the ore mass coming from different blocks;
less destruction of broken ore when moving it by gravity along ore passes up to 100 m or more in length.
This influences the features of opening deposits and preparing blocks;
less reliable information about mining and geological conditions and the flow of technological processes, which complicates operational control of their implementation;
a wide range of stability of ores and host rocks, which predetermines a variety of technological solutions;
the ability of some ores to caking and spontaneous combustion, which limits the use of mining systems with storage of broken ore;
the high value of most ores, which determines more stringent requirements for the completeness and quality of mineral extraction;
the absence of methane emissions in most mines, which allows the use of open fire and normal equipment in underground conditions.
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Mineral reserves in Russia are large.
502: bad gateway
It ranks first in the world in iron ore reserves. Balance reserves of iron ore are estimated at 90-100 billion tons, forecast reserves are much higher. Most of the explored iron ore reserves are located in the European part of Russia.
The most important iron ore basin is the KMA (Kursk Magnetic Anomaly) basin.
Balance reserves of KMA (according to various sources) amount to 40-50 billion tons, most of which are concentrated in the Belgorod and Kursk regions.
In the European part of Kostomuksha, Kovdor and Olenegorsk there are iron ore deposits, the balance reserves of which are estimated at 4 billion Euros.
The iron ore of the Urals is concentrated in Goroglagodatsky, Kachkanar, Serov, Bakal Orsk-Khalilov and other areas.
The eastern regions account for more than 10 billion tons of balance reserves. The main deposit of iron is Tashtagol (Kemerovo region). Bakchar, South Kolpashevo (Tomsk). Abakansky, Nizhneangarsk, Teisko (Krasnoyarsk) Korshunov Rudnogorsk, Tagorskoe (Irkutsk region) Garinsky (Amur region). Kimkanskoye (Khabarovsk Territory), Aldan basin (Republic of Sakha).
The main roles of manganese ore remained outside of Russia (Ukraine, Georgia).
Ore deposits are located in the Urals (midnight mine) in Russia, Western Siberia (Usinsk deposit), and the Far East (Khingan).
In the Perm region (Saranovskoe deposit) there are chromite ores.
Ore non-ferrous metals contain a significantly smaller amount of useful components. Therefore, while the poorest iron ores contain at least 20% iron, copper ores with a copper content of 5% are considered rich.
To heavy Non-ferrous metals are usually called zinc, lead, nickel, chromium, tin, easily metals, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, alloying (used as additives for steel) - tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium.
group nobly metals - silver, gold, platinum.
Deposits of copper ore, which are located in the Urals (Krasnoural'sk, Kirovograd, Degtyarsk, Karabashsky Gaiskie, Blyavinskoe and other applications), in Eastern Siberia (Talnakh, Norilsk, Udokan deposits) in the Murmansk region (Pechenga Monchetundra) for the North Caucasus (Urupskaya deposit ).
Deposits of silver (polymetallic) ores in most cases are characterized by a complex composition.
In addition to zinc and lead, they contain copper, silver, tin, gold, etc.
The main polyethylene ores are concentrated in Eastern Siberia(Ozernoye, Khapcheranga, Kili, Garevskoye), in the Far East(Dalnegorskoye field), Western Siberia(Salair, Zmeinogorskoye field), on North Caucasus(Sadon deposit).
The raw materials for the production of nickel and cobalt are nickel (containing copper and nickel) and cobalt ore.
The main reserves of these ores are concentrated in Eastern Siberia (Talnakh, Oktyabrsky, Khova Aksinskaya-pole), the Urals (upper Ufalej, Khalilovsky and other deposits) on the Kola Peninsula (nickel). When it comes to nickel reserves, Russia ranks first in the world.
The main deposits of tin ore are associated with the Pacific ore belt and were located in the Far East (ESE-Khaya, Deputatskoye, Omsukchanskoye, Solntse, Hrustalnenskoe deposit) and partly in Transbaikalia (Hapcheranga, Sherlovaya Gor).
Ores, tungsten and molybdenum are found in the Northern Caucasus (Tyrnyauz), Eastern Siberia and the Far East (Dzhida, Davenda, Vostok-2).
Bauxite, nepholine and alunites are used as raw materials for aluminum production.
Aluminum ores are found in many areas, which form the basis for the aluminum industry. In European Russia, bauxite deposits have been discovered in Tikhvin, Leningrad), Arkhangelsk (Northern Onega), Belgorod (Vislovskoe) deposits in the Komi Republic (bauxite region of southeastern Timan). In the Murmansk region there are Nepheline deposits in the Khibiny Mountains. In the Urals there are bauxite dumps in the Sverdlovsk region (Krasnaya Shapochka, Cheremukhovskoye). There are deposits of bauxite and non-cellulose; In western and eastern Siberia (diaries of Salairsky, Kiya-, Shaltyrsky, Nizhneangarsk, Bokson, Goryachegorsky).
The role of titanium and magnesium ores was determined in the Urals, Siberia and the Komi Republic.
Silver is limited to areas where polymetallic ores occur.
The main gold reserves are concentrated in the Republic of Sakha (Aldane Ust-Nera box, Kular), in the Magadan region (Kolyma region), Chukotka in Eastern Siberia (Krasnoyarsk Territory, Irkutsk and Chita regions).
