Give a brief description of the natural zone of broad-leaved forests. Climate of mixed and deciduous forests of Russia
Sedimentary minerals most typical for platforms, since the platform cover is located there. These are mainly non-metallic minerals and fuels, the leading role among which is played by gas, oil, coal, and oil shale. They were formed from the remains of plants and animals accumulated in the coastal parts of shallow seas and in lake-marsh land conditions. These abundant organic remains could accumulate only in sufficiently humid and warm conditions favorable for lush development. In hot dry conditions in shallow seas and coastal lagoons, there was an accumulation of salts used as raw materials in.
Mining
There are several ways mining. Firstly, this is an open method in which rocks are mined in quarries. It is more economically beneficial, as it helps to obtain a cheaper product. However, an abandoned quarry can cause a wide net to form. The mine method of coal mining requires large expenditures and is therefore more expensive. The cheapest method of oil production is flowing, when oil rises through a well under oil gases. The pumping method of extraction is also common. There are also special ways mining. They are called geotechnological. With their help, ore is mined from the depths of the Earth. This is done by downloading hot water, solutions into layers containing the necessary minerals. Other wells pump out the resulting solution and separate the valuable component.
The demand for minerals is constantly growing, production is increasing mineral raw materials, but minerals are exhaustible natural resources, so it is necessary to use them more economically and fully.
There are several ways to do this:
- reducing losses of minerals during their extraction;
- more complete extraction of all useful components from the rock;
- integrated use of mineral resources;
- search for new, more promising deposits.
Thus, the main direction in the use of minerals in the coming years should not be an increase in the volume of their production, but a more rational use.
In modern searches for mineral resources, it is necessary to use not only the latest technology and sensitive instruments, but also a scientific forecast for the search for deposits, which helps to conduct targeted exploration of subsoil on a scientific basis. It was thanks to such methods that diamond deposits in Yakutia were first scientifically predicted and then discovered. A scientific forecast is based on knowledge of the connections and conditions for the formation of minerals.
Brief description of the main minerals
The hardest of all minerals. Its composition is pure carbon. It is found in placers and as inclusions in rocks. Diamonds are colorless, but they are also found in various colors. A cut diamond is called a diamond. Its weight is usually measured in carats (1 carat = 0.2 g). The largest diamond was found in Yuzhnaya: it weighed more than 3,000 carats. Most diamonds are mined in Africa (98% of production in the capitalist world). In Russia large deposits diamonds are located in Yakutia. Clear crystals are used to make gemstones. Before 1430, diamonds were considered common gemstones. The trendsetter for them was the Frenchwoman Agnes Sorel. Due to their hardness, opaque diamonds are used industrially for cutting and engraving, as well as for polishing glass and stone.
A soft, malleable metal, yellow in color, heavy, and does not oxidize in air. Found in nature mainly in pure form(nuggets). The largest nugget, weighing 69.7 kg, was found in Australia.
Gold is also found in the form of placers - this is the result of weathering and erosion of the deposit, when grains of gold are released and carried away, forming placers. Gold is used in the production of precision instruments and various jewelry. In Russia, gold lies on and in. Abroad - in Canada, South Africa,. Since in nature gold is found in small quantities and its extraction is associated with high costs, then it is considered a precious metal.
Platinum(from the Spanish plata - silver) - a precious metal from white to steel-gray color. It is characterized by refractoriness, resistance to chemical influences and electrical conductivity. It is mined mainly from placers. It is used for the manufacture of chemical glassware, in electrical engineering, jewelry and dentistry. In Russia, platinum is mined in the Urals and in Eastern Siberia. Abroad - in South Africa.
Gems (gems) - mineral bodies with beautiful color, brilliance, hardness, and transparency. They are divided into two groups: stones used for cutting and semi-precious stones. The first group includes diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, amethyst, and aquamarine. The second group includes malachite, jasper, and rock crystal. All precious stones, as a rule, are of igneous origin. However, pearls, amber, coral are minerals organic origin. Precious stones are used in jewelry and for technical purposes.
Tuffs- rocks of various origins. Calcareous tuff is a porous rock formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from sources. This tuff is used to produce cement and lime. Volcanic tuff - cemented. Tuffs are used as building material. Has different colors.
Mica- rocks that have the ability to split into thin layers with a smooth surface; found as impurities in sedimentary rocks. Various micas are used as a good electrical insulator, for the manufacture of windows in metallurgical furnaces, and in the electrical and radio industries. In Russia, mica is mined in Eastern Siberia, in. Industrial development of mica deposits is carried out in Ukraine, the USA, .
Marble- crystalline rock formed as a result of limestone metamorphism. It comes in various colors. Marble is used as a building material for wall cladding, architecture and sculpture. In Russia there are many of its deposits in the Urals and the Caucasus. Abroad, the most famous marble is mined in.
Asbestos(Greek inextinguishable) - a group of fibrous fireproof rocks that split into soft fibers of greenish-yellow or almost white. It occurs in the form of veins (a vein is a mineral body that fills a crack in earth's crust, usually has a plate-like shape, extending vertically to great depths. The length of the veins reaches two or more kilometers), among igneous and sedimentary rocks. It is used for the manufacture of special fabrics (fire insulation), tarpaulins, fire-resistant roofing materials, as well as thermal insulation materials. In Russia, asbestos mining is carried out in the Urals, in, and abroad - in and other countries.
Asphalt(resin) - a brittle, resinous rock of brown or black color, which is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Asphalt melts easily, burns with a smoky flame, and is a product of changes in certain types of oil, from which some of the substances have evaporated. Asphalt often penetrates sandstones, limestones, and marl. It is used as a building material for road surfaces, in electrical engineering and the rubber industry, for the preparation of varnishes and mixtures for waterproofing. The main asphalt deposits in Russia are the Ukhta region, abroad - in France, .
Apatity- minerals rich in phosphorus salts, green, gray and other colors; found among various igneous rocks, in some places forming large accumulations. Apatites are mainly used for the production of phosphate fertilizers, they are also used in the ceramics industry. In Russia, the largest deposits of apatite are located in, on. Abroad, they are mined in the Republic of South Africa.
