What Australopithecus could do. Early Australopithecus
Australopithecus was a genus belonging to the family Hominidae. They can be described both as bipedal monkeys and as humans with the characteristics of monkeys. In other words, their structure included features characteristic of modern apes and humans. These ancient primates lived approximately 6-1 million years ago. The earliest remains found in the Republic of Chad date back to 6 million years ago. And the most recent ones, discovered in South Africa, date back to 900 thousand years ago. This shows that these ancient hominids lived on Earth for a huge period of time.
The habitat was extremely large. This is practically all of Central and Southern Africa, as well as certain areas of North Africa. The bulk of australopithecines were concentrated in the east and south of the continent. In the north, there are much fewer discovered remains, but this may only indicate a relatively poor study of this region, and not the actual distribution of these fossil primates. Taking into account the huge time interval, we can talk about dramatic changes natural conditions, which contributed to the emergence of completely new species, unlike the old ones.
Currently, these ancient primates are divided into 3 groups, which successively changed each other. Moreover, each group is divided into several types.
Australopithecus anamensis or early Australopithecus. Lived 6-4 million years ago. His first remains were found in Kenya in 1965.
Australopithecus afarensis lived 4-2.5 million years ago. In 1974, a skeleton was found in Ethiopia by a French expedition. female. She was given the name Lucy. She lived 3.2 million years ago and died at the age of 25 or 30 years.
Australopithecus sediba lived 2.5-1 million years ago. These primates were distinguished by their massive forms and well-developed jaws. Initially, 2 skeletons were discovered in Malapa Cave in South Africa. This is a teenager and a female. A total of 130 fragments of these skeletons were found. The word "sediba" from the language of the Basotho people is translated as "well".
Australopithecus lived in tribal groups
Structural features of Australopithecus
The hominids in question were characterized by a low and wide pelvis, relatively long legs and relatively short arms. The feet did not have grasping functions; only the hands had them. The spine was vertical. That is, we can talk about a similar structure to a person. At the same time, the height was small and varied from 120 to 150 cm with a slender build and weight of 30-55 kg.
The sizes of females and males differed significantly. The stronger sex was almost 50% larger than the weaker sex. In humans, this difference is no more than 15%. The brain volume was 400-550 cubic meters. cm. In humans, the corresponding value is 1200-1500 cubic meters. cm. As for the structure of gray matter, it corresponded to the structure of chimpanzees.
On late stage During its development, Australopithecus hunted ungulates
Behavioral Traits
Australopithecus lived in savannas and tropical forests near lakes and rivers. At the same time, it cannot be argued that the most ancient primates ignored territories remote from large bodies of water. It’s just that their remains are best preserved in such places. The diet consisted mainly of plant foods. In later times, hunting of ungulates was practiced.
These ancient ancestors people existed in groups and led nomadic image life, moving across the hot continent in search of food. It is difficult to say whether they made perfect tools or not. Their hands resembled those of humans, but the fingers were narrower and more curved. It is known that in South Africa 1.5 million years ago bone fragments were used to catch termites that lived in termite mounds. However, modern monkeys also use stones and bones to obtain food.
Australopithecus head in the museum
Were Australopithecines the direct ancestors of humans?
When talking about Australopithecus, we can assume that they were the direct ancestors of modern people, based on the fact that a person is less different in characteristics from a fossil hominid than a gorilla or chimpanzee. Here you can take as a basis the structure of the jaws, hands, feet, as well as upright walking, which largely contributed to the development of intelligence.
Here you should know that the first signs of upright walking appeared 6 million years ago in extinct species of monkeys. That is, it was the era when the radical formation of the very first ancestors of modern people began. In those days, many open spaces appeared in Africa, which began to be developed by monkeys. And outside the trees it is much more efficient to move not on 4, but on 2 limbs.
At the same time, it can be assumed that Australopithecines were not the direct ancestors of humans at all, but represented only a dead-end branch of evolutionary development. This assumption can neither be confirmed nor refuted, since science has not yet collected enough data on these and other ancient fossil hominids.