The main sources of platinum are associated with deposits of copper-nickel ores (Norilsk, Murmansk region).
group mining and chemical resources includes phosphate ores, potassium and ordinary salts, sulfur and others, which form the raw material base of the chemical industry.
Phosphate ores - apatite and phosphorite, which are raw materials for the production of phosphate fertilizers. Higher reserves of apatite concentrate in the Khibiny Mountains are phosphates located in the central region (Egoryevskoye), Volga-VYATKA (Vyatko-Kama deposit), Middle Black regions of Siberia and the Far East.
Russia ranks first in the world in terms of potassium salt reserves.
Kornennaya potassium deposits (Solikamsk, Berezniki), located in the region and Permian salt deposits in addition to the above in Orenburg (Sol-Iletsk fields), Astrakhan (ie Elton Baskunchak), Western and Eastern Siberia (Mikhailovskoye, Usol-Siberian deposits) .
Russia has large and varied resources mineral construction materials that are the basis for the development of the building materials industry and the construction industry.
Almost all natural building materials are available in all economic regions.
Thus, Russia's mineral resource potential is very impressive. The cost of research into some types of minerals in Russia is estimated at 20-30 trillion.
U.S. dollar. Forecast estimates are 140 trillion. dollars. According to calculations, reserves of coal, iron ore, potassium salts and phosphorus raw materials in Russia are guaranteed for two or three centuries.
Iron ore is the main raw material for the global metallurgical industry. The economies of different countries largely depend on the market for this mineral, which is why the development of mines is receiving increased attention all over the world.
Ore: definition and features
Ores are rocks that are used for processing and extracting the metals they contain. The types of these minerals differ in origin, chemical content, concentration of metals and impurities. The chemical composition of the ore contains various oxides, hydroxides and carbon dioxide salts of iron.
Interesting! Ore has been in demand on the farm since ancient times. Archaeologists were able to find out that the manufacture of the first iron objects dates back to the 2nd century. BC. This material was first used by the inhabitants of Mesopotamia.
Iron- a common chemical element in nature. Its content in the earth's crust is about 4.2%. But in its pure form it is almost never found, most often in the form of compounds - in oxides, iron carbonates, salts, etc. Iron ore is a combination of minerals with a significant amount of iron. In the national economy, the use of ores containing more than 55% of this element is considered economically feasible.
What is made from ore
Iron ore industry is a metallurgical industry that specializes in the extraction and processing of iron ore. The main purpose of this material today is the production of cast iron and steel.
All products made from iron can be divided into groups:
- Pig iron with high carbon concentration (above 2%).
- Cast iron.
- Steel ingots for the production of rolled products, reinforced concrete and steel pipes.
- Ferroalloys for steel smelting.
What is ore needed for?
The material is used for smelting iron and steel. Today there is practically no industrial sector that can do without these materials.
Cast iron is an alloy of carbon and iron with manganese, sulfur, silicon and phosphorus. Pig iron is produced in blast furnaces, where the ore is separated from iron oxides at high temperatures. Almost 90% of the resulting cast iron is marginal and is used in steel smelting.
Various technologies are used:
- electron beam melting to obtain pure high-quality material;
- vacuum processing;
- electro-slag remelting;
- steel refining (removal of harmful impurities).
The difference between steel and cast iron is the minimum concentration of impurities. Oxidative smelting in open-hearth furnaces is used for purification.
The highest quality steel is smelted in electric induction furnaces at extremely high temperatures.
Ore differs in the concentration of the element it contains. It can be enriched (with a concentration of 55%) and poor (from 26%). It is advisable to use low-grade ores in production only after enrichment.
Based on their origin, the following types of ores are distinguished:
- Magmatogenous (endogenous) - formed under the influence of high temperature;
- Surface - settled remains of the element on the bottom of sea basins;
- Metamorphogenic - obtained under the influence of extremely high pressure.
Main mineral compounds containing iron:
- Hematite (red iron ore). The most valuable source of iron with an element content of 70% and a minimum concentration of harmful impurities.
- Magnetite. A chemical element with a metal content of 72% is distinguished by high magnetic properties and is mined from magnetic iron ores.
- Siderite (iron carbonate). There is a high content of waste rock, the iron itself is about 45-48%.
- Brown iron ores. A group of aqueous oxides with a low percentage of iron, with admixtures of manganese and phosphorus. An element with such properties is characterized by good recoverability and porous structure.
The type of material depends on its composition and the content of additional impurities. The most common red iron ore with a high percentage of iron can be found in different states - from very dense to dusty.
Brown iron ores have a loose, slightly porous structure of brown or yellowish color. Such an element often requires enrichment, but is easily processed into ore (high-quality cast iron is obtained from it).
Magnetic iron ores are dense and granular in structure, looking like crystals embedded in the rock. The color of the ore is characteristic black-blue.
How ore is mined
Iron ore mining is a complex technical process that involves diving into the depths of the earth to search for minerals. Today, there are two methods of ore mining: open and closed.
Open (quarry method) is a common and safest option compared to closed technology. The method is relevant for cases where there are no hard rocks in the working area, and there are no populated areas or utility systems nearby.
First, a quarry up to 350 meters deep is dug, after which iron is collected and removed from the bottom by large machines. After extraction, the material is sent on diesel locomotives to steel and iron factories.
