The activity of land and will. Split of “Land and Freedom”
"Land and Freedom" (1876-1879)
Considering that one of the reasons for the failure of “going to the people” was the lack of any organization, the populists who survived the arrests created a party in 1876, which in 1878 began to be called “Land and Freedom”. Here is what Alexander Mikhailov wrote about her: “In the spring of 1877, almost the entire circle of populists, their local composition, together with dozens of people associated with them, moved to the people, since there, in the organization of people’s leaders and local economic protests, all of them were hope. A number of settlements were formed in Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, in the Urals, Rostov, Kuban and generally on the southeastern outskirts, but the center was Saratov.” Mikhailov A.D. Autobiographical notes. // Journal “Byloe”, 1906. - No. 2. - P. 163.
On St. Nicholas Day, December 6, members of the organization, after a prayer service held in the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg for the health of Nikolai Chernyshevsky, staged a demonstration on the square, where they raised a red banner with the inscription “Land and Freedom.” He was held in the hands of sixteen-year-old worker Yakov Potapov, raised by demonstrators. “This outburst,” the indictment continued, “was accompanied by shouts of ‘hurray’ and the throwing of hats into the air.” There were shouts: “Long live the social resolution, long live “Land and Freedom”!” State crimes in Russia in the 19th century. In 3 volumes - St. Petersburg: Donskaya Rech, 1906. - Vol.2. - 1016 s. - P.4.
The Central St. Petersburg circle consisted of 26 people: M. A. Natanson, O. A. Natanson, A. D. Oboleshev, A. D. Mikhailov, A. F. Mikhailov, D. A. Lizogub, V. A. Osinsky, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, A. S. Emelyanov (Bogolyubov), M. R. Popov, G. V. Plekhanov, G. N. Preobrazhensky, V. F. Troshchansky, A. I. Zundelevich, A. I. Barannikov, G. M. Tishchenko, L. P. Bulanov, A. A. Khotinskii, N. P. Moshchenko, O. V. Aptekman, V. N. Ignatov, N. I. Sergeev, M. K. Krylova, Melgunov, S. A. Kharizomenov and O. Nikolaev. Subsequently, another 35 people were co-opted into the main structure of the organization. Tkachenko P. S. Revolutionary populist organization"Land and Freedom". - M., 1961. - P. 74--75.
The landowners, believing that the mistake of their predecessors was a short stay among the peasants, moved from “flying” agitation to “sedentary” propaganda - they began to create populist settlements in the countryside. The landowners, with the active participation of the most politicized and class-conscious workers, created in St. Petersburg " Northern Union Russian workers" (1878). The first labor organization in Russia became " South Russian Union workers”, created in 1875 by the populist E.O. Zaslavsky in Odessa. In an effort to rouse the people to revolution, the landowners considered it necessary to carry out:
· organizational activities with the aim of transferring all land to peasants on the basis of communal ownership, introducing lay self-government, democratic freedoms;
· actions to disorganize the state (involvement of officers, officials, murder of provocateurs and the most “harmful” government officials). Revolutionary populism of the 70s of the XIX century. [ Electronic resource] // S.S. Volk. - M.: Publishing house "Science", 1965. - T.2. - Access mode: http://krotov.info/history/19/1870/1870narvol.html#03, free. - Cap. from the screen.
The attempt of Ya. V. Stefanovich and L. G. Deitch in 1877 to raise a revolt among the peasants of the Chigirinsky district with the help of a forged royal letter failed and discredited the organization. The acts of disorganization of “Land and Freedom” were initially in the nature of revenge and self-defense. In January 1878, a longtime participant in the populist movement, V. I. Zasulich, shot at the St. Petersburg mayor F. F. Trepov, who ordered corporal punishment of a political prisoner. The jury acquitted Zasulich, which was enthusiastically received by the liberal public.
For some of the populist revolutionaries, the court verdict became an indicator of public sympathy for their activities and pushed them on the path political struggle and individual terrorism. They began to carry out assassination attempts on government officials; in August 1878, Kravchinsky killed him with a dagger on the street of St. Petersburg Chapter III Departments of N.V. Mezentsov. Landlords began to consider terror as a means of influencing the people. On April 2, 1879, landowner A.K. Solovyov shot at Alexander II. The attempt was unsuccessful, Soloviev was hanged. Social movement under Alexander II. Historical essays. - Paris: Liberation Publishing House, 1905. - P.161-168.