Alexey Starikov
The name "australopithecus" comes from the Latin word meaning "southern". At the beginning of the twentieth century, anatomy professor Raymond Dart found a skull near Taung. It consisted of a perfectly preserved facial part with jaws and teeth, as well as the right skull. The researcher decided that this skull belonged to an ape about six or seven years old. But, looking closer, Dart noticed the signs of an adult. This is the foramen magnum for connecting the spinal cord to the brain. It was located so that the owner of this skull should have had a more or less straightened body. Thus, the scientist came to the conclusion that the skull belongs to the cub of a human ancestor. He named the creature Australopithecus Africanus or affectionately “baby from Taung.” Australopithecus, or "southern ape", replaced Ramapithecus. He actually still looked like a monkey. However, the teeth of australopithecines were already much more like human ones, and the brain volume reached 650 cubic centimeters (like those of modern gorillas). But Australopithecines were almost half the size, so they had twice as many brain cells per unit of body weight as ordinary monkeys. Australopithecus lived in the savannas of Eastern and Southern Africa near limestone cliffs, in caves and crevices. There they hid from danger and spent the night. They hunted baboons and antelopes, using stones, animal horns, and large giraffe bones as weapons. Like most of us, Australopithecines were right-handed - the skulls of baboons discovered in the areas of the most ancient sites were pierced on the left, that is, a blow with a stone or a club was delivered with the right hand. In addition, Australopithecines used their hands to carry loads and make stone tools used for cutting meat. When hunting, Australopithecines united in packs, set up ambushes and drove herds of ungulates into precipices and ravines. They did not refuse to eat ripe fruits, edible herbs and roots. It is clear that Australopithecines had much more than simple animal intelligence. However, at the same time as Australopithecus, Paranthropus lived, which differed from Australopithecus by much more impressive growth and powerful physique. They lived in the forest thickets that survived here and there and ate exclusively plant foods. But here’s the thing: paranthropes did not show any signs of intelligence and did not use tools. After them there was not the slightest trace of activity even remotely resembling intelligence. Today, scientists count several species of australopithecines. Scientists have about five hundred bone remains of these individuals. All of them come from the African continent. There are no known finds in other parts of the world that could be attributed to Australopithecines. Although sometimes there are reports of finds from East Asia. These are individual bone fragments, so it is very difficult to say for sure whether they belong to this species.
Today, scientists count several species of australopithecines.
Beauty Lucy Anthropologist Donald Johanson, during excavations in Ethiopia, discovered the remains of a skull, a piece of a humerus and a femur, as well as fifty more skeletal fragments. Among them were the lower jaw, vertebrae, sacrum, ribs, arm and pelvic bones. It was truly a sensational find. The bones belonged to a female individual approximately twenty years old. Scientists named her Lucy. The woman was one hundred and ten centimeters tall and weighed about thirty kilograms. Its size corresponded to the height and size of a six-year-old child. The brain volume was small. No one doubted it. That she walked on two legs, but also climbed trees well. It was determined that Lucy lived approximately three million years ago. The most complete and ancient (3.6 million years old) skeleton of Australopithecus was discovered in Ethiopia. Scientists nicknamed this lady Lucy. On the left are the remains of Lucy as they were discovered during excavations, on the right is the Australopithecus skeleton reconstructed on their basis. Australopithecus africanus settled on Earth three million years ago. It was as small as the Afar one, but had noticeably fewer apelike characteristics. And the structure of his brain is more complex than that of apes. Meat food had great value for the development of the brain of primitive man. After all, it is rich in protein, and it is necessary for growth and development. And getting meat food is more difficult; this is a task for the brain. Compared to its predecessors, Australopithecus has a larger brain volume. It amounted to approximately five hundred cubic centimeters. Australopithecines were slightly smaller in size than chimpanzees. Although among them there were individuals of large sizes. Australopithecus robusta For example, Australopithecus robusta had an impressive size. His skull was “decorated” with a huge crest from the back of his head to his forehead. They were probably very attached to him powerful muscles. The mighty Australopithecus was much larger and physically better developed. With a height of 160 centimeters, he weighed up to 50 kilograms. Appeared about 2.5 million years ago. With a larger brain than other australopithecines, the “mighty” skull is closer to that of an ape - with a high crest on the crown and a massive jaw. Primitive man was already quite intelligent and showed the first signs of Homo Sapiens. Anthropologists have identified several species of australopithecines from small to massive. It is not known for certain from which species man began his genus. Australopithecines are the first creatures known for sure to have walked on two legs. Their gait, of course, was still rather uncertain, bouncing; while walking, their legs were bent at the knees and hip joints. They spent a lot of time in the trees. They lived on the border tropical forest and savannas. They ate edible roots and insects. Australopithecines could also crack skulls and bones to obtain nutritious bone marrow. It is unlikely that they could hunt on their own. Most likely, they finished their food after predators.
