What is air mass. General characteristics of types of air masses
Classification of errors.
Russian language.
Content
I. Typical mistakes. Classification
II. Speech errors
Misunderstanding the meaning of a word. Lexical compatibility
Use of synonyms, homonyms, ambiguous words
Verbosity. Lexical incompleteness of the utterance. New words
Outdated words. Words of foreign origin
Dialectisms. Colloquial and colloquial words. Jargonisms
Phraseologisms. Clichés and stamps
III. Factual errors
IV. Logical errors
V. Grammar errors
VI. Syntax errors
I. Typical mistakes. Classification
Communicative literacy is understood as the ability to create texts of different functional and semantic types of speech in the form of different functional styles.
Essays and presentations are the main forms of testing the ability to correctly and consistently express thoughts in accordance with the topic and intent, testing the level of speech preparation. They are used simultaneously to test spelling and punctuation skills and are assessed, firstly, in terms of content and structure (sequence of presentation) and, secondly, in terms of linguistic design.
Most of the errors that occur when running written works students, are also typical for other types of writing activities, be it writing a business paper (application, order, contract, etc.), preparing a report, article or text material for WEB pages. Therefore, error analysis of this kind has great importance and for everyday activities.
Among typical mistakes The following groups can be distinguished:
Speech errors
Violation of the correct transmission of factual material
Logical errors
Grammatical errors
Syntax errors
II. Speech errors
The word is the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotionally expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, and compatibility with other words. Since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.
The main causes of speech errors:
1. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word
2. Lexical compatibility
3. Use of synonyms
4. Use of homonyms
5. Using polysemantic words
6. Verbosity
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement
8. New words
9. Outdated words
10. Words of foreign origin
11. Dialectisms
12. Colloquial and colloquial words
13. Professional jargon
14. Phraseologisms
15. Clichés and cliches
1. Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word.
1.1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Example:
The fire grew hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of word:
Inflame - 1. Heat to a very high temperature, become hot. 2. (trans.) To become very excited, to become overwhelmed by some strong feeling.
To flare up - to begin to burn strongly or well, evenly.
1.2. The use of significant and function words without taking into account their semantics.
Example:
Thanks to the fire that broke out from the fire, a large area of the forest burned down.
In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb to thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons that cause a desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone’s help, support. The error arises due to the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb to thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.
1.3. Selection of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).
Example:
We offer complete treatment for alcoholics and other diseases.
If we're talking about about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to drinking alcoholic beverages.
1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.
Example:
A person leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
Idle and festive are very similar words, with the same root. But they have different meanings: festive - an adjective for holiday (celebratory dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.
2. Lexical compatibility.
When choosing a word, you should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. Borders lexical compatibility determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.
Example:
A good leader must set an example for his subordinates in everything. You can show an example, but not a sample. And you can be a role model, for example.
Example:
Their strong, tempered in life trials The friendship was noticed by many. The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.
What should be distinguished from a speech error is the deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, ordinary miracle... In this case, we have before us one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.
IN difficult cases When it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary.
3. Use of synonyms.
Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic connotations. Thus, the words error, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral and commonly used; hole, overlay - colloquial; gaffe - colloquial; blunder - professional slang. Using one of the synonyms without taking it into account stylistic coloring may lead to speech errors.
Example:
Having made a mistake, the plant director immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express different degrees of manifestation of a characteristic or action. But, even denoting the same thing, being interchangeable in some cases, in others synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.
Example:
Yesterday I was sad. The synonym sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences these synonyms are interchangeable. I look sadly at our generation...
4. Use of homonyms.
Thanks to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.
Example:
The crew is in excellent condition. Is the crew a cart or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.
Very often, ambiguity is caused by the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that have the same sound and spelling in certain forms). So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.
5. Use of polysemantic words.
When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation is clear. When using polysemous words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of a word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a semantically complete segment of speech that allows one to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it also happens differently.
Example:
He's already sung. It’s not clear: either he started singing and got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.
This error is the opposite of verbosity. An incomplete statement consists of missing a necessary word in the sentence.
Example:
The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous. Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word. Or: “... do not allow statements on the pages of the press and television that could incite ethnic hatred.” So it turns out - “television page”.
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also its scope. The use of words that have a limited sphere of distribution (lexical new formations, obsolete words, words of foreign language origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.
8. New words.
Poorly formed neologisms are speech errors.
Example:
And last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on pothole repairs after the spring thaw. And only the context helps to understand: “pothole repair” is the repair of holes.
9. Outdated words.
Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason have been forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.
Example:
Today was the day at the university open doors. Here obsolete word now (today, now, currently) is completely inappropriate.
Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denote: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.
Example:
The peasants cannot stand their hard life and go to the main governor of the city. Governor is the head of a region (for example, a province in Tsarist Russia, states in the USA). Consequently, the chief governor is an absurdity; moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.