Quarries are dug using excavators, but this process takes a lot of time. As soon as the machine reaches the first layer of the mine, the material is submitted for examination to determine the percentage of iron content and the feasibility of further work (if the percentage is above 55%, work in this area continues).
Interesting! Compared to the closed method, mining in quarries costs half as much. This technology does not require the construction of mines or the creation of tunnels. At the same time, the efficiency of work in open pits is several times higher, and the loss of material is five times less.
Closed mining method
Mine (closed) ore mining is used only if it is planned to maintain the integrity of the landscape in the area where ore deposits are being mined. This method is also relevant for work in mountainous areas. In this case, a network of tunnels is created underground, which leads to additional costs - the construction of the mine itself and the complex transportation of metal to the surface. The main drawback is the high risk to the lives of workers; the mine can collapse and block access to the surface.
Where is ore mined?
Iron ore mining is one of the leading areas of the economic complex of the Russian Federation. But despite this, Russia's share in world ore production is only 5.6%. World reserves amount to about 160 billion tons. The volume of pure iron reaches 80 billion tons.
Countries rich in ores
The distribution of minerals by country is as follows:
- Russia - 18%;
- Brazil - 18%;
- Australia - 13%;
- Ukraine - 11%;
- China - 9%;
- Canada - 8%;
- USA - 7%;
- other countries - 15%.
Significant deposits of iron ore have been noted in Sweden (the cities of Falun and Gellivar). In America, a large amount of ore was discovered in the state of Pennsylvania. In Norway, the metal is mined in Persberg and Arendali.
Ores of Russia
The Kursk magnetic anomaly is a large deposit of iron ore in the Russian Federation and in the world, in which the volume of unrefined metal reaches 30,000 million tons.
Interesting! Analysts note that the scale of mineral extraction at the KMA mines will continue until 2020, and there will be a decline in the future.
The area of the Kola Peninsula mines is 115,000 sq. km. Iron, nickel, copper ores, cobalt and apatites are mined here.
The Ural Mountains are also among the largest ore deposits in the Russian Federation. The main development area is Kachkanar. The volume of ore minerals is 7000 million tons.
The metal is mined in smaller quantities in the West Siberian basin, Khakassia, the Kerch basin, Zabaikalsk and the Irkutsk region.
Mineral resources of the world economy
Among natural resources, mineral resources are of great importance for ensuring the development of production and human life. Their features are:
limited and non-renewable;
· uneven distribution across individual countries and regions;
· significant differentiation of individual stocks
Mineral resources are the basis for the production of industrial products. Every year, more than 100 billion tons of various raw materials and fuels are extracted from the bowels of the Earth. These are ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, coal, gas, oil, construction raw materials, etc. - more than two hundred different types in total.
Ore minerals are of great economic importance because they remain unsurpassed structural materials. Their largest reserves are concentrated in the USA, China, India, and Russia.
Iron ore deposits are concentrated in Brazil, Australia, Canada, and CIS countries (including Russia). India, the USA, Sweden, France, Venezuela, South Africa and China also have large reserves. World reserves of iron ore are estimated at approximately 400 billion tons. In the last decade, new deposits of ore minerals have been discovered in a number of developing countries - Brazil, Liberia, Guinea, Algeria. The largest reserves have been explored in Brazil (Minas Geras deposit) and Venezuela (Guiana). High quality ores predominate here (up to 68% iron content with small amounts of sulfur, silica and phosphorus). The iron ore deposits of Russia are also of great importance (Mikhailovskoye - KMA, Kachkanarskoye - Ural), but they have a slightly lower content of the main component.
Since the late 80s. World iron ore production is at the level of 1 billion tons per year. The world's largest exporters of iron ore are Brazil (125 million tons), Australia (more than 100 million tons), Canada (30-40 million tons) and the CIS countries. The main importers of iron ore raw materials in the world are Japan (up to 150 million tons per year), Germany and the USA.
A new trend in the development of trade in iron ore raw materials has been an increase in the supply of enriched ore (iron ore pellets), as well as steel scrap.
Of the non-ferrous metals, the most common are bauxite (10% by weight of the earth's crust), which serves as raw material for the production of aluminum. Total bauxite reserves are 50 billion tons, and production is more than 80 million tons per year. The largest bauxite deposits are found in France (Saint-Julien, La Rouquette), Italy, Russia (Apatity), and the USA (Silit Rock). But some bauxite deposits in such traditional aluminum-producing countries have been significantly depleted, and there is a need to find new sources of raw materials.
Major exporters of bauxite are Guinea, Jamaica, and Brazil, which together with Australia determine the situation on the world bauxite market.
As for Australian bauxite, both in terms of volume and price, they are able to satisfy 50% of world demand. Own aluminum production has been established in Australia and Brazil. Jamaica supplies raw materials mainly to the US aluminum industry, and Guinea supplies Western Europe. Australian bauxite is processed not only by factories in the Middle East for re-export to Japan, but also by factories in Russia and Western Europe. Australia, Russia, the USA, and Jamaica lead in alumina production, and the USA, CIS, Japan, Canada, and Germany lead in aluminum production.