Scientists have not yet agreed whether Australopithecines can be considered hominids. For this purpose, important finds can be considered the tools that were discovered along with the remains of the ancient inhabitants of the Earth. The first stone tools are associated with Homo habilis, who inhabited the planet about two million years ago. Although representatives of Homo Sapiens are so smart that they receive education in England. After graduating from a British college or university, people have many opportunities to make a good life.
Australopithecines - a link between apes and humans
Australopithecus - genus of fossils great apes, who had signs of upright walking and anthropoid features in the structure of the skull.
Australopithecus skull found
The skull of a baby Australopithecus was first discovered in South Africa in 1924. The discovery was credited to Raymond Dart, who arrived in Johannesburg in 1922 obsessed with finding “the missing link between ape and man.” He was able to captivate students with his idea, who began sending him animal bones found during blasting operations. The professor was especially interested in the finds made in the Taung quarry in the east of the Kalahari Desert.
At his request, the young geologist Jung, who often visited the quarry, sent several boxes with different bones to Johannesburg. Dart was attending a friend's wedding when the boxes arrived. Without waiting for it to finish, he rushed to unpack the parcel and in one of the boxes he found the skull of a humanoid creature. For two months, he carefully picked out the stone from the eye sockets and skull.
A detailed study showed that this is the skull of a child no older than 7 years old. The structure of his face and teeth were similar to those of a human, but his brain, although larger in volume than that of a monkey, was significantly smaller than the brain of a modern child of that age. Dart gave this creature the name Australopithecus (from Latin australis - “southern” and Greek pithekos - “monkey”).
Scientists for a long time did not want to acknowledge Dart's discovery. He began to be persecuted in the press. They even called for him to be sent to a mental home... only 12 years later, in 1936, in Sterkfontein, near Johannesburg, R. Broom, during blasting work, noticed in one of the stones the outline of a skull, which also belonged to an Australopithecus.
2 years later, 3 km from the site of this discovery, schoolboy Gert Terblanche came across another Australopithecus skull. And soon the femur, bones and forearm of the left hand were found in the same places. These finds had great importance, since they made it possible, firstly, to determine the height and weight of Australopithecus (130–150 cm, 35–55 kg), and secondly, to conclude that, unlike monkeys, Australopithecus was an upright creature, and this is already a distinctive feature person.
Origin
Australopithecus appears to have evolved from late Dryopithecus about 4 million years ago and lived between 4 and 1 million years ago. Nowadays, scientists distinguish two types of australopithecines: early and late.
Early Australopithecus (Afarensis)
Early australopithecines lived between 4–5 and 1 million years ago. Outwardly, they were very similar to chimpanzees in an upright position. But their arms and fingers were shorter than those of modern monkeys, the fangs are less massive, the jaws are not so developed, the teeth and eye sockets were similar to those of humans. The brain volume of early australopithecines was approximately 400 cubic centimeters, which is approximately the same as the brain of modern chimpanzees.
Australopithecus Lucy
Australopithecus Lucy skeleton
Early australopithecines are also called Australopithecus afarensis (Australopithecus afarensis) - after the place of the first discovery in the Ethiopian Afar Desert. 1974, November 30 - near the village of Hadar, one and a half hundred kilometers from the capital of Ethiopia Addis Ababa, the expedition of Donald Johanson discovered a skeleton. First, archaeologists discovered a small bone in the ravine, then a fragment of the occipital bone, which clearly belonged to a humanoid creature. With great care, archaeologists began to remove the find from the sand and mud. Everyone was in a state of extreme excitement, in the evening no one could sleep: they argued about what the find was, listened to records of the Beatles, including the song “Lucy in the Diamond Sky.” This is how the name of the find was born - Lucy, which remains in science.
Lucy was almost complete skeleton Australopithecus, which included fragments of the skull and lower jaw, ribs, vertebrae, two arms, the left half of the pelvis and femur, and the right tibia. The skeleton was preserved surprisingly well, all the bones were in one place and were not stolen by jackals. Most likely, Lucy drowned in a river or lake, her body was covered with sand, which then petrified and walled up the skeleton. Only after millions of years did the movement of the earth push it out.