Phosphorites- sedimentary rocks rich in phosphorus compounds, which form grains in the rock or bind various minerals together dense rock. The color of phosphorites is dark gray. They, like apatites, are used to produce phosphate fertilizers. In Russia, phosphorite deposits are common in the Moscow and Kirov regions. Abroad, they are mined in the USA (Florida Peninsula) and.
Aluminum ores- minerals and rocks used to produce aluminum. The main aluminum ores are bauxite, nepheline and alunite.
Bauxite(the name comes from the area of Beau in the south of France) - sedimentary rocks of red or brown. In the north, 1/3 of the world's reserves lie, and the country is one of the leading countries in their production. In Russia, bauxite is mined in. The main component of bauxite is aluminum oxide.
Alunites(the name comes from the word alun - alum (French) - minerals that contain aluminum, potassium and other inclusions. Alunite ore can be a raw material for the production of not only aluminum, but also potash fertilizers and sulfuric acid. Alunite deposits are in the USA , China, Ukraine, and other countries.
Nephelines(the name comes from the Greek "nephele", which means cloud) - minerals complex composition, gray or green, containing a significant amount of aluminum. They are part of igneous rocks. In Russia, nephelines are mined in and in Eastern Siberia. Aluminum obtained from these ores is a soft metal, produces strong alloys, and is widely used in the production of household goods.
Iron ores- natural mineral accumulations containing iron. They are varied in mineralogical composition, the amount of iron in them and various impurities. Impurities can be valuable (manganese chromium, cobalt, nickel) and harmful (sulfur, phosphorus, arsenic). The main ones are brown iron ore, red iron ore, and magnetic iron ore.
Brown iron ore, or limonite, is a mixture of several minerals containing iron with an admixture of clay substances. It has a brown, yellow-brown or black color. It is most often found in sedimentary rocks. If ore brown iron ore- one of the most common iron ores - have an iron content of at least 30%, then they are considered industrial. The main deposits are in Russia (Ural, Lipetsk), Ukraine (), France (Lorraine), on.
Hematite, or hematite, is a red-brown to black mineral containing up to 65% iron.
Found in various rocks in the form of crystals and thin plates. Sometimes it forms clusters in the form of hard or earthy masses of a bright red color. The main deposits of red iron ore are in Russia (KMA), Ukraine (Krivoy Rog), USA, Brazil, Kazakhstan, Canada, Sweden.
Magnetic iron ore, or magnetite, is a black mineral containing 50-60% iron. This is high quality iron ore. Composed of iron and oxygen, highly magnetic. It occurs in the form of crystals, inclusions and solid masses. The main deposits are in Russia (Ural, KMA, Siberia), Ukraine (Krivoy Rog), Sweden and the USA.
Manganese ores- mineral compounds containing manganese, the main property of which is to give steel and cast iron malleability and hardness. Modern metallurgy is unthinkable without manganese: a special alloy is smelted - ferromanganese, containing up to 80% manganese, which is used to smelt high-quality steel. In addition, manganese is necessary for the growth and development of animals and is a microfertilizer. The main ore deposits are located in Ukraine (Nikolskoye), India, Brazil and the Republic of South Africa.
Tin ores- numerous minerals containing tin. Tin ores with a tin content of 1-2% or more are being developed. These ores require beneficiation - increasing the valuable component and separating waste rock, so ores are used for smelting, the tin content of which has been increased to 55%. Tin does not oxidize, which is why it is widely used in the canning industry. In Russia, tin ores are found in Eastern Siberia and on, and abroad they are mined in Indonesia, on the peninsula.
Nickel ores- mineral compounds containing nickel. It does not oxidize in air. The addition of nickel to steels greatly increases their elasticity. Pure nickel is used in mechanical engineering. In Russia it is mined at Kola Peninsula, in the Urals, in Eastern Siberia; abroad - in Canada, in Brazil.
Uranium-radium ores- mineral accumulations containing uranium. Radium is a product of the radioactive decay of uranium. The radium content in uranium ores is negligible - up to 300 mg per 1 ton of ore. are of great importance, since the fission of the nuclei of each gram of uranium can produce 2 million times more energy than burning 1 gram of fuel, so they are used as fuel in nuclear power plants to generate cheap electricity. Uranium-radium ores are mined in Russia, the USA, China, Canada, Congo, and other countries of the world.
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Zone deciduous forests located in Manchuria, the Far East, within Europe, the eastern part of China, and North America. It also affects the southern part of South America and some areas Central Asia.
Broadleaf forests are most common where the climate is temperate. warm climate, and the ratio of moisture and heat is optimal. All this provides favorable conditions during the growing season. The leaf blades of the trees growing there are wide, hence the name of these forests. What other features does this natural area have? Broadleaf forests are home to numerous animals, reptiles, birds and insects.
Characteristics
The peculiarity of broad-leaved forests is that they can be divided into two distinct tiers. One of them is higher, the other is lower. These forests are shrubby, the existing grasses grow in three tiers, and the ground cover is represented by lichens and mosses.
Another characteristic feature is the light mode. In such forests, two light maxima are distinguished. The first is observed in the spring, when the trees are not yet covered with leaves. The second is in the fall, when the foliage thins. In summer, light penetration is minimal. The above-described regime explains the peculiarity of the grass cover.
The soil of deciduous forests is rich in organo-mineral compounds. They appear as a result of the decomposition of plant litter. Trees in broadleaf forests contain ash. There is especially a lot of it in the leaves - about five percent. Ash, in turn, is rich in calcium (twenty percent of the total volume). It also contains potassium (about two percent) and silicon (up to three percent).
Trees of broadleaf forests
Forests of this type are characterized richest variety tree species. The latter can be counted here about ten. Broad-leaved forests of the taiga, for example, are not so rich in this regard. The reason is that the conditions of the harsh taiga climate are not so conducive to the growth and development of flora. Many tree species that are demanding on soil composition and climate simply will not survive in unfavorable conditions.