As for non-ferrous metal ores, we can identify general patterns in the distribution of their reserves, the production of products based on them, and the consumption of these products. Most of the world's reserves of non-ferrous metal ores are concentrated in developing countries, but their share in world production and consumption is much lower. For example, having 3/4 of bauxite reserves, the share of developing countries in their production is about 1/2, in smelting - 1/5, and in aluminum consumption - only 1/10. A similar situation exists for other non-ferrous metals, except tin. The share of developing countries in world tin production is more than 4/5. At the same time, the main tin reserves are concentrated in India, Malaysia, Brazil, Indonesia, Thailand, and Bolivia. Total tin reserves are 180 million tons, annual production is 8.3 million tons.
Large copper reserves are also found in developing countries. The “copper belt” stands out, which includes Chile, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Zaire, and Peru. Of the developed countries, the USA (Morenci, Bingen deposits), the CIS and Canada (Grendak, Johnsons) have large copper reserves. But the content of the main component in the ore varies and ranges from 0.5% in the USA to 5% in Zambia. The total reserves of copper ore are estimated at 860 million tons, with 8 million tons mined annually. Typically, copper mining involves on-site smelting. The largest copper producers are Chile and the USA. Most Western European countries import copper.
Polymetallic ores are common in the USA (Labadi), Canada (Pine Point), Australia (Bronen Hill), Russia (Orlovskoye), Burma (Nammadu). Zinc content also varies sharply among deposits, from 1% in Canada to 20% in Burma; lead - from 1% in Canada to 23% in Australia. Total lead reserves are 200 million tons, production is about 2.5 million tons per year. Total zinc reserves are 300 million tons, production is 4.5 million tons per year.
China has large and varied reserves of non-ferrous metals, which has tungsten, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, and lead.
Iron ore is a natural mineral formation that contains iron compounds accumulated in such a volume that is sufficient for its economic extraction. Of course, all rocks contain iron. But iron ores are precisely those ferrous compounds that are so rich in this substance that they allow the industrial extraction of metallic iron.
Types of iron ores and their main characteristics
All iron ores differ greatly in their mineral composition and the presence of harmful and beneficial impurities. The conditions of their formation and, finally, the iron content.
The main materials that are classified as ore can be divided into several groups:
- Iron oxides, which include hematite, martite, magnetite.
- Iron hydroxides - hydrogoethite and goethite;
- Silicates - thuringite and chamosite;
- Carbonates - sideroplesite and siderite.
Industrial iron ores contain iron in varying concentrations - from 16 to 72%. Beneficial impurities contained in iron ores include: Mn, Ni, Co, Mo, etc. There are also harmful impurities, which include: Zn, S, Pb, Cu, etc.
Iron ore deposits and mining technology
According to their genesis, existing iron ore deposits are divided into:
- Endogenous. They can be igneous, representing inclusions of titanomagnetite ores. There may also be carbonatite inclusions. In addition, there are lens-shaped, sheet-like skarn-magnetite deposits, volcano-sedimentary strata deposits, hydrothermal veins, as well as irregularly shaped ore bodies.
- Exogenous. These mainly include brown iron ore and siderite sedimentary layer deposits, as well as deposits of thuringite, chamosite and hydrogoethite ores.
- Metamorphogenic are deposits of ferruginous quartzites.
The maximum volumes of ore production are provoked by significant reserves and fall on Precambrian ferruginous quartzites. Sedimentary brown-iron ores are less common.
During mining, a distinction is made between rich ores and those requiring enrichment. The industry that produces iron ore also carries out its preliminary processing: sorting, crushing and the above-mentioned beneficiation, as well as agglomeration. The ore mining industry is called the iron ore industry and is the raw material base for ferrous metallurgy.
Applications
Iron ore is the main raw material for producing cast iron. It goes to open-hearth or converter production, as well as for iron recovery. As is known, a wide variety of products are made from iron, as well as from cast iron. The following industries need these materials:
- Mechanical engineering and metalworking;
- Automotive industry;
- Rocket industry;
- Military industry;
- Food and light industry;
- Building sector;
- Oil and gas production and transportation.
Introduction
1. Ore minerals
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Over the past 200 years, the demand for metals has increased so much that already in the 21st century, the ore reserves of some metals, especially strategically important for industry, may be exhausted.
Some metals, such as gold, are often found in their pure form, but most are smelted from ore. Ore is a mineral formation containing any metal or several metals in concentrations at which their extraction is economically feasible. Sometimes these may be non-metallic minerals.
Gold was perhaps the first metal to attract the attention of primitive people with its beauty and brilliance. There is evidence that copper began to be obtained from malachite (a low-melting green mineral) about 7,000 years ago.
Although commercial oil production first began in the second half of the nineteenth century, for centuries oil was extracted by people who lived in different parts of the world where oil seeped to the surface. In Russia, the first written mention of oil production appeared in the sixteenth century. Travelers described how tribes living along the banks of the Ukhta River in the northern Timan-Pechora region collected oil from the surface of the river and used it for medicinal purposes and as oils and lubricants. Oil collected from the Ukhta River was first brought to Moscow in 1597.
In 1702, Tsar Peter the Great issued a decree establishing the first regular Russian newspaper Vedomosti. The first issue of the newspaper published an article about how oil was discovered on the Sok River in the Volga region, and later issues contained information about oil shows in other regions of Russia. In 1745, Fyodor Pryadunov received permission to begin oil production from the bottom of the Ukhta River. Pryadunov also built a primitive oil refinery and supplied some products to Moscow and St. Petersburg.