Now Lucy is considered the most famous representative of Australopithecus afarensis. Scientists were able to establish that her height was slightly more than a meter, she walked on two legs and had a small brain volume.
Late Australopithecus
The second variety of these anthropoids is the late australopithecus. They lived primarily in South Africa from 3 to 1 million years ago. Scientists divide the late australopithecines into three species: the rather miniature Australopithecus africanus, which lived mainly in South Africa, and two very massive australopithecines - the South African paranthropus robustus and the East African zinjanthropus boisei. The brain volume of late australopithecines is 600–700 cubic centimeters. The thumb on the upper limbs was quite large and, unlike the fingers of modern monkeys, was opposed to the rest. As a result, the hands of Australopithecus in their own way appearance looked more like human hands than monkey paws.
Australopithecines had a vertical head position, which may be evidenced by the absence of strong muscles, which, when positioned horizontally, help keep the head suspended. This once again indicates that australopithecines moved exclusively on their hind limbs.
What did you eat? How they hunted
Unlike other monkeys, Australopithecus ate not only plant foods, but also meat. The bones of other animals discovered along with Australopithecus bones indicate that they lived not only by gathering edible plants, bird eggs, but also by hunting – both small and fairly large animals. Their food was the ancestors of modern baboons, large ungulates, freshwater crabs and turtles, lizards.
According to scientists, Australopithecines used sticks, stones, bones and horns of large animals to protect themselves from attacks from predators and for hunting. This was confirmed by the study of animal bones discovered during excavations along with australopithecines. They are often found damaged as a result of strong blows from various objects.
Scientists believe that regular use meat contributed to more intensive brain development of australopithecines. All this created the necessary conditions For further evolution this species of anthropoids from ape to man. Australopithecines lived in small wandering groups. Their life expectancy ranged from 17 to 22 years.
East African Zinjanthropus
East African Zinjanthropus was found by the famous English archaeologist Louis Leakey and his wife Mary in 1959 during excavations in the Oldoway Gorge. On July 17, Mary Leakey discovered teeth that clearly belonged to a human being. In size, they were significantly larger than the teeth of modern humans, but in structure they were very similar to them. In addition to the teeth, other skull bones were visible from the ground. The clearing lasted 19 days, as a result of which a skull was removed from the ground, crushed into 400 pieces. But, since they were all lying together, they were able to be glued together and restored appearance anthropoid. Louis Leakey called his find zinjanthropus (translated from Greek zinz - Arabic name East Africa, anthropos – “man”). It is now more commonly called Australopithecus robustus, or Boisey, after Charles Boisey, who funded the excavation.
The study found that Zinjanthropus lived approximately 2.5 to 1.5 million years ago. He was quite large: males They were already quite human-sized, the women were a little smaller. The brain volume of Zinjanthropus was three times less than that of modern humans, amounting to 500–550 cubic centimeters.
In late australopithecines there is a tendency to improve the masticatory apparatus.
Humanity has always wondered about its origins, because that’s how Homo sapiens works. He needs to understand everything, comprehend it and, passing it through the prism of his own worldview, give a reasonable explanation for any phenomenon or fact. Modern science points to Australopithecus as one of our distant ancestors. This topic is relevant and causes many different debates, giving rise to new hypotheses. Need to do small excursion into history and trace the evolution of australopithecines in order to understand what is common and different between this group of hominids and modern man.
Adaptation to upright walking
Science gives a rather interesting description of Australopithecus. On the one hand, she considers them an upright bipedal monkey, but a very highly organized one. On the other hand, he calls them primitive but with a monkey’s head. Australopithecus skulls found during excavations differ little from modern gorillas or chimpanzees. Based scientific research It was established that the brain of Australopithecus was primitive and its volume did not exceed 550 cm 3. The jaws were quite large in size and had well-developed chewing muscles. The teeth looked more massive, but their structure already resembled the teeth of modern people.
The most heated debates in scientific community Australopithecus' bipedal posture raises questions. The structure of his body, determined on the basis of remains and traces found in volcanic ash, is determined quite completely. It is possible to say with a high degree of probability that when walking hip joint Australopithecus did not fully unbend, and his feet crossed. But his heel was well formed, there was a pronounced arch of the foot and thumb. These anatomical features Australopithecus in the structure of the heel and foot makes us similar.