In the southern part Tula region there is a famous forest area. He gives great performance about what broad-leaved forests can be like. The soil of this area is favorable for the growth of trees such as small-leaved linden, Norway maple and field maple, common ash, elm, elm, wild apple and pear trees. Oaks and ash trees are the tallest, followed by Norway maples, elms and lindens. The lowest are field maples, wild pears and apple trees. As a rule, the dominant position is occupied by oak, and the remaining trees act as satellites.
Let us consider in more detail the above representatives of dendroflora.
Herbs
Plants of broad-leaved forests are characterized by large and wide leaf blades. For this reason they are called broad-grass oak forests. Some grasses grow in single specimens; they never form impenetrable thickets. Others, on the contrary, form a kind of carpet covering large spaces. Such herbs are dominant. Among them are common sedge, hairy sedge and yellow green grass.
Most of the herbaceous plants found in deciduous forests are perennial. They live up to several decades. As a rule, their existence is maintained through vegetative propagation. They reproduce poorly by seeds. A characteristic feature of these plants is long underground and above-ground shoots, rapidly growing in different directions and actively occupying new areas of the earth.
The above-ground parts of most representatives of oak groves die off in autumn period. Only the roots and rhizomes in the soil overwinter. They contain special buds, from which new shoots form in the spring.
Exception to the Rule
Rare representatives of broad grass remain green both in winter and summer. Such plants include the following: hoofweed, green grass, hairy sedge.
Shrubs
As for these representatives of the flora, it is very difficult to find them in deciduous forests. They are simply not typical of oak forests, which cannot be said about coniferous forests, where shrubs grow everywhere. The most common are blueberries and lingonberries.
“Hasty” oak forest ephemeroids
These plants are of the greatest interest to specialists studying forest flora. Among them are spring guillemot, corydalis various types and goose onions. These plants are usually small in size, but they develop very quickly. Ephemeroids rush to be born immediately after the snow cover melts. Some especially fast sprouts make their way even through the snow. After a week, maximum two, their buds are already blooming. After a few more weeks, the fruits and seeds ripen. After this, the plants lie down on the ground, turn yellow, after which the part of them that is above the ground dies. Moreover, this process occurs at the very beginning of the summer period, when, as it may seem, the conditions for growth and development are as favorable as possible. The secret is simple. Ephemeroids have their own rhythm of life, which differs from the peculiar development schedule of other plants. They bloom lushly only in the spring, and summer for them is the time to wither.
The period most conducive to their development is early spring. At this time of year, the forest experiences maximum light as the bushes and trees have not yet acquired their thick green cover. In addition, during this period the soil is optimally saturated with moisture. As for high summer temperatures, ephemeroids do not need it at all. All these plants are perennial. They do not die after their aboveground part dries out. Living underground roots are represented by tubers, bulbs or rhizomes. These organs act as receptacles nutrients, mostly starch. This is why stems, leaves and flowers appear so early and grow so quickly.
Ephemeroids are widespread plants in broad-leaved oak forests. There are about ten species in total. Their flowers are painted in bright purple, blue, and yellow colors. During flowering, ephemeroids form a thick, beautiful carpet.
Mosses
Broad-leaved forests of Russia are home to various types of mosses. Unlike taiga forests, in which these plants form a dense green soil cover, in oak forests mosses do not cover the soil so widely. The role of mosses in deciduous forests is rather modest. The main reason is the fact that leaf litter from broad-leaved forests has a detrimental effect on these plants.
Fauna
Animals of the broad-leaved forests of Russia are ungulates, predators, insectivores, rodents and bats. Greatest variety observed in those areas that are not touched by humans. Thus, in deciduous forests you can see roe deer, wild boars, fallow deer, sika and red deer, and elk. The order of predators is represented by foxes, wolves, martens, stoats and weasels. Broadleaf forests, where wildlife is rich and diverse, are home to beavers, squirrels, muskrats and nutria. In addition, these areas are inhabited by mice, rats, moles, hedgehogs, shrews, snakes, lizards and marsh turtles.
Birds of broad-leaved forests - larks, finches, warblers, tits, flycatchers, swallows, starlings. Crows, rooks, black grouse, woodpeckers, crossbills, jackdaws, and hazel grouse also live there. Birds of Prey represented by hawks, owls, owls, eagle owls and harriers. The marshes are home to waders, cranes, herons, gulls, ducks and geese.
In the past, broadleaf forests were inhabited by bison. Now, unfortunately, there are only a few dozen individuals left. These animals are protected by law. They live in Belovezhskaya Pushcha(in the Republic of Belarus), in the Prioksko-Terrasny Nature Reserve ( Russian Federation), in some Western European countries and in Poland. Several animals were transported to the Caucasus. There they coexist with bison.
The number of red deer has also undergone a change. They have become much smaller due to the barbaric actions of man. Massive plowing of fields has become disastrous for these beautiful animals. Deer can reach two and a half meters in length and three hundred and forty kilograms of weight. They tend to live in small herds of up to ten animals. In most cases, the female is dominant. Her offspring also live with her.
In autumn, males gather a kind of harem. Resembling the sound of a trumpet, their roar spreads three to four kilometers around. The most successful deer, having defeated their rivals in fights, can gather up to twenty females around them. This is how another type of reindeer herd is formed. At the beginning summer season deer give birth to babies. They are born weighing eight to eleven kilograms. Up to six months they experience intensive growth. One-year-old males acquire horns.
Deer feed on grass, leaves and shoots of trees, mushrooms, lichens, reeds, and wormwood. But pine needles are not suitable for food. In conditions wildlife deer live about fifteen years. In captivity, this figure doubles.
Beavers are another inhabitant of deciduous forests. The most favorable conditions for them are observed in Europe, North America, and Asia. The maximum recorded weight of this animal is thirty kilograms, and its body length is one meter. Beavers are distinguished by a massive body and a flattened tail. Webbing between fingers hind legs help lead an aquatic lifestyle. Fur color can vary from light brown to black. By lubricating their fur with a special secretion, beavers protect themselves from getting wet. When immersed in water, the ears of this animal fold and the nostrils close. Economical consumption of air helps him stay under water for up to fifteen minutes.