Coal mining began almost simultaneously with oil mining, although coal has also been known to people since time immemorial.
1. Ore minerals
Many ores were formed when magma (molten mass of the deep zones of the Earth) cooled. As it cools, the minerals crystallize (harden) in a certain order. Some heavy minerals, such as chromite (chrome ore), separate and settle at the bottom of the magma, where they are deposited in a separate layer. Feldspar, quartz and mica then form rocks such as granite.
The concentration of the remaining liquid increases. Part of it is pressed into cracks in the rock, forming large deposits in them - pegmatites. Other substances are deposited in the voids of the surrounding rock. Finally, only liquids called hydrothermal solutions remain. These solutions, often rich in liquid elements, can flow over long distances, forming the so-called when solidified. veins.
Secondary deposits of minerals are formed under the influence of rivers, seas and wind, which together destroy soils and rocks, sometimes transport them over considerable distances and deposit them, usually in river deltas or relief depressions. Particles of minerals are concentrated here, which then, when cemented, turn into sedimentary rocks such as sandstone.
Sometimes iron accumulates among these rocks, coming there from the water and forming iron ores. In the tropics, intense rains destroy rocks containing aluminosilicates, having a chemical effect on them. The silicates they wash away form rocks rich in bauxite (aluminum ores). Acid rain also dissolves other metals, which are then deposited again in the upper layers of the lithosphere, sometimes exposed on the surface.
Metal detecting was once a matter of chance. But in our time, scientific methods and modern search technology are used in geological exploration. Geological maps are compiled, often using satellite photographs. Geologists, deciphering these maps and photographs, obtain the necessary information about the rocks and their structure. Sometimes chemicals found in soil, water and plants provide clues to the location of minerals. Geophysical methods are used for the same purposes. By measuring even the weakest electromagnetic and gravitational response signals from rocks using special instruments, scientists can determine the content of ore deposits in rocks.
Having discovered a deposit, prospectors drill holes to determine the size and quality of ore deposits and determine the economic feasibility of their development.
There are three ways to mine ore deposits, "Where the ore comes to the surface or is located close to it, it is mined using the open pit method. When the ore is found at the bottom of a river or lake, mining is done using dredges. And the most expensive type of mining - construction of underground mines.
Currently, about 80 metals are used in industry. Some of them are quite common, but many are rare. Copper, for example, makes up 0.007% of the earth's crust, tin - 0.004%, lead - 0.0016%, uranium - 0.0004%, silver -0.000001% and gold - just 0.0000005%.
The once rich deposits will be exhausted too quickly. It won't be long before many metals will become rare and expensive. Therefore, in our time, the task of recycling metal scrap is urgent.
According to experts, already half of the iron and a third of the aluminum used by industry are obtained from scrap. Recycling and reuse reduces environmental pollution and saves the energy needed to smelt metals from ores and refine them. To obtain a ton of aluminum from scrap requires only a twentieth of the energy that is expended to smelt the ore and process the same amount.
2. Coal
Coal is considered the most unusual rock for two reasons. Firstly, it is formed from organic material - once living tissue - and, secondly, unlike other rocks, it can burn and generate heat.
Coal was the main fuel during the Industrial Revolution and played an important role in the development of many countries. It consists of carbon (hence its black color) and flammable gases - hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. Some of the carbon and hydrogen form hydrocarbons, which are also the basis of oil and natural gas.
Most of the coal deposits were formed 360-286 million years ago, and there was so much of it that geologists called this period the Carboniferous. The source of coal deposits was prehistoric tropical forests that grew in swampy areas and were different from modern ones. Most of them consisted of giant tree ferns, as well as large horsetails and a number of smaller plants.
Dying tree ferns and other vegetation fell into the swamps. There was very little oxygen in the swamp water, which accelerates the process of decomposition of organic material by bacteria, so slowly rotting trees turned into peat - the first stage of coal formation. During the peat formation process, methane, or swamp gas, was released.
The peat, as it compacted, turned into coal. A thin (about 1 m) layer of coal is formed from a layer of peat 10-15 m thick. The first stage of compaction took place in ancient swamps as more and more layers of rotting vegetation appeared, under the weight of which the lower layers were compressed.
During the Carboniferous period, the earth's crust was uplifted, causing sand and silt deposits to accumulate on top of plant leaves. Subsequently, layers of soil and peat were buried under sea waters, and then came to the surface again.
Other swamps formed, where new peat deposits appeared. This process, called cyclic sedimentation, was repeated many times. In coal regions there are a number of coal seams located one above the other, separated by layers of sedimentary rocks. The thickness of these layers ranges from a few millimeters to many meters.
There are three main types of fossil coal. The degree of its change compared to the original peat determines the level of its metamorphism (or carbonification).
Lignite, also called brown coal, has changed the least. It contains the least amount of carbon (about 30%), and when burned it produces a lot of smoke and little heat.
The most common and heat-intensive is bituminous coal, characterized by a wide variety of varieties. Typically, the seams of this coal alternate between dull and shiny layers. The lancevite layers were formed from the remains of trees, and the dull layers were formed from smaller vegetation. Bituminous coal contains a soft substance that resembles charcoal; This is what gets our hands dirty.