The new “going to the people” did not produce results. A crisis has ripened in the ranks of Land and Freedom. In June 1879, a congress took place in Voronezh, which led to a compromise. He left the organization's program unchanged, but recognized terror as a method of waging political struggle. The congress participants spoke out in favor of regicide. A consistent opponent of terror was G.V. Plekhanov, who, left alone, left the congress and left the organization. Soon at the St. Petersburg congress there was a complete split: into supporters of propaganda and the continuation of the struggle for socialist ideals (“villagers”), united under G.V. Plekhanov to the “Black Limit” party, and supporters of political struggle and “achievement political freedom" How necessary condition for socialist propaganda - the “politicians” who formed the “People's Will”.
In the second half of the 50s of the XIX century. (the period of preparation for the peasant reform) in the socio-political life of Russia there was a certain convergence of different ideological trends. The whole society understood the need to renew the country. It pushed and stimulated the government's transformative activities that had begun. However, the implementation of the reform and its results caused an intensification of the ideological and political struggle and an even greater division of society.
Land and freedom."
It was the first major revolutionary democratic organization. It included several hundred members from different social strata: officials, officers, writers, students. The organization was headed by the Russian Central People's Committee. Branches of the society were created in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Kharkov and other cities. At the end of 1862, the Russian military revolutionary organization created in the Kingdom of Poland joined “Land and Freedom”.
The first secret organizations did not last long. The decline of the peasant movement, the defeat of the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland (1863), the strengthening of the police regime - all this led to their self-dissolution or defeat. Some members of the organizations (including N.G. Chernyshevsky) were arrested, others emigrated. The government managed to repel the onslaught of radicals in the first half of the 60s. There has been a sharp turn in public opinion against the radicals and their revolutionary aspirations. Many public figures, who previously stood on democratic or liberal positions, moved to the conservative camp (M.N. Katkov and others).
In the second half of the 60s, secret circles arose again. Their members preserved the ideological legacy of N.G. Chernyshevsky, but, having lost faith in the possibility of a popular revolution in Russia, they switched to narrowly conspiratorial and terrorist tactics. They tried to realize their high moral ideals by immoral means. In 1866, a member of the circle N.A. Ishutina D.V. Karakozov attempted to assassinate Tsar Alexander II.
In 1869, teacher S.G. Nechaev and journalist P.N. Tkachev created an organization in St. Petersburg that called on student youth to prepare an uprising and use any means in the fight against the government. After the defeat of the circle, S.G. Nechaev went abroad for a while, but in the fall of 1869 he returned and founded the “People’s Retribution” organization in Moscow. He was distinguished by extreme political adventurism and demanded blind obedience to his orders from his participants. For refusing to submit to the dictatorship, student I.I. Ivanov was falsely accused of treason and killed. The police destroyed the organization. S.G. Nechaev fled to Switzerland, he was extradited as a criminal. The government used trial against him to discredit the revolutionaries. “Nechaevism” for some time became a serious lesson for subsequent generations of revolutionaries, warning them against unlimited centralism.
At the turn of the 60-70s, largely based on the ideas of A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky, populist ideology took shape. It became very popular among democratically minded intellectuals in the last third of the 19th century. There were two trends among the populists: revolutionary and liberal.
Land and freedom” (1876-1879).
In 1876, the surviving participants in the “going to the people” formed a new secret organization, which since 1878 has taken the name “Land and Freedom”. Its program provided for the implementation of a socialist revolution by overthrowing the autocracy, transferring all land to the peasants and introducing “secular self-government” in the countryside and cities. The organization was headed by G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner et al.
A second “going to the people” was undertaken - for long-term agitation of the peasants. The landowners also engaged in agitation among workers and soldiers and helped organize several strikes. In 1876, with the participation of “Land and Freedom,” the first political demonstration in Russia was held in St. Petersburg on the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral. G.V. spoke to the audience. Plekhanov, who called to fight for land and freedom for peasants and workers. The police dispersed the demonstration, many of its participants were injured. Those arrested were sentenced to hard labor or exile. G.V. Plekhanov managed to escape from the police.