Beavers prefer to settle on the banks of lakes and oxbow lakes, as well as slow-flowing rivers. They are attracted by abundant coastal and aquatic vegetation. It is a hole or a kind of hut, the entrance to which is located under the surface of the water. These animals build dams when the water level is unstable. Thanks to these structures, the flow is regulated, which allows water to enter the home. Gnawing branches and even large trees is easy for beavers. Thus, aspen trees of five to seven centimeters in diameter lend themselves to these animals in two minutes. Their favorite food is reed. In addition, they are not averse to eating iris, water lilies, and water lilies. Beavers live in families. The young go in search of a mate in the third year of life.
Wild pigs are another typical inhabitant of deciduous forests. They have a huge head and a very strong long snout. The most powerful weapon of these animals is sharp triangular fangs that are curved up and back. Boars' vision is not very good, but this is compensated by excellent hearing and a keen sense of smell. Large individuals reach a weight of three hundred kilograms. The body of this animal is protected by dark brown bristles. It is very durable.
Boars are excellent runners and swimmers. These animals can swim across a body of water that is several kilometers wide. The basis of their diet is plants, but we can say that wild boars are omnivores. Their favorite delicacy is acorns and beech nuts; they will not refuse frogs, mice, chicks, insects and snakes.
Representatives of reptiles
Broad-leaved forests are inhabited by snakes, vipers, copperheads, godwits, green and viviparous lizards. Only vipers pose a danger to humans. Many people mistakenly believe that copperheads are also poisonous, but this is not the case. The most numerous reptiles deciduous forests - grass snakes.
Relief features
The zone of broad-leaved forests (and mixed) in the European part of Russia forms a kind of triangle, the base of which is located at the western borders of the country, and the top abuts the Ural Mountains. Since this territory was covered more than once by continental ice, its topography is mostly hilly. The most obvious traces of the presence of the Valdai Glacier are preserved in the north-west. There, the zone of broad-leaved and mixed forests is characterized by chaotic piles of hills, steep ridges, closed lakes and basins. Southern part The described territory is represented by secondary moraine plains, which were formed as a result of a decrease in the inclined surface of hilly areas. The relief is characterized by the presence of sandy plains different sizes. Their origin is water-glacial. They are undulating, and sometimes you can find pronounced sand dunes.
Russian Plain
This zone is located in the temperate climate zone. The climate there is relatively mild and humid. The soil of these territories is soddy-podzolic. Close location Atlantic Ocean determined the features of the relief. The river network in coniferous-deciduous forests is well developed. Reservoirs have a large area.
The activity of the waterlogging process is determined by the proximity of groundwater and humid climate. The plants that dominate the grass cover have wide leaf blades.
Conclusion
Broad-leaved forests located in Europe are classified as endangered ecosystems. But just two or three centuries ago they were one of the most diverse on the planet and were located throughout most of Europe. Thus, in the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries they occupied an area equal to several million hectares. Today there are no more than one hundred thousand hectares.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, only fragments of the vast past remained intact. broadleaf belt. At the dawn of this century, attempts were made to grow oak trees in deserted territories. However, this turned out to be quite a difficult matter: the death of young oak groves was caused by constant droughts. At that time, research was carried out, led by the famous Russian geographer Dokuchaev. As a result, it was established that the failure to grow new trees was due to large-scale deforestation, since this forever changed the hydrology and climate of the area.
Today, secondary forests and artificial plantings grow in areas previously occupied by broad-leaved forests. They are dominated by coniferous trees. Unfortunately, as experts note, the dynamics and structure natural oak forests cannot be restored.
Broad-leaved forests are common in areas where the natural landscape is characterized by an optimal ratio of heat and moisture. Geographic map The earth records significant areas of their natural growth in the temperate zone of Europe, Manchuria, the Far East, Japan, eastern China, and North America. Small areas are occupied by deciduous forests in Central Asia and southern South America. In Russia, broadleaf forests give way to mixed forests and occupy an area in the shape of a triangle, the base of which is located at the western border of the state, and the top abuts the Ural Mountains. In Western Siberia, a narrow strip of birch and aspen forests separates the taiga from the forest-steppe.
Characteristics of the natural zone of broad-leaved forests.
TO necessary conditions The development of these forest ecosystems involves the complex interaction of topography, soil, climate, and water. A moderately warm climate is characterized by warm, long summers and mild winters. The annual amount of precipitation, evenly distributed throughout the year, is slightly higher than evaporation, which significantly reduces the level of soil swamping. The main tree species of broad-leaved forests are oak, linden, elm, maple, ash, beech, and hornbeam. Most of these forests are multi-story systems: high tree layer, understory, shrub, several herbaceous different heights. The ground layer is formed by mosses and lichens. There are also forests in which high and dense tree crowns exclude undergrowth and grass cover. The soil in them is densely covered with a layer of old leaves. When decomposing, organic residues form humus and contribute to the formation of stable organo-mineral compounds, since the leaves are rich in ash, calcium, potassium, and silicon. They contain magnesium, aluminum, phosphorus, manganese, iron, sodium, and chlorine in smaller quantities.
Wide leaf blades are not suitable for unfavorable conditions cold period of the year, so they fall. Falling leaves, thick bark of trunks and branches, resinous, dense scaly buds - all this is protection from excessive winter evaporation. Stable snow cover during the melting period causes a blow to the soil due to active leaching. Broad-leaved forests are characterized by sod-podzolic, gray, brown forests. soil, varieties of chernozem are less common here.
Mixed forests are a natural zone that is characteristic of a temperate climate. Broad-leaved and coniferous trees grow here at the same time, which is why the forest has such a name. Location of forests of this type on the planet:
- North America - northern USA, southern Canada;
- Eurasia - in the Carpathians, in the south of Scandinavia, in the Far East, in Siberia, in the Caucasus, the sulfur part of the Japanese islands;
- South America;
- New Zealand is part of the islands.