Anthracite has the highest degree of metamorphism. It is 98% carbon and is highly hard and pure. It is difficult to light, but when burned it produces a very hot flame with little smoke.
Coal is mainly used as fuel. Until recently, a significant part of it was burned to heat houses. Today, coal is used primarily to generate electricity or in manufacturing processes. However, before large-scale natural gas production began, many countries obtained their gas from coal. This method is still used in countries without gas fields.
The production of coal gas is associated with the production of coke, a smokeless fuel necessary for smelting iron ore. Coke is produced by heating coal in sealed ovens, where it does not burn due to the lack of oxygen. But the heat forces out ammonia, coal tar, gas and light oils, leaving only solid matter. This is coke.
Coal serves as a raw material for various products. Ammonia, coal tar and light oils obtained from coke production are used to make paints, antiseptics, medicines, detergents, perfumes, fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides and household chemicals. You can even get a sugar substitute - saccharin - from coal.
Of all the fossil fuels on Earth, coal is the most abundant. Its proven reserves will last for more than 200 years at the current rate of consumption, and the number of undiscovered deposits, according to many experts, is 15 times greater than the known reserves. Two-thirds of proven coal reserves are concentrated in three countries: 30% in the USA, 25% in Russia and other CIS countries, and 10% in China. The rest comes mainly from Australia and Canada. Germany, India, Poland, South Africa and the UK.
In South America, only four countries have significant coal deposits - Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Colombia. Most of the continent's coal deposits lie deep beneath tropical forests. Only 8 out of 52 African countries produce coal - South Africa, Zimbabwe, as well as Algeria, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Sometimes coal comes to the surface on hillsides or river banks. This is probably how the Chinese first discovered it about 3,000 years ago. As soon as found
coal, the top soil was removed, and then tunnels were dug in the coal seams deep into the earth. Today, geologists are searching for coal deposits. They know in what areas coal can occur: mainly where there are rocks from the Carboniferous period. Aerial and satellite images help identify promising areas.
The next step is seismic exploration. Using explosives and other means, geologists send shock waves deep into the earth. Sensitive seismic receivers (geophones) pick up the echoes of these shock waves after they are reflected from layers of underground rock. Different rocks have different reflection strengths, so reflection analysis allows us to determine the types of rocks, their structure and depth.
To accurately locate coal seams and determine their depth, it is necessary to drill wells. The resulting rock cores (cylindrical samples) are studied and analyzed.
Another exploration method is logging. It was designed primarily to search for oil and natural gas deposits. In this case, a number of devices are introduced into the well to determine the nature of the rock. The logging probe is lowered into the borehole and then raised at a certain speed. The probe's sensitive instruments determine the porosity and radioactivity of rocks, detect faults (gaps between different layers of rock), as well as the electrical resistivity of rocks - that is, their electrical conductivity.
The thickness of coal seams can range from several centimeters to several meters. Regardless of this, two main methods of its extraction are used: open-pit (quarry) and mine development. Open pit mining occurs when coal lies close to the surface. This method is often used in Australia and the USA, as well as in lignite mining in Eastern Europe. In most quarries in England, coal is mined at a depth of approximately 33 m. The deepest is in Germany - 325 m.
Quarrying disfigures the area. First, the top layers of soil and rocks are removed and piled up around the excavations. Such an embankment serves as a soundproofing screen and covers the unsightly picture from prying eyes.
The coal is then removed using giant excavators. The largest excavator in England is the Big Geordie dragline with a capacity of 3000 tons. Its bucket (which can accommodate two ordinary cars) scoops up to 100 tons of rock at a time.
The capacity of the “Big Muskie” bucket (Ohio, USA) is 10,000 tons. And the largest bucket wheel excavator with a capacity of 13,000 tons mines lignite in the Hambach quarry in Germany. After all profitable coal reserves have been extracted, the soil is reclaimed and the mining area is improved.
Underground mining is the main method of coal mining in the UK and continental Europe. It is also used to produce 40% of coal in the US and more than 50% in Australia.
Many coal seams lie at very great depths. The deepest mine in England goes more than 1,300 m deep into the earth. You can get to the layers at such a depth through a vertical mine shaft. The miners go down to the work site using a lift, which also delivers coal to the surface. Underground horizontal workings (faces) can stretch for several kilometers, so electric trolleys transport workers and coal between the face and the lift shaft.
Where there is access to coal from a slope, an inclined mine shaft - an adit - is dug. Here, miners are transported in trolleys, and coal is conveyed outside by conveyor.
There are two main ways to sink a deep shaft. The older method, still most commonly used in the United States, is called the room-and-pillar development system. Here, miners make a series of drifts in the coal seams, leaving pillars (pillars) of coal to support the roof. Only part of the coal can be extracted using this method.
Longwall mining, or longwall mining, is the main method of coal mining in Europe, and is increasingly being used in the United States. In this case, two parallel tunnels are dug at a distance of approximately 20 m from each other. Cutting machines run between the tunnels, cutting down the lava. As the mine advances, the vault collapses behind the miners. This way, up to 90% of coal reserves can be extracted.
Coal mining poses a risk to life, and despite strict safety measures, hundreds of miners die underground every year. And burning coal is fraught with environmental consequences and leads to many diseases. Skin cancer can develop when exposed to hydrocarbons, and the smoke and gases released by burning coal can cause cancer and emphysema.