In 1878, some populists again returned to the idea of the need for a terrorist struggle. In 1878 V.I. Zasulich attempted to assassinate St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov and wounded him. However, the mood of society was such that the jury acquitted her, and F.F. Trepov was forced to resign. Discussions began among the landowners about methods of struggle. They were prompted to do this by both government repression and a thirst for activism. Disputes over tactical and programmatic issues led to a split.
Black redistribution.”
In 1879, part of the landowners (G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, L.G. Deych, P.B. Akselrod) formed the organization “Black Redistribution” (1879-1881). They remained faithful to the basic program principles of “Land and Freedom” and agitation and propaganda methods of activity.
In the same year, another part of the Zemlya Volya members created the organization “People's Will” (1879-1881). It was headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, SL. Perovskaya, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others. They were members of the Executive Committee - the center and Main Headquarters organizations.
The Narodnaya Volya program reflected their disappointment in the revolutionary potential of the peasant masses. They believed that the people were suppressed and reduced to a slave state by the tsarist government. Therefore, its main task they believed in fighting this government. The program requirements of the Narodnaya Volya included: training
political revolution and overthrow of the autocracy; convening the Constituent Assembly and establishing a democratic system in the country; destruction private property, transfer of land to peasants, factories to workers. (Many of the program provisions of the Narodnaya Volya were adopted by turn of XIX-XX centuries their followers are the Socialist Revolutionary Party.)
The Narodnaya Volya carried out a number of terrorist actions against representatives of the tsarist administration, but considered their main goal to be the murder of the tsar. They assumed that this would cause a political crisis in the country and a nationwide uprising. However, in response to the terror, the government intensified repression. Most of the Narodnaya Volya members were arrested. SL, who remained at large. Perovskaya organized the assassination attempt on the Tsar. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded and died a few hours later.
This act did not live up to the expectations of the populists. It once again confirmed the ineffectiveness of terrorist methods of struggle and led to increased reaction and police brutality in the country. In general, the activities of the Narodnaya Volya members were significantly slowed down evolutionary development Russia.
Related information.
"Land and Freedom" is a secret revolutionary society formed in Russia in the early 1860s, during the first revolutionary situation that arose after peasant reform February 19, 1861, numbered about 200 people. Presumably the management of the society included N.A. and A.A.Serno-Solovievichi, N.N. Obruchev, S.S. Rymanenko, A.A. Sleptsov, B.S. Kurochkin, N.G. Chernyshevsky, P.I. Bokov and N.I. Utin. Representatives abroad were considered A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev.
At the first stage of its activity, the society was guided by Ogarev’s article in Kolokol, “What the People Need,” which spoke of the need to provide peasants with their own land, and later participated in the Polish uprising. With the decline of the revolutionary situation, Land and Freedom dissolved itself in the spring of 1864.
For the second time, “Land and Freedom” was formed in St. Petersburg; the name of the society was given in 1876 by analogy with the society of the 1860s. The composition of “Land and Freedom” included the “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”, the “Society of Narodniks”, the participants of the “going to the people” who survived arrests, and the younger generation of young revolutionaries. A.D. participated in the founding of the society. Mikhailov, G.V. Plekhanov, A.D. Oboleshev, M.A. and O.A. Nathansons, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, O. V. Aptekman, V. A. Osinsky, D. A. Lizogub, S. M. Kravchinsky, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya, M.F. Frolenko, L.A. Tikhomirov, all members of N.V. Tchaikovsky’s circle.
The most important point of the society’s program was “the transfer of all land into the hands of the rural working class,” and a number of democratic demands were put forward, which could be achieved “only through a violent revolution.” The preparation of the coup, in the opinion of the Land Volunteers, should have been carried out through constant propaganda and agitation in the countryside and the creation of strongholds there. Attention was also paid to work in “centres of concentration of industrial workers, factories and factories.” However, the workers were regarded only as a force capable of supporting the peasants' uprising. Propaganda activities of the Zamlevols were also carried out among dissatisfied students and intelligentsia; attempts were made to attract conscious progressive officers and officials.