To the north of the coniferous-deciduous forests is the taiga. In the south, the mixed forest turns into broad-leaved forests or forest-steppe.
Climatic conditions
The natural zone of mixed forests is characterized by a pronounced change of seasons. The world of flora and fauna here is adapted to both frost and heat. Average temperature In winter it is -16 degrees Celsius, and this figure can drop to -30 degrees. The cold season has an average duration. Summer in this zone is warm, the average temperature varies from +16 to +24 degrees. There is not much rainfall here per year, approximately 500-700 millimeters.
Types of flora
The main forest-forming species of mixed forests:
- maple;
- pine;
The forests contain willows and mountain ash, alder and birch. Deciduous trees shed their leaves in the fall. Coniferous trees remain green all year round. The only exception is larch.
In mixed European forests In addition to the main forest-forming species, elm, linden, ash, and apple trees grow. Among the shrubs there are viburnum and honeysuckle, hazel and warty euonymus. In the Caucasus, in addition to the listed species, beech and fir also grow.
The Far East is characterized by Ayan spruce and Mongolian oak, whole-leaf fir and Manchurian ash, Amur velvet and other plant species. In southeast Asia, coniferous forests contain yew, larch, birch, hemlock, as well as undergrowth - lilac, jasmine and rhododendron bushes.
North America is rich in the following plant species:
- sequoia;
- sugar maple;
- Weymouth pine;
- balsam fir;
- yellow pine;
- western hemlock;
- bicolor oak.
Mixed forests are a very interesting natural area, which is represented by enormous biodiversity. Forests of this type are common on almost all continents and on some islands temperate zone. Some plant species are found throughout mixed forests, while others are characteristic only of certain ecosystems.
ecoportal.info
20. Climate of the zone of mixed and deciduous forests.
The climate is moderate
continental; Atlantic-continental
region with moderate continental intra-annual
types of distribution precipitation.summer is warm
and humid, winters are mild.
Average temperatures
January change from west to east
from -4.5 to -8 °C,
July - from +17 to +19
°C. On average, 600-680 mm falls per year
precipitation.
21. Features of the formation of soil and vegetation cover of mixed and broad-leaved forests.
Diversity
and the complexity of the terrain, climate and soils
Ukraine explained
richness of flora species composition
countries.
Poorer vegetation cover in floodplains
rivers and swamps. Yes, in the swamps
Ukrainian Polesie grows around
270 species, many of which occur
also in forests, meadows and reservoirs.
And on the saline soils of the country there are
about 200 plant species,
of which 70 are species of typical halophytes.
22. Zonal types and subtypes of soils in mixed and deciduous forests
and their characteristics.
IN
Polesie
on ancient alluvial fluvio-glacial
zonal deposits are common
soddy-podzolic soils, and on
loess-like loams zonal gray
forest soils. Sod-podzolic
soil common
in watershed areas and
are divided into three subtypes:
soddy-slightly podzolic,
soddy-medium podzolic and
soddy-podzolic gley soils. Gray
forest soils. Distributed
three subtypes of gray forest soils:
light gray,
gray and dark gray. They are forming
under broad-leaved trees
forests on carbonate loess and loess-like
breeds Typical profile
gray
forest soils
represented by humus-eluvial
horizon
gray with a thickness of 32-35 cm under which
overlies thick alluvial
horizon reaching a depth of 90-100 cm.
There is a strong
compact and nutty-prismatic
structure. At the top
there is plenty of horizon
silica powder. The boiling begins
at a depth of 120-140 cm..
23. Intrazonal soils of mixed and broad-leaved forests and their characteristics.
Swamp
soil Ukraine
quite varied. Prevails
lowland type
swamps, but there are transitional and even
raised bogs. Power
lowland peatlands is small and amounts to
1-4 m, rarely 8-10 m. Ash content of their upper
horizons fluctuates most often in
within 20-25%, often reaching even
65-7% (in floodplains). The acidity is overwhelming
parts of peat
soil is very low. Saturation degree
peat grounds always
high, and, as a rule, exceeds 90-92%.
Lower peat bogs contain
a lot of mobile forms of nitrogen and
phosphorus. The latter, moreover, often
forms powerful
vivianite clusters. Movable
they are poor in potassium.
24. Fauna of mixed and deciduous forests.
Forest zone
presented
in Ukraine, lowland forests of Polesie
and mountain forests of the Carpathians and Crimea. Despite
to significant differences in conditions
existence in these three areas, they
have a number common features. Abundance of shelters
in the forest allows you to lead many comparatively
large animals have a secretive lifestyle,
which often determines the possibilities
their prosperous existence. IN
In forests, animals are distributed according to
tiers, which significantly increases
species diversity animal
population. Forest food reserves are greater
than other lands, and, most importantly, they are more
stable. Particularly important
for the animal population have significant
winter stocks of feed, which in conditions
relatively mild winters in Ukraine
ensure a safe winter
a variety of mammals and birds.
In particular, among forest birds here
the largest number is noted
wintering forms. Characteristic for Polesie
mammals such as boar,
elk,
roe,
river beaver),
squirrel,
vole
ordinary
Very few here lynx,
pine martens,
but nevertheless they represent
typical inhabitants of this zone. Of the birds
much more diverse and
more numerous than mammals
widespread black grouse,
meet grouse
And capercaillie
although their ranges are significantly narrower. In some places
extremely numerous viper
ordinary),
lizard
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please help me I need to write a description of the broadleaf forest zone
Temperate broadleaf forests
They occupy eastern North America, Central Europe, eastern China; also form altitude zones in the Carpathians, Crimea and the Caucasus. In addition, isolated pockets of broad-leaved forests are found in the Russian Far East, Chile, New Zealand and central Japan.