Coal gases also contain sulfur compounds, which cause acid rain. As a result, vegetation is damaged, fish and other representatives of aquatic fauna die, and buildings are destroyed.
Carbon dioxide is one of the main products of coal combustion. It belongs to the gases that cause the “greenhouse effect”: heat is absorbed by the atmosphere, but does not escape into outer space, resulting in global warming.
With all the problems that arise and the ongoing search for clean energy sources, coal reserves are much larger than cheaper fuels - oil and natural gas. Perhaps new technologies will make it profitable to develop deposits that are considered unprofitable today.
With existing methods, the extraction of only 12% of the world's proven coal reserves is economically justified. One way to effectively use coal is to burn it to produce gas. Another involves obtaining oil from it, taking into account the depletion of natural oil reserves.
3. Oil
Oil is the basis of modern industry and civilization. It has been and remains the cause of many international conflicts, and its widespread use causes serious damage to the environment.
In terms of its composition, oil is a complex mixture of compounds, among which hydrocarbons predominate. It is found in several forms - liquid oil, natural gas and a thick fraction of substances called asphaltenes or bitumen. Oil is an organic substance formed from the remains of living matter, plants and animals. Therefore, oil, natural gas, as well as coal, which has the same origin, are classified as fossil fuels.
The processes that resulted in the formation of oil took place over millions of years. For example, much of the oil in the northern and central North Sea was formed from the remains of single-celled algae and bacteria that settled into the mud on the seabed throughout the Jurassic period (144-213 million years ago). These remains rotted and slowly turned into oil under the influence of temperature and pressure, while silt and mineral sediments were compressed into layers of rock under the influence of the same factors.
Droplets of oil seeped upward through pores or cracks in the rock until they encountered harder layers that prevented their further advancement. Oil accumulated in places that geologists call “traps.” Gas formation took place in deeper layers. Geologists believe that in the deposits of the southern part of the Northern Hemisphere it began in the Carboniferous period (300-286 million years ago), when coal seams of the remains of dead plants began to form in the swamps. The coal layers then sank and ended up under a layer of rocks. Under the influence of the internal heat of the Earth, gas began to be released at a depth of about 4 km. Then it moved upward through pores and fractures in the rocks until it fell into a “trap.”
The huge advantage of oil is that it is cleaner and cheaper, and easier to transport than gas. Oil has many uses. It is sometimes called "Black Gold" because it provides approximately half of the energy consumed worldwide today. Without it, most of the transport would stop, factories, factories, central heating systems, etc. would stop working.
Crude oil is used to produce a variety of liquid fuels: gasoline of varying degrees of purity, diesel and aviation fuel. Also, oils and lubricants that ensure the operation of machines and mechanisms, asphalt road surfaces and a huge number of compounds used in the chemical industry are not obtained from it. Substances derived from petroleum are used in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical, paint and varnish industries, as well as in the production of fertilizers, explosives, synthetic fibers, inks, insecticides, plastics and rubber, which is used to make car tires.
Oil and natural gas deposits have been found on every continent, as well as on continental shelves. Some of them are actively being developed, others are mothballed. An assessment of how long oil reserves will last includes two factors - the volume of known fields, the development of which is economically feasible from the point of view of modern technology, and the level of production in the current year. Global oil reserves in 1989 were estimated 41 years in advance, based on 1988 production levels. However, as proven reserves increase, production intensity changes, and new technologies are introduced, the estimate also changes.
The largest oil reserves are concentrated in the countries of the Middle East (about 65% of the world's). At the end of the 1980s. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) had more than 100 years of proven oil reserves at their 1988 production levels.
At the end of 1989, Saudi Arabia, which accounts for 25% of the world's deposits, had reserves that would last 90 years at 1988 production levels. Discovery of new deposits in this country V 1990 extended this period by more than 50 years.
At the end of the 1980s, the 15 republics that made up the Soviet Union were leaders in oil production (18% of the world's). Among them, Russia occupied and continues to occupy the first place, although oil is also produced in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. The USA, which ranks second in the world in oil production, together with Canada in 1990, owned about 1 6% world production. They were followed by Saudi Arabia, Iran, Mexico, China, Venezuela, Iraq and Britain. The volume of oil production is increased or decreased depending on demand. Thus, the global economic downturn in the early 1990s. led to a sharp decline in oil consumption. The leading place in natural gas production also belongs to the republics of the former Soviet Union, in particular Russia. They are followed by the USA, Holland and Canada. Other major gas producing countries are Britain, Mexico, Norway and Romania.
Thanks to the widespread use of oil, its production has increased from 10 million barrels (158,988 dm 3) per day in the 1950s. to 65 million barrels in 1990, and during these 40 years oil became the world's main source of fuel and raw materials. In some countries, petroleum products were so cheap that oil was often used unacceptably wastefully.
Developed countries often use their own oil reserves, and as demand grows, they are forced to import the missing quantity. The world's major oil exporters are several developing countries that are quickly making large profits by producing and exporting oil to developed countries. Some developing countries use oil revenues to solve social problems - building schools, hospitals and improving living standards in general. Others are investing their "petrodollars" in large high-tech projects - for example, the construction of expensive seawater desalination plants in Saudi Arabia or the creation of the "Great Man-Made River" in Libya, which will pump water from underground reservoirs located under the Sahara Desert to the densely populated coast. Mediterranean Sea. Oil policy
Oil began to play a key role in international relations. In 1967, the oil states of the Middle East were able to provide large-scale aid to their Arab allies Egypt, Syria and Jordan during their war with Israel.