The main forces and means of "Land and Freedom" were aimed at creating "settlements" in the countryside (colonies in Samara, Saratov, Tambov and other provinces), which did not bring noticeable success. The attempt to unleash “agrarian terror” in the countryside and to rouse the peasants into armed uprisings also did not yield results. In an atmosphere of collapse of hopes, massive political processes And brutal reprisals The attitude of the Zemlya Volya residents towards the methods of achieving immediate goals also began to change. There was a growing belief in the need for terrorist methods to fight the government. First Act of terrorism were in the nature of self-defense or retaliation. In January 1878, V.I. Zasulich shot at the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov (the latter subjected a political prisoner to corporal punishment); in the summer of the same year, S.M. Kravchinsky killed the chief of gendarmes N.V. Mezentsev. On April 2, 1879, on Palace Square, A.K. Soloviev made a failed attempt on Alexander II.
Gradually, two currents arose within “Land and Freedom”. Representatives of one of them (A.D. Mikhailov, N.A. Morozov and others) were supporters of terrorist methods of political struggle. The other part, the so-called “village people” (G.V. Plekhanov, M.R. Popov, O.V. Aptekman), advocated the preservation of propaganda and agitation work in the village. Already in 1879, supporters of terror formed the “Freedom or Death” group within the organization; in June of the same year, their congress was held in Lipetsk, at which it was decided not to break with “Land and Freedom”, but to conquer it from within. A few days later, a general congress was held in Voronezh, which adopted a compromise decision on the admissibility of terrorist methods of struggle along with agitation and propaganda. However, the decisions of the congress could not preserve the unity of “Land and Freedom”, which in August 1879 split into two organizations: “Black Redistribution” (G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod, P.G. Deitch, Ya.V. .Stefanovich, etc.) and "People's Will" (A.I. Zhelyabov, S.L. Perovskaya, N.A. Morozov, N.I. Kibalchich, A.D. Mikhailov, etc.).
The views of the organizers of the “Black Redistribution” at this time did not differ fundamentally from the views of the Zemlya Volya members. Attempts to continue propaganda in the village ended in failure and led to new arrests. Some members of the organization emigrated abroad. In general, the “Black Redistribution” did not play a significant role in the populist movement.
"People's Will" was a well-secret organization headed by an executive committee. In the conditions of the democratic upsurge of the late 70s, the organization actively became involved in the political struggle. Program provisions organizations included the seizure of power by the revolutionary party and the implementation of democratic changes in the country. According to the ideas of the Narodnaya Volya Russian government had no support and could easily be disorganized as a result of a series of terrorist attacks. In 1880-1881 Narodnaya Volya carried out a number of attempts on the life of Alexander II (February 5, 1880, S. Khalturin carried out an explosion in the Winter Palace).
The struggle of the People's Will against the Russian autocracy, which ended with the assassination of Alexander II. At the beginning of 1881, they dug under Ekaterininskaya Street in St. Petersburg, along which Emperor Alexander traveled. On March 1, waiting for his passage, they were ready to blow up this tunnel and at the same time placed their people with bombs in other places along the proposed route. Alexander did not drive past the tunnel, but this did not save him. On the Catherine Canal royal carriage was blown up by a bomb. When the sovereign got out of the damaged carriage, he was seriously wounded by a second shell thrown at his feet. Driven to Winter Palace, he died the same day. His son, Tsarevich Alexander (III) Alexandrovich, ascended the throne. Count Loris-Melikov was dismissed and his reform program was rejected. The leaders of Narodnaya Volya were soon discovered, convicted and executed.
(material prepared on the basis fundamental works
Russian historians N.M. Karamzin, N.I. Kostomarov,
V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Solovyov, and others...)
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Split of “Land and Freedom”
terrorist organization populism revolutionary
The revolutionary impatience of the radicals resulted in a series of terrorist attacks. In February 1878 V.I. Zasulich attempted to assassinate St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov, who ordered the flogging of a political prisoner student. In the same month, the circle of V.N. Osinsky - D.A. Lizoguba, who operated in Kyiv and Odessa, organized the murders of police agent A.G. Nikonov, gendarme colonel G.E. Geiking and Kharkov Governor-General D.N. Kropotkin.
Since March 1878, a fascination with terrorist attacks swept St. Petersburg. On proclamations calling for the destruction of yet another tsarist official, a seal began to appear with the image of a revolver, dagger and ax and the signature “Executive Committee of the Social Revolutionary Party.”