The climatic features of this zone are favorable for the growth of deciduous trees with a wide leaf blade. Moderate continental air masses bring precipitation from the oceans (from 400 to 600 mm), mainly in warm time year. The average temperature in January is -8°-0°C, in July +20-24°C. Beech, hornbeam, elm, maple, linden, and ash grow in the forests. The broadleaf forests of eastern America are dominated by trees similar to some East Asian and European species, but there are also species characteristic only of this area.
In terms of their composition, these forests are one of the richest in the world. globe. Most of all in them American species oaks, along with them chestnut, linden, and plane trees are common. Prevail tall trees with a powerful, spreading crown, often entwined with climbing plants - grapes or ivy. To the south there may be magnolias and tulip tree. For European broadleaf forests, oak and beech are the most typical.
The fauna of deciduous forests is close to that of the taiga, but there are some animals unknown in the forests of the taiga. These are black bears, wolves, foxes, minks, raccoons. The characteristic ungulate of deciduous forests is the white-tailed deer. He is considered an undesirable neighbor for settlements, as it eats young crops. In the broad-leaved forests of Eurasia, many animals have become rare and are under human protection. The bison and the Ussuri tiger are listed in the Red Book.
Soils in deciduous forests are gray forest or brown forest.
This forest zone is densely populated and to a large extent negated. It has been preserved only in heavily rugged, inconvenient areas for arable farming and in nature reserves.
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Geographical location
Mixed and deciduous forests are located south of the taiga on the Russian Plain, is absent in inland areas and reappears in the southern part of the Far East.
Climate
Mixed and deciduous forests are characterized by warmer, longer summers than in the taiga. The average January temperature varies from -4C in the west to -16C in the east of the Russian Plain. In the Far East, the January temperature is -20…-24C. There is no deep snow cover. The annual precipitation reaches 500-800mm (in some places on the ocean coast up to 2000mm). This is approximately equal to evaporation. The humidification coefficient is slightly more than one. Therefore, the swampiness here is much lower than in the taiga. Lowland and transitional swamps predominate.
Soil
In the north, soddy-podzolic soils are common under coniferous-broad-leaved forests, and in the southern part under broad-leaved forests. forests - gray forest soils. There are three main horizons in them. The upper horizon is humus, dead above-ground parts of plants fall here, there are especially many microorganisms, worms, larvae and insects. This layer is the most fertile. There are also two layers: the horizon of washing out and washing out.
Flora
The Far Eastern mixed and broad-leaved forests are very unique. The vegetation of the zone has been greatly changed as a result of human activity. Now forests occupy less than 30% of the area of the zone. They contain a significant proportion of secondary, small-leaved forests. The zone of mixed and deciduous forests is characterized by large reserves of heat and sufficient moisture.
Animal world
In mixed and deciduous forests there is a lot of shelter, varied and quite plentiful food. This allows animals to stay in the forests all year round. There are significantly fewer migratory birds here than in the tundra. Forests are characterized by a tiered distribution of animals. Animals common here are squirrels, pine marten, ferret, brown bear, foxes, elk, bats, woodpeckers, owls.
Household human activity: As a result of human economic activity, natural landscapes are giving way to anthropogenic landscapes. Forests have been cut down and minerals are being intensively mined.
The mixed forest zone does not form a continuous strip. It is located only in the west and east of the mainland. Mixed forests are also common in northern Ukraine. Here, on soddy-podzolic soils, conifers and hardwoods trees. Conifers are dominated by pine and spruce, and deciduous trees are oak, linden, and maple. Siberian spruce and Korean cedar grow in the mixed forests of the Far East. To the south of the mixed forests, broadleaf forests grow on brown and gray forest soils. The soils beneath them are more fertile than the soils of the taiga. Mostly heat-loving and moisture-loving trees grow here: beech, oak, hornbeam, linden, maple.
The fauna of mixed and deciduous forests is richer than in the taiga. Many large and small mammals: wild pigs(Fig. 188), roe deer, red deer, wild cat. The largest animals natural area is the bison - a rare mammal listed in the International Red Book. Many birds live in the forests: wild pigeon, white stork, owls.
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Mixed and deciduous forests | Fauna of Russia
Mixed and broad-leaved forests occupy a significantly smaller area in the forest zone than taiga. They grow in the west of the European part of Russia and in the south of the Far East.
In Siberia, there are no mixed or broad-leaved forests: there the taiga directly transforms into the steppe.
Mixed forests are more than 90% composed of coniferous and small-leaved species. These are mainly spruce and pine with an admixture of birch and aspen. There are few broad-leaved species in mixed forests. Broad-leaved forests consist mainly of oak, linden, maple, elm, and in the southwestern regions - ash, hornbeam, and beech. The same breeds, but local species, are also represented in the Far East, where, in addition, Manchurian walnuts, grapes and vines grow.
The northern boundary of the zone lies approximately 57° N. sh., above which the oak disappears, and the southern one adjoins the northern border of the forest-steppe, where the spruce disappears. This territory forms a kind of triangle with vertices in Leningrad, Sverdlovsk, Kyiv.
Mixed and broad-leaved forests are located mainly on the East European Plain, which has a flat, low-lying surface interrupted by a number of hills. Here are the sources, watersheds and basins of the largest rivers in the European part of Russia: the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina. On river floodplains, forests alternate with lush meadows, and on watersheds - with plowed fields. Due to the proximity of groundwater and limited drainage, flat lowlands are heavily swamped in places (Polesie, Meshchera). In addition to forest swamps and lakes, in some areas there are sandy soils covered with pine. In forests, clearings and swamps, many berry bushes and herbs grow.
Compared to taiga, the climate of mixed and deciduous forests is less severe. Winter is not so long and frosty, summer is warm. The average temperature in January is -10...-11°С, and in July + 18...+19°С. Average annual quantity precipitation from 800 to 400 mm. In general, the climate is transitional from maritime to continental in the direction from west to east. If in the Baltic states and Belarus the proximity of the sea smoothes out the difference between the air temperature of summer and winter, then in the Vyatka and Kama basin it becomes significant. In summer the air here warms up to +40°C, and in winter frosts reach -45°C. In all seasons of the year, winds carrying moisture from the Atlantic Ocean prevail.