It is not entirely known what prompted Australopithecines to switch to an upright gait. Various versions are called, but basically they boil down to the fact that they were prompted to switch to an upright gait by the need to increasingly use their front paws, for example, to pick up cubs, food, etc. Another interesting hypothesis was put forward that upright posture in the “southern monkeys” - their adaptation in conditions of constant presence in shallow water. The shallow waters provided them with abundant food. For some reason, the ability of people to spontaneously hold their breath is cited as an argument in favor of this version.
To explain the question of upright posture, a version is also proposed that upright posture is one of necessary elements for better adaptability to life in trees. But a more reliable version is climate change, which, according to scientists, occurred approximately 11 million years ago. During this period, the number of forests decreased sharply and a lot of open space appeared. This condition served trigger, which spurred monkeys, the ancestors of Australopithecus, to explore the earth.
Height and dimensions
It cannot be said that this group of hominids was distinguished by its large size. Their height did not exceed 150 cm, with a weight from 25 kg to 50 kg. But there is one interesting feature: in size, male Australopithecines were very different from females. They were almost half as heavy. This also played a role in the characteristics of behavior and reproduction. If we talk about hair, scientists believe that they began to lose their fur when they left the forests. Australopithecines began to be more active and fur only got in the way in such conditions. Sweating in modern man is defense mechanism the body from overheating and, a kind of compensation for the loss of the natural “fur coat” by our ancestors.
It is necessary to touch upon the topic of childbirth - important characteristic Australopithecus, allowing this species not only to survive, but also to evolve. By switching to a less energy-consuming method of movement - a straight gait - the Australopithecus pelvis became similar to a human one. But there was a gradual evolution. More and more children with big heads began to appear. This is primarily due to the fact that living conditions have changed and required greater organization and mastery of primitive tools.
Main groups of Australopithecus
Where and when did Australopithecus live? Various dates have been given for the appearance of Australopithecus on our Earth. The numbers are called from 7 million years BC to 4 million years BC. But anthropologists date the earliest remains of humanoid creatures to 6 million years BC. e. They stumbled upon the remains of the earliest australopithecines. Their settlement area covers not only the entire center of the African continent, but also reaches the northern part. Their skeletons are also found in the east. That is, they felt great in the jungle and in the shroud. The main condition for their habitat was the presence of water nearby.
Modern anthropology distinguishes three of their species, distinguishing not only by the anatomical features of Australopithecus, but also by different dating.
- Australopithecus anamensis. This is the earliest form of humanoid hominids. Supposedly lived 6 million years ago BC.
- Australopithecus africanus. Represented by the sensational skeleton of a female Australopithecus. He is known to a wide audience as Lucy. Her death was clearly violent. Her remains date back to approximately 2 million years BC.
- Australopithecus sediba. This is the most major representative these primates. The approximate time of its existence is stated to range from 2.5 to 1 million years BC.
Evolution and change in behavior of Australopithecus
Australopithecus felt equally at home both on the ground and on a tree. When night fell, he climbed a tree for safety, even while living on the ground. In addition, the trees gave him food. Therefore, he tried not to go far from them. The Australopithecus lifestyle changed. The changes affected not only his manner of movement, but also his methods of obtaining food. The need to lead a predominantly daytime lifestyle also changed their vision. The need for orientation at night disappeared, but color vision appeared as compensation. The ability to distinguish colors made it possible to accurately find riper fruits, but they were not the main food of Australopithecus. Many scientists associate brain development with the appearance of sufficient quantity squirrel. Where could he get it? Perhaps by hunting smaller representatives of the animal world. Although there is an opinion that the remains of the feast of other larger predators were the main food of Australopithecus.
Dietary diversity is the basis for behavior change
In those days they ruled large predators from the cat family: saber-tooths and lions. They were not allowed to be seen, so the need to adapt concerned not only the individual, but also the entire group. And this, in turn, inevitably forced us to improve interaction between all members. Only through organized actions was it possible to compete with other scavengers, as well as to be warned in case of danger. Even then, hyenas lived - the main competitor of Australopithecus for leftover food. It is difficult to fight them in open battle, so it was necessary to get to the feast site earlier.