10. Words of foreign origin.
Now many people have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing them exact value. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.
Example: The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading specialists. Limit - set a limit on something, limit it. The foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced with the words: goes slower, stopped, etc.
11. Dialectisms.
Dialectisms - words or stable combinations, which are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create speech characteristics of characters. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language.
Example: A scavenger came to me and sat there the whole evening. Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the statement.
12. Colloquial and colloquial words.
Colloquial words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the sphere of everyday communication. Colloquial speech is a word, grammatical form or turn of phrase, predominantly of oral speech, used in a literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple casual speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the entire people.
Example: I have a very thin jacket. Thin (colloquial) - holey, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur in cases where the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by context.
13. Professional jargon.
Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: typo - a mistake in the speech of journalists; the steering wheel is a steering wheel in the speech of drivers.
But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, listening and others spoil literary speech.
In terms of limited use and the nature of expression (jocular, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargons and are an integral part of jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups people (jargon of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by social limited use.
Example: I wanted to invite guests to a holiday, but the shack does not allow it. Khibara is a house.
14. Phraseologisms.
It must be remembered that phraseological units always have a figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, imaginative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units also give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.
1). Errors in learning the meaning of phraseological units.
a) There is a danger of taking idioms literally, which may be perceived as free associations of words.
b) Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
Example:
Khlestakov throws pearls before swine all the time, but everyone believes him. Here the phraseology "throw pearls before swine", meaning "to talk about something in vain or prove something to someone who is not able to understand it", is used incorrectly - in the meaning of "to invent, to weave fables."
2). Errors in mastering the form of phraseological units.
a) Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
I'm used to giving myself full reports. The form of the number has been changed here. There is a phraseological unit to give account.
Example:
He constantly sits with his hands folded. Phraseologisms such as folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the gerund perfect form with the suffix -a (-я).
Some phraseological units use short forms adjectives, replacing them with full forms is erroneous.
b) Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
It's time for you to take charge of your mind. Most phraseological units are impenetrable: an additional unit cannot be introduced into the phraseological unit.
Example:
Well, at least hit the wall! Omitting a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.
Example:
Everything returns to normal in a spiral!.. There is a phraseological unit back to normal. Substitution of a word is not allowed.
3). Changing the lexical compatibility of phraseological units.
Example:
These and other questions have big role in the development of this still young science. There has been a mixture of two stable expressions: it plays a role and it matters. You could say this: questions matter... or questions matter a lot.
15. Clichés and cliches.
Officeisms are words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to the official business style, but they are inappropriate in other styles of speech and are cliches.
Example:
There is a lack of spare parts.
Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Words, phrases and even whole sentences become cliches, which appear as new, stylistically expressive means of speech, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.
Example:
A forest of hands went up during the vote.
A type of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by standard prefixes: work - everyday, level - high, support - warm. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), and literary cliches (an exciting image, an angry protest).
Clichés - speech stereotypes, ready-made phrases used as a standard that is easily reproduced in certain conditions and contexts - are constructive units of speech and, despite frequent use, retain their semantics. Clichés are used in official business documents (summit meeting); V scientific literature(needs to be proven); in journalism (our own correspondent reports from); in different situations of everyday speech (Hello! Goodbye! Who's the last one?).
III. Factual errors
Violation of the requirement for the correct transmission of factual material causes factual errors.
Factual errors are a distortion of the situation depicted in the statement or its individual details, for example: “In the winter forest the cuckoo crowed loudly.” or “The merchants Bobchinsky and Dobchinsky enter.”
Factual errors can be detected if the reader of the work knows the factual side of the matter and can evaluate each fact from the standpoint of its reliability. The reason for factual errors is insufficient knowledge of the events described, poverty of life experience, and incorrect assessment of the actions and characters of the heroes.
In the presentation, factual errors include various kinds inaccuracies:
1) errors in indicating the place and time of the event;
2) in conveying the sequence of actions, cause-and-effect relationships, etc., for example: instead of “Kirovsky Prospekt” - in the work “Kyiv Prospekt” or “Kirovsky Village”.
In an essay, factual errors are
1) distortion of life's truth;
2) inaccurate reproduction of book sources;
3) proper names;
4) dates;
5) places of events,
for example: “Chadsky”, “at Nagulny and Razmetnoye”.
Examples of typical factual errors.
“With the image of Onegin, Pushkin opened a gallery of “superfluous people” in Russian literature: Oblomov, Pechorin, Bazarov. A superfluous person must have two qualities: reject the ideals of society and not see the meaning of his existence.” In the above example, Oblomov and Bazarov clearly fall out of the proposed chain.