August 4, 1878 S.M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky stabbed the St. Petersburg chief of gendarmes N.A. with a dagger. Mezentsev in response to his signing the verdict on the execution of the revolutionary Kovalsky. On March 13, 1879, an attempt was made on the life of his successor, General A.R. Drentelna. The newspaper “Land and Freedom” finally turned into a terrorist organ.
The response to the terrorist attacks of the Land Volunteers was police persecution. Government repressions, incomparable in scale to the previous ones, also affected those revolutionaries who were in the village at that time. A dozen show political trials took place across Russia with sentences of 10-15 years of hard labor for printed and oral propaganda; 16 death sentences were handed down just for “belonging to criminal community" Under these conditions, the training of A.K. Solovyov's attempt on the life of the emperor on April 2, 1879 was assessed ambiguously by many members of the organization: some of them protested against the terrorist attack, believing that it would ruin the cause of revolutionary propaganda.
When terrorists created the “Freedom or Death” group in May 1879, without coordinating their actions with propaganda supporters, it became clear that general discussion conflict situation can't be avoided.
On June 15, 1879, supporters of active action gathered in Lipetsk to develop additions to the organization’s program and a common position. The Lipetsk congress showed that general ideas“politicians” and propagandists are getting less and less.
On June 19-21, 1879, at a congress in Voronezh, landowners tried to resolve contradictions and maintain the unity of the organization, but were unsuccessful: on August 15, 1879, “Land and Freedom” disintegrated.
Supporters of the old tactics - “villagers”, who considered it necessary to abandon the methods of terror, united in a new political education, calling it “Black Redistribution”. They declared themselves the main continuers of the cause of the “landers”.
“Politicians,” that is, supporters of active actions under the leadership of the conspiratorial party, created a union, which was given the name “People's Will.” A.I. included in it Zhelyabov, S.L. Perovskaya, A.D. Mikhailov, N.A. Morozov, V.N. Figner and others chose the path of political action against the most cruel government officials, the path of preparing a political coup - the detonator of an explosion capable of awakening the peasant masses and destroying their centuries-old inertia.
"LAND AND FREEDOM" of the 1870s, a secret revolutionary society in Russia, one of largest organizations populism. Founded in St. Petersburg at the beginning of 1876 as the “Northern Revolutionary Populist Group”, then called the “Society of Populists”, from the end of 1878 - “Land and Freedom” (in memory of the “Land and Freedom” of the 1860s). Prominent figures of “Land and Freedom” since the foundation of the organization were O. V. Aptekman, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, D. A. Lizogub, A. D. Mikhailov, M. A. Natanson, O. A. Natanson (née Shleisner ), A. D. Oboleshev, G. V. Plekhanov and others. Later S. M. Kravchinsky, D. A. Klements, N. A. Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, L. A. Tikhomirov joined it, M. F. Frolenko (many were previously members of the Tchaikovsky circle). The group of V. N. Figner collaborated with “Land and Freedom”. Members of “Land and Freedom” for the first time called themselves “populists”.
The formation of “Land and Freedom” was preceded by a discussion by the populists of the unsuccessful experience of “going to the people” in 1873-75. As a result, the foundations of the “Land and Freedom” program were determined (finally adopted in May 1878), which reflected many of the theoretical and tactical provisions put forward by M. A. Bakunin. His ultimate goal members of “Land and Freedom” proclaimed the establishment of “anarchy and collectivism.” Pushing the achievement of this goal into the distant future, the landowners in the near future believed in implementing measures based, in their opinion, on the “fundamental character traits of the Russian people”: an equal distribution of all land among the peasants, the establishment of “full secular self-government,” promoting the division of the country “into parts according to local desires,” proclamation of freedom of religion. These tasks were summarized in the slogan “Land and Freedom!” Members of the society were convinced that the implementation of their program was possible only through a “violent coup”; they emphasized the need for it prompt organization in view of the development of capitalism, which, as the landowners believed, was supposed to cause the destruction of the community (the landowners considered it as the basis of the socialist path of development of Russia) and distort the “people's worldview.” To prepare for the revolution, members of “Land and Freedom” considered it necessary: to intensify what they believed was already existing discontent among the people, including through the organization of permanent “settlements and hangouts” of revolutionaries in the countryside; win over religious sects and “robber gangs”, organize riots, demonstrations, strikes, and for conducting propaganda in the army - officer circles; to carry out “the systematic extermination of the most harmful or prominent persons from the government and in general people who maintain this or that order that we hate.”