Diversity in methods of movement (on the ground and trees) also provided diversity in obtaining the necessary food. This is an important point. Scientists, studying the structure of the teeth, jaws, and skull at the places of muscle attachment, conducting isotopic analysis of bones and the ratio of trace elements in them, came to the conclusion that these hominids were omnivorous. An individual was found among Australopithecines - sediba, who even ate tree bark, and this is not characteristic of any primates. The range of “dishes” also makes Australopithecines similar to modern humans, because humans are also omnivores. It is believed that this ability was laid down in us at an early stage of evolution. Australopithecines did not know how to store food for future use, so they needed to lead a nomadic lifestyle in constant search for food.
Tools
There is evidence that Australopithecus already knew how to use tools. These were bones, stones, sticks. Modern primates, and not only that, they also use available means to achieve various goals: get food, climb up, etc. This, of course, does not make them highly organized creatures. They simply use what is available to them in a given situation. Australopithecus also did not make tools. In behavior and habits, he differed little from his relatives - monkeys. If he used stones, it was for throwing or for splitting bones.
New skills are the basis for survival in the wild
The variety of food obtained through an upright gait, the use of primitive tools and the organization of the group are not all the skills. To answer the questions: what australopithecus could do that allowed them to adapt and continue the path of evolution, it is necessary to pay close attention to the upper limbs of these hominids. The main characteristic of Australopithecus gracile was that this distant ancestor of man, having lost most of the basic ape features, was already a purebred erect walker. And this gave him some advantages. For example, he could carry some kind of cargo over a short distance. Moving to daylight hours days, they could be more likely to avoid encounters with hyenas, leading mainly night look life. It is argued that due to upright walking, Australopithecines had an advantage in finding food over hyenas, as they covered greater distances in a shorter period of time, but this is a rather controversial point of view.
Did Australopithecines have a sign language?
Scientists cannot answer the question about interaction within the herd, in particular whether group members had at least a primitive sign language. Although, observing primates, you can notice at first glance how clearly expressed their facial expressions are. And they can learn sign language. Therefore, we cannot exclude the possibility that distant human ancestors had the ability to transmit information not only by shouts, but also by gestures and facial expressions. The lifestyle of australopithecus differed little from that of apes, but a developed thumb, which not only helped to successfully grasp objects, a straight gait that freed up the hands - all these factors together could serve as the impetus for the development of sign language in their environment. There is a high probability that a Neanderthal spoke such a language. Australopithecus presumably too.
There was one more feature that set them apart from all other hominids - their method of copulation. They did this face to face, peering at their partner's facial expressions. And we must not forget about non-sound methods of communication within the team (gestures, postures, facial expressions). These are all also ways of transmitting information, an opportunity to express emotions and attitudes (fear, threat, submission, satisfaction, etc.).
Relationships within the herd: close dependence on each other
Perhaps the most bright characteristic Australopithecus is a relationship with each other. If we take a troop of baboons as an example, we can see a strict hierarchy where everyone obeys the alpha male. This apparently was not observed in the case of Australopithecines. But this does not mean that everyone was left to their own devices. There was a kind of redistribution of roles. The main burden of food production was shifted to the males. Females with cubs were too vulnerable. The baby, when born, was practically helpless, and this required additional attention and time from the mother. It took not months, but years for the cub to learn to walk independently and somehow interact in a pack.
The famous and relatively well-preserved remains of Lucy indirectly indicate close ties within the pack. It is assumed that this “family” consisted of 13 individuals. There were adults and cubs there. They died together in a flood and, apparently, felt affection for each other.
Collective hunting, places to spend the night, transfer of food to safe place- everything that australopithecines could do required coherence, communication and the inevitable development of a sense of comradeship. In such conditions, one could only trust members of one's own pack. The rest of the world was hostile.
Cro-Magnons
These are already early representatives of modern people, who in terms of the structure of the bones of the skeleton and skull are practically no different from us. As evidenced archaeological finds, they lived in the Upper Paleolithic, that is, only about 10 thousand years ago. Between them and the Australopithecines, Pithecanthropus existed for some time, then Neanderthals. Each of these “pro-human” species had some progressive anatomical features, which moved them higher and higher on the evolutionary ladder. As we see, several million years must have passed for the hominoid Australopithecus to become Cro-Magnon man.