The snow cover is less thick than in the taiga, with a layer from 20-30 (in the west) to 80-90 cm (in the east). It lasts on average 140-150 days a year, in southern regions- 30-60 days.
With the onset of winter, life in forests, especially broad-leaved ones, comes to a standstill. Most insectivorous birds fly to warmer climes, and some animals go into hibernation or sleep (bats, hedgehogs, dormouse, badgers, bears). In spring and summer, all tiers of forests are inhabited by various animals.
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Mixed and broad-leaved forests. Climate of mixed and deciduous forests
In vast areas of North America and Eurasia there are mixed and deciduous forests. The zones of these green areas are located in the temperate geographical zone of the Earth. The list of plants that these forests are rich in includes pine and spruce, maple and linden, oak and ash, hornbeam and beech.
Mixed and broad-leaved forests are the habitat of roe deer and brown bears, moose and red deer, ferrets and martens, squirrels and beavers, wild boars and foxes, hares and chipmunks, as well as many mouse-like rodents. The birds that consider these massifs their home are storks and cuckoos, owls and wood grouse, hazel grouse and geese, ducks and eagle owls. The lakes and rivers of this forest zone are inhabited mainly by carp fish species. Sometimes salmon are also found.
Mixed and deciduous forests have been heavily damaged by human activity. Since ancient times, people began to cut them down, replacing them with fields.
Woodlands of North America and Western Europe
Territory coniferous forests has its own southern border. It is located in the western part of Eurasia and in the North American Great Lakes region. Its coordinates are about sixty degrees north latitude. To the south of this mark, along with coniferous species, broad-leaved species are present in the forests. At the same time, trees in different parts of the world are represented by different types.
The climate of mixed and deciduous forests is warmer than in the zone of coniferous species. The summer period in these zones is longer than in the north, but winters can be quite cold and snowy. In such mixed and broad-leaved forests, broad-grass plants with wide blades dominate.
In autumn, deciduous trees shed their cover, resulting in the formation of humus. Moderate moisture promotes the accumulation of mineral and organic substances in the upper soil layers.
The transition zone, in which mixed forests are located, is heterogeneous. In the formation of vegetation in these massifs big role Local conditions play a role, as do the types of soil rocks.
For example, in the southern part of Sweden, as well as in the Baltic states large areas occupied by forests with a predominance of pure spruce. They grow on moraine loamy soils.
Video: Broadcast 11. Ecosystems of broad-leaved and mixed forests. Part 2
Somewhat further south, coniferous species are falling out of the forest stand. Forest areas become only broad-leaved. In these zones, the average temperature in January does not fall below minus ten, and in July this figure is thirteen to twenty-three degrees Celsius.
Forest vegetation of North America and Western Europe
It is difficult to draw a clear boundary between mixed and deciduous forests. Conifers can be found far in the south, all the way to the subtropics. In addition, cutting deciduous trees was produced more intensively. This caused a predominant share of coniferous species.
The vegetation of mixed and broad-leaved forests is diverse. In the south, magnolias, paulownias and tulip trees penetrated their territory from the subtropics. In the undergrowth next to lilac and honeysuckle you can find rhododendron and bamboo. Lianas of wild grapes, lemongrass, etc. are also common in such areas.
Forests of Russia
In those latitudes where the taiga extends its southern borders, mixed and broad-leaved forests come into their own. Their territory extends to forest-steppes. The zone in which green areas are located, consisting of trees of mixed and broad-leaved species, is located from the western borders of Russia to the place where the Oka flows into the Volga.
Climate that is typical for mixed and deciduous forests of Russia
Nothing protects the green area from the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, which determines weather conditions on its territory. The climate of mixed and deciduous forests in Russia is moderately warm. At the same time, it is quite soft. The climatic conditions of this zone favorably influence the growth of coniferous trees along with broad-leaved trees. These latitudes experience warm summers and relatively long, cold winters.
Atmospheric temperature mixed and deciduous forests in the warm period have average value exceeding ten degrees. In addition, the climate in this zone is characterized high humidity. During the warm period, the maximum amount of precipitation falls (ranging from 600 to 800 millimeters). These factors have a beneficial effect on the growth of broad-leaved trees.
Reservoirs
On the territory of mixed and deciduous forests of the Russian Federation they originate high-water rivers, the path of which passes through the East European Plain. Their list includes the Dnieper, as well as the Volga, Western Dvina etc.
Occurrence surface waters in this zone it is quite close to the surface layers of the earth. This fact, as well as the dissected relief landscape and the presence of clay-sand deposits, favor the formation of lakes and swamps.
Video: Mixed forest plants
Vegetation
In the European region of Russia, mixed and broad-leaved forests are heterogeneous. In the western part of the zone, oak and linden, ash and elm are widespread. As you move east, the climate becomes more continental. A shift occurs southern border zones to the north, and at the same time the predominant tree species become fir and spruce. The role of broad-leaved species is significantly reduced. In the eastern regions, linden is most often found. This tree forms a second layer in mixed forests. In such areas, undergrowth develops well. It is represented by plants such as hazel, euonymus, and honeysuckle. But in the low-lying grass cover, taiga plant species grow - maynik and sorrel.
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The flora of mixed and deciduous forests changes as you move south. This is due to climate change, which is becoming warmer. In these zones, the volume of precipitation is close to the evaporation rate. These areas are dominated by deciduous forests. Coniferous tree species are becoming increasingly rare. Main role in similar forests belongs to oak and linden.
The territories of these green forests are rich in floodplain and dry meadows, which are located on alluvial soil layers. There are also swamps here. Lowland and transitional ones predominate among them.
Video: Forest natural area
Animal world
Mixed and broad-leaved forests in old times were rich wild animals and birds. Nowadays, humans have pushed representatives of the fauna into the least populated zones or exterminated them altogether. There are specially created reserves to preserve or restore a particular species. Typical animals living in the zone of mixed and deciduous forests are the black ferret, bison, elk, beaver, etc. The species of animals living in Eurasia are close in origin to those species whose habitat is the European zone. These are roe deer and deer, marten and mink, muskrat and dormouse.