The landowners began creating “settlements” (mainly in the Volga region, where there was a large Old Believer population and, as the landowners believed, the traditions of mass popular movements of the 18th century were preserved), settling in villages as paramedics, teachers, clerks, etc. The organization established the publication and distribution of the newspapers “Land and Freedom” (1878-79) and “Listok “Land and Freedom”” (1879), brochures, leaflets, appeals; conducted propaganda and agitation among workers and students. “Land and Freedom” organized in St. Petersburg in 1876 the first political demonstration in the history of Russia with the participation of workers (it was held under the slogans “Land and Freedom!”, “Long live the social revolution!”). In 1878-79, many landowners actively participated in student unrest and several strikes in St. Petersburg.
The terrorist activities of “Land and Freedom” were expressed in the murder of S. M. Kravchinsky, the chief of gendarmes and the main head of the 3rd department, N. V. Mezentsov, and G. D. Goldenberg, the Kharkov governor-general, Prince D. N. Kropotkin, as well as failed attempts by L. F. Mirsky on the new chief of gendarmes and the main chief of the 3rd department A. R. Drenteln and A. K. Solovyov on Emperor Alexander II. In 1877-79, landowners killed police agents N.A. Sharashkin, A.G. Nikonov and N.V. Reinshtein, adjutant to the head of the Kyiv provincial gendarme department, Baron G. E. Geiking. The landowners considered their terrorist acts as revenge or a means of self-defense and accompanied widespread proclamations and letters to government officials, in which the assassination attempts were motivated and sometimes announced. Thanks to the efforts of the actual leader of the organization, A.D. Mikhailov, who strictly monitored compliance with the requirements of secrecy, most of the members of “Land and Freedom” managed to avoid arrest (in 1880, the only major trial of members of “Land and Freedom” took place, in which out of 11 defendants, 7 sentenced to different deadlines hard labor, 4 - to exile in Siberia). In January 1879, N.V. Kletochnikov, who joined “Land and Freedom,” joined the Third Department and supplied the Land Volya members with information about the plans and actions of the political police.
The propaganda of the landowners did not find a response among the peasants and caused disappointment among many “settlers”. In connection with this, as well as in connection with the growth of government repression, the belief in the need for a political struggle against the autocracy in order to achieve democratic freedoms, without which the propaganda of socialist ideas was impossible, began to spread among the landowners. From the beginning of 1878, a group of “politicians” was formed within “Land and Freedom” and by the spring of 1879, supporters of the systematic use of terrorist methods (A. I. Zhelyabov, A. A. Kvyatkovsky, A. D. Mikhailov, N. A. Morozov , L.A. Tikhomirov, etc.), which took the name “Executive Committee of the Social Revolutionary Party”. She began to form the terrorist group "Freedom or Death". Supporters of the previous tactics began to be called “villagers” (O. V. Aptekman, G. V. Plekhanov, M. R. Popov, etc.). Disagreements between the two groups led to the split of Land and Freedom in mid-1879 into two independent organizations- “Black redistribution” and “People's will”.
Source: Revolutionary journalism of the seventies. Rostov n/d., 1907; Archive of “Land and Freedom” and “Narodnaya Volya”. M., 1932; Revolutionary populism of the 70s. XIX century M., 1965. T. 2; Revolutionary radicalism in Russia: the nineteenth century. Documentary publication. M., 1997.
Lit.: Aptekman O.V. Society “Land and Freedom” of the 70s. 2nd ed. P., 1924; Levin Sh. M. Social movement in Russia in the 60-70s of the 19th century. M., 1958; Tkachenko P. S. Revolutionary populist organization “Land and Freedom” (1876-1879). M., 1961; Tvardovskaya V. A. Socialist thought of Russia at the turn of the 1870-1880s. M., 1969; Troitsky N. A. Crusaders of socialism. Saratov, 2002.
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