Developing oil states have begun to exert increasing political influence in the world through the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). OPEC was created in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. They were later joined by Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.
In 1973, when Egypt and Syria began a six-day war against Israel, OPEC sharply increased oil prices. A number of countries have agreed to jointly regulate oil exports in order to have leverage in their hands to put pressure on the United States and other countries that supported Israel.
Since the mid-1970s. Most oil-producing countries in the Middle East sought to establish, through OPEC, a “New Economic Order,” which would give developing countries greater weight in international relations.
OPEC's policies have put many oil importing countries in a difficult situation, creating fuel shortages and generating inflationary processes. But in the early 1980s. developed countries have increased their own oil production. Along with the general economic downturn, this led to a decrease in demand for imported oil and a fall in prices. However, although OPEC's gains were short-lived, many Middle Eastern governments gained a sense of self-confidence.
Oil became the cause of new conflicts. In 1990, Iraq claimed that Kuwait was producing Iraqi-owned oil and that because Kuwait's exports exceeded the quota set by OPEC, this had led to lower world prices. As a result, in August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, but was expelled from there by UN troops in 1991. During the Gulf War, Iraq dumped huge amounts of oil into its waters and set fire to more than half of all the oil rigs in Kuwait. Black clouds of smoke obscured the sun for several months until the fire was extinguished. Emissions into the sea
Oil releases into the sea occur during the washing of tankers, during accidents on offshore oil production platforms and during its transportation by supertankers. The so-called... is spread over the surface of the water in a thin film. oil slick, which leads to mass death of seabirds, animals and fish.
When the oil tanker Exxon Valdez hit an underwater reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska, in 1989, some 240,000 barrels of oil spilled into the sea, polluting 1,600 km of coastline, including the coastline of three national parks and five nature reserves. Exxon launched an unprecedented cleanup effort, but by then the environment had already suffered irreparable damage. But much worse and more widespread, although not so noticeable, is the ocean pollution that occurs when oil products are discharged into rivers or directly into the sea from coastal industrial enterprises.
The use of gasoline as fuel causes severe air pollution in many large cities. Exhaust gases from cars and other installations running on liquid fuel contain toxic compounds - carbon monoxide, products of incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, lead. Some of them, when exposed to sunlight, form compounds that cause smog, which even today hangs over many capitals of the world - for example, Mexico City. Nitrogen oxides, when interacting with water droplets in clouds, lead to acid rain, polluting lakes and rivers and leading to the death of forests. Many countries have already taken or are taking measures to reduce harmful emissions into the atmosphere. This includes the use of unleaded (lead-free) gasoline and equipping cars with catalysts that convert harmful exhaust gases into harmless ones. However, the ever-increasing consumption of oil and petroleum products reduces the effectiveness of these measures.
Despite the discovery of new deposits and technologies, it is clear that fossil fuels will eventually be exhausted, and that oil, in particular, is consumed much faster than the natural renewal of its reserves. In addition, even though oil prices are rising and people are using it more economically, the need for petroleum products continues to increase.
However, the overall picture is not as gloomy as it might seem at first glance. Experts have found that proven oil reserves account for only a third of existing ones. With the advent of new technologies, a significant increase in usable oil reserves will become possible.
In the early 1990s. American scientists have developed chemical displacement technology. Oil is washed out of the rock using surfactants. Previously, this method did not find practical application due to the high cost of surfactants. However, scientists have now announced that they have found a cheap solution to the problem using waste from the pulp and paper industry. They believe that this method will increase potential oil reserves in the United States by more than six times.
Another additional source of oil is tar sands, which are rocks saturated with thick oil. Also suitable for use are rocks called oil shale. They are rich in kerogen, from which oil can be obtained.
Conclusion
The extraction of ore minerals, as well as coal and oil, is the basis for the development of the modern world. But they are gradually being exhausted, especially oil and coal, which threatens developed countries with a global energy crisis.
At the same time, the only promising solution to the problem of the energy crisis as a consequence of the depletion of fossil fuel reserves is the development of alternative energy sources. Until then, it is necessary to rationally spend and carefully protect existing reserves.
Based on this, the main requirements for the protection of subsoil are (Article 23 of the Law of the Russian Federation “On Subsoil”):
Compliance with the procedure established by law for the provision of subsoil and the prevention of unauthorized use;
Ensuring the completeness of geological study, rational, integrated use and protection of subsoil;
Conducting a proactive geological study of the subsoil, providing a reliable assessment of mineral reserves or the properties of a subsoil site provided for purposes not related to mining;
Ensuring the most complete extraction of reserves of the main and co-occurring minerals and associated components, as well as reliable accounting of their reserves extracted and left in the subsoil;
Protection of mineral deposits from flooding, watering, fires and other factors that reduce the quality of minerals and the industrial value of deposits;
Prevention of subsoil pollution during work related to subsoil use (underground storage of oil, gas, burial of harmful substances and waste, wastewater discharge);
Preventing the accumulation of industrial and household waste on
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