Sika deer and red deer, as well as muskrat, have acclimatized in this zone. In mixed and deciduous forests you can find grass snakes and sand lizards.
Human activity
Mixed and broad-leaved forests of Russia contain huge reserves wood Their depths are rich in valuable minerals, and their rivers have colossal reserves of energy. These zones have been developed by humans for a long time. This is especially true of the Russian Plain. On its territory, significant areas are allocated for cattle breeding and agriculture. In order to preserve forest complexes, national parks. Reserves and nature reserves are also open.
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[email protected]: Geographical location of mixed forests?
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The zone of mixed and deciduous forests stretches from the western borders of Russia to Ural mountains, and then a thin strip to the source of the Ob River.
Geographical location: Mixed and broad-leaved forests are located south of the taiga on the Russian Plain, are absent in inland regions and reappear in the southern part of the Far East.
Climate: Mixed and deciduous forests are characterized by warmer, longer summers than in the taiga. The average January temperature varies from -4C in the west to -16C in the east of the Russian Plain. In the Far East, the January temperature is -20…-24C. There is no deep snow cover. The annual precipitation reaches 500-800mm. This is approximately equal to evaporation. The humidification coefficient is slightly more than one. Therefore, the swampiness here is much lower than in the taiga. Lowland and transitional swamps predominate.
Soils: In the north, under coniferous-broad-leaved forests, soddy-podzolic soils are common, and in the southern part, under broad-leaved forests, gray forest soils are common. Three main horizons are distinguished in them. The upper horizon is humus, dead above-ground parts of plants fall here, there are especially many microorganisms here , worms, larvae and insects. This layer is the most fertile. There are also two layers: the horizon of washing out and washing out.
Flora: The Far Eastern mixed and broad-leaved forests are very unique. The vegetation of the zone has been greatly changed as a result of human activity. Now forests occupy less than 30% of the zone's area. They contain a significant proportion of secondary, small-leaved forests. The zone of mixed and deciduous forests is characterized by large reserves of heat and sufficient moisture.
Fauna: In mixed and deciduous forests there is a lot of shelter, varied and quite plentiful food. This allows animals to stay in the forests all year round. There are significantly fewer migratory birds here than in the tundra. Forests are characterized by a tiered distribution of animals. Animals common here are: squirrels, pine martens, polecats, brown bears, foxes, elk, bats, woodpeckers, owls.
Household human activity: As a result of human economic activity, natural landscapes are giving way to anthropogenic landscapes. Forests have been cut down and minerals are being intensively mined.
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European broadleaf forests are endangered forest ecosystems. Just a few centuries ago they occupied most of Europe and were among the richest and most diverse on the planet. In the XVI - XVII centuries. natural oak forests grew on an area of several million hectares, and today, according to accounting data forest fund, there are no more than 100 thousand hectares left. So, over several centuries, the area of these forests has decreased tenfold. Formed by deciduous trees with broad leaf blades, broadleaf forests are common in eastern North America, Europe, northern China, Japan and the Far East. They occupy the area between mixed forests in the north and steppes, Mediterranean or subtropical vegetation in the south.
Broad-leaved forests grow in areas with a humid to moderately humid climate, characterized by an even distribution of precipitation (400 to 600 mm) throughout the year and relatively high temperatures. The average temperature in January is -8...0 °C, and in July +20...+24 °C. Moderately warm and humid climatic conditions, Also active work soil organisms (bacteria, fungi, invertebrates) contribute to the rapid decomposition of leaves and the accumulation of humus. Under broad-leaved forests, fertile gray forest and brown forest soils, and less commonly chernozems, are formed.
The upper tier of these forests is occupied by oak, beech, hornbeam and linden. Ash, elm, maple, and elm are found in Europe. The undergrowth is formed by shrubs - hazel, warty euonymus, and forest honeysuckle. The dense and tall grass cover of European broad-leaved forests is dominated by gooseberry, green grass, hoofweed, lungwort, woodruff, hairy sedge, and spring ephemeroids: corydalis, anemone, snowdrop, scilla, goosebush, etc. In North America, oak species characteristic of only for this continent. The deciduous forests of the Southern Hemisphere are dominated by southern beech.
Modern broad-leaved and coniferous-deciduous forests formed five to seven thousand years ago, when the planet warmed and broad-leaved tree species were able to move far to the north. In subsequent millennia, the climate became colder and the area of broad-leaved forests gradually decreased. Since the most fertile soils of the entire forest zone formed under these forests, the forests were intensively cut down, and their place was taken by arable land. In addition, oak, which has a very durable wood, was widely used in construction.
The reign of Peter I became for Russia the time of the creation of a sailing fleet. The “royal idea” demanded large quantity high-quality wood, so the so-called ship groves were strictly protected. Forests that were not included in protected areas, forest and forest-steppe zone actively cut down for arable land and meadows. In the middle of the 19th century. The era of the sailing fleet ended, ship groves were no longer protected, and forests began to be cleared even more intensively.
By the beginning of the 20th century. Only fragments of the once unified and vast belt of broad-leaved forests have survived. Even then they tried to grow new oaks, but this turned out to be difficult: young oak groves died due to frequent and severe droughts. Research conducted under the guidance of the great Russian geographer V.V. Dokuchaev, showed that these disasters were associated with large-scale deforestation and, as a consequence, changes in the hydrological regime and climate of the territory.
Nevertheless, even in the 20th century, the remaining oak forests were intensively cut down. Insect pests and cold winters at the end of the century made the extinction of natural oak forests inevitable.
Today, in some areas where broad-leaved forests used to grow, secondary forests and artificial plantations dominated by coniferous trees have spread. Restore the structure and dynamics of natural oak forests not only in Russia, but throughout Europe (where they experienced even stronger anthropogenic influence) is unlikely to succeed.