Alternative perspectives on evolutionary theory
IN Lately distrust of Darwin's theory of evolution about the origin of man from ape is increasingly being expressed. The point here is not even that supporters of creationism, believing that God created man in his own image and likeness from clay, do not consider monkeys as their ancestors. Proponents of the theory of evolution have too often discredited themselves and their theory by engaging in banal forgery, trying to pass off wishful thinking as reality. And the emergence of new data forces us to once again reconsider the theory of human origins. However, first things first.
In 1912, Charles Dawson made a “stunning” discovery (several bones and a skull) that “proved” the victory of the theory of evolution. True, there was one doubting dentist who claimed that the teeth of primitive man were slightly filed with modern instruments, but who would listen to such a dirty lie? And “Piltdown Man” took pride of place in biology textbooks. That, it would seem, is all: an intermediate link between man and ape has finally been found. But in 1953, Kenneth Oakley, Joseph Weiner and Le Grosse Clark upset the public, and at the same time the UK. Collaboration representatives of the British University, which included a geologist, an anthropologist and a professor of anatomy, established a blatant fact of forgery. A test for fluoride was developed. He revealed that the human skull, monkey jaw and other bones were treated with chromium. This method gave the desired “ancient look”. But even after such a sensation, you can still find the image of the “Piltdown Man” in textbooks.
This is not the only hoax. There were others too. American Museum of Natural History and its best representatives Henry Fairfield Osborn and Harold Cook in Nebraska discovered a molar tooth of a half-man, half-ape. Advertising is the engine of progress. This discovery, which was trumpeted by “the best and most independent American press,” was enough not only to paint a supposed portrait of a distant human ancestor, but even to win a lawsuit against creationists and others who disagree with “a real breakthrough in the field of evolution and the history of human origins.” . Then it was announced that this was a mistake. The tooth belongs to an extinct breed of pig. And then the “extinct” breed was found in Paraguay. The local pigs didn't even realize that for a long time were in the center of attention of the progressive world scientific community. And such funny embarrassments can be listed further.
In the evolutionary struggle of species, the baboons won among the Australopithecines
Often, not far from the remains of our supposed ancestors, the skulls of defeated baboons are found. It turns out that Australopithecines used tools not only for cracking nuts, but also for hunting their relatives. Here again inexplicable questions arise. Did our ancestors really come down from the tree, master a straight gait and better organization of their herd, based on more advanced communication abilities, but in the end lost to the baboons, who had already reached almost the peak of their evolutionary development. After all, these primates are alive to this day, and Australopithecines exist only in the form of fossil remains. This fact also raises many questions like: “why and how is this possible?” As the years passed, Cro-Magnons appeared. Australopithecines were later found much later to tell their amazing story.
The remains of one of the most ancient hominids were found in the desert lands of northern Chad, near the southern edge of the Sahara. An excellently preserved skull, dating back to 6-7 million years ago, was found in 2001 in a place called Toros Menella, in the Durab Desert. The facial part of the skull combines both very primitive and relatively advanced features (in particular, rather weak fangs), and its teeth are noticeably different from other finds. The size of the brain is very small (~ 350 cm3), and the skull is elongated, which is more typical for monkeys. Such a mosaic of signs indicates the most early stages evolution of the group. In addition to the skull, fragments of the remains of five more individuals were found. In July 2002, an international team of 38 scientists described them as a new genus and species of hominid, Sahelantrophus tchadensis. Analysis of fossils collected together with Sahelanthropus suggests that there was once a beach here big lake, around which lay savannah, turning into sandy desert.
About possible family ties S. tchadensis with other hominids and its place on the phylogenetic tree is still premature to say, but one thing is certain: after this find it became clear that the most ancient hominids were distributed much more widely in Africa than could have been assumed just recently. Almost all previous African finds were dated to Rift Valley in East and Southern Africa.
Sahelanthropus apparently walked on two legs.
Another ancient bipedal hominid was discovered on October 25, 2000 during excavations in Kenya near the Great Rift Valley. The remains of the creature, nicknamed the Millennium Man but officially named Orrorin tugenensis, consisted of the bones of at least five individuals and were located in the rocks, whose age exceeds 6 million years. This species is similar in size to modern chimpanzees. Judging by the skeletal remains, it can be assumed that he nimbly climbed trees, and also moved on the ground on his lower limbs. The structure of the teeth suggests that the species ate a plant diet typical of apes, but the smaller incisors and large molars indicate evolutionary trends consistent with human evolution.
In 1997-2000 In the Awash Valley in Ethiopia, remains of Ardipithecus from Miocene times (5.2-5.8 million years ago) were found. The bones were first described as a new subspecies of Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba, and later new finds were described, based on which this form was given the status of an independent species.
A jaw with teeth, several fragments of arm and leg bones, and one toe, the structure of which indicates bipedal walking, were found. Later, several more teeth were found. This type lived in the forest, not in the savannah.
In December 1992, a primitive form was discovered in Ethiopia. A study of this primitive species, named Ardipithecus ramidus, found it to be 4.4 million years old; in all respects he had a significant resemblance to a chimpanzee, but also possessed some human-likeness, for example, a relatively short skull base and fangs of the same shape as those of hominids. The teeth of Ardipithecus, although they have more similarities with humans than the teeth of chimpanzees, are still in basically remained ape. It is possible that soft leaves and fiber-rich fruits were absent from the Ardipithecus menu. What was unexpected was that A.ramidus was forest dweller. This is surprising, since it is believed that the human ancestor lived in areas of open savanna, and it was the conditions of open savanna that became an important, if not the key, factor in the development of an upright body position during the evolution, i.e. walking on two legs. Whether A.ramidus was bipedal remains unknown.
Finds from two localities in Kenya - Kanapoi and Allia Bay - were named Australopithecus anamensis. They date back to 4 million years ago
Their height was not much more than one meter. The brain size was the same as that of a chimpanzee. Early australopithecines lived in wooded or even swampy places, as well as in forest-steppes. The bone structure of its legs suggests that this australopithecus was bipedal, but the structure of its teeth and jaws is very similar to later fossil apes. Based on some dental characteristics, this species is intermediate between Ardipithecus ramidus and Australopithecus afarensis. The authors of the find are convinced that this species was the ancestor of A.afarensis. Australopithecus anamensis lived in dry forests. Obviously, it is these creatures that are most suitable for the role of the notorious " intermediate"between monkey and man. We know practically nothing about their way of life, but every year the number of finds is growing, and knowledge about environment of that distant time are expanding.
Not much is known about early australopithecines. Judging by the skull of Sahelanthropus, the femurs of Orrorin, fragments of the skull, limb bones and the remains of the pelvis of Ardipithecus, early australopithecines were already upright primates. However, judging by the hand bones of Orrorin and Australopithecus anamensis, they retained the ability to climb trees or were even quadrupedal creatures that rested on the phalanges of their fingers, like modern chimpanzees and gorillas. The dental structure of early australopithecines is intermediate between apes and humans. It is even possible that Sahelanthropus were relatives of gorillas, Ardipithecus - the immediate ancestors of modern chimpanzees, and Australopithecus anamensis died out without leaving descendants.
Distinguishing the subfamily Australopithecinae in the family Hominidae, he was the first to divide Australopithecus into two genera - Australopithecus proper (gracile) and Paranthropus (massive), Professor J.T. Robinson. The most convincing evidence of the need for such a division was presented in a number of articles by A.A. Zubov when considering the structural features of the dental system. An analysis of the findings made by the International Afar Expedition in Hadar allowed D. Johanson and T. White to generalize two types of nutrition and two corresponding variants of the dental system to all those found on African continent groups of Australopithecus Currently, both mentioned genera are classified as one Australopithecus, dividing it into two groups of species - gracile and massive.
Gracile australopithecines were upright walking creatures. Their gait was somewhat different from the gait of a person. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Along with the fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these features can only be an inheritance from ancient ancestors. During the day, Australopithecines roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening they climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecines lived in small herds or families and were capable of moving quite long distances. They ate mainly plant foods, and usually did not make tools, although scientists found stone tools and antelope bones crushed by them not far from the bones of Australopithecus gari. Like the early representatives of the genus, gracile Australopithecines had an ape-like skull, combined with an almost modern rest of the skeleton. The omnivorous nature of the gracile form of Australopithecines is expressed by alveolar prognathism ( different shape lower and upper arches with some protrusion of the latter), which provides a “biting” function - psalidonty. In some species there is an increase in the canine and supraorbital ridge, indicating a significant proportion meat food in the diet. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of apes in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between that of a small ape and that of a very large human.