"The literature of classicism (Lomonosov, Derzhavin, Fonvizin, Karamzin, etc.) had big influence on the work of A. S. Griboedov." There are two mistakes here at once. The first: Fonvizin really "had a great influence" on "Woe from Wit", but it is hardly possible to talk about the influence of Lomonosov and Derzhavin. The author confuses facts and types of fiction. The second the factual inaccuracy lies in the fact that Karamzin is a representative of the culture of sentimentalism.
IV. Logical errors
Violation of the sequence (logic) of presentation leads to the appearance of logical errors.
Logical errors consist of breaking rules logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of statements;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportionality of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the assignment for presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the story is told (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).
V. Grammar errors
Grammatical errors are non-compliance with the norms of word and form formation, norms syntactic connection between words in a phrase and a sentence.
There are two types of grammatical errors:
1. Word formation.
The structure of the word is broken: “ruthlessness”, “immortality”, “instead”, “publicism”.
2. Morphological.
Errors associated with non-normative formation of word forms.
This type of error includes:
a) errors in the formation of forms of nouns: “obleki”, “English”, “two banners”, “on the bridge”, “Grinev lived as an undergrowth”, “He was not afraid of dangers and risks”, “They built a big swing in the yard”.
b) errors in the formation of adjective forms: “One brother was richer than the other,” “This book is more interesting.”
c) errors in the formation of pronouns: “I went to him,” “their house.”
d) errors in the formation of the verb: “He never made a mistake,” “Mom always rejoices at guests,” “Having walked out into the middle of the room, he spoke,” “A smiling child was sitting in the far corner.”
e) incorrect construction of an aspectual pair, most often a paired imperfective verb: “My brother and I saw off all the extra branches, put the tree in the middle of the room and decorate it.”
VI. Syntax errors
Syntactic errors consist of incorrect construction of phrases, violation of the structure of simple, complicated and complex sentences.
Errors in the structure of phrases:
1. Violation of agreement with the main word in gender, number and case of the dependent word, expressed by an adjective, participle, ordinal number, pronoun: “This summer I was in the steppe Trans-Volga region.”
2. Impaired control.
Errors in unprepositioned management (wrong choice of preposition): “If you touch a birch tree on a hot day, you will feel the cool trunk.”
3. Wrong choice of case with a correctly chosen preposition: “He looked like a deathly tired man.”
4. Omission of a preposition: “After a hasty lunch, I sat at the helm and drove (?) to the field.”
5. Using the unnecessary pretext “Thirst for fame.”
6. Omission of the dependent component of the phrase: “Getting into the hot cabin again, turning the steering wheel shiny from the palms again, (?) driving.”
Errors in the structure and meaning of the sentence:
1. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: “But neither youth nor summer last forever,” “The sun had already set when we returned.”
2. Lack of semantic completeness of the sentence, violation of its boundaries: “Once during the war. A shell hit a poplar.”
3. Syntactic ambiguity: “Their (the girls’) dream came true, they (the fishermen) returned.”
4. Violation of the type-temporal correlation of verbs in the sentence: “Grinev sees Pugachev getting into the carriage.”
Errors in a simple two-part sentence:
Subject:
- Pronominal duplication of the subject: “Children sitting on an old boat with its keel overturned, they are waiting for their father.”
- Violation of agreement between the subject and the pronoun replacing the subject in another sentence: “Apparently, there is a storm at sea, so it is full of dangers.”
Predicate:
- Errors in the construction of the predicate: “Everyone was happy.”
- Violation of the agreement of the predicate in gender and number with the subject, expressed by a collective noun, quantitative-nominal phrase, interrogative and indefinite pronoun: “My mother and I stayed at home,” “A sheaf of rays of the sun entered the room.”
- Pronominal duplication of the addition: “Many books can be read several times.”
Definition:
- Incorrect use of an inconsistent definition: “On the right hang a lamp and my portrait from the kindergarten.”
- A conglomeration of agreed and inconsistent definitions relating to one member of the sentence: “Huge, beautiful world the life of our country and our peers is revealed in millions of books."
- Incorrect choice of morphological form of the circumstance: “I teach my lessons on the table” (at the table).
Errors in one-part sentences:
1. The use of two-part structures in place of one-part ones.
2. Use of participial phrases in impersonal offer: “When I saw the dog, I felt sorry for it.”
Offers with homogeneous members:
1.Usage different parts speeches in the role of homogeneous members of the sentence: “I like the room because it is bright, large, clean.”
2. Inclusion in a series of homogeneous terms of words denoting heterogeneous concepts: “When it’s spring and a clear day, the sun illuminates my whole room.”
3. Incorrect use of coordinating conjunctions to connect homogeneous members: “The boy was big-faced, but serious.”
4. Incorrect attachment of logically heterogeneous secondary members to one main member: “There are books in the closet, newspapers and glassware on the shelves.”
5. Errors in coordinating homogeneous subjects with the predicate: “Anxiety and melancholy froze in her eyes.”
6. Violations in the area of homogeneous predicates:
a) the use of different types of predicates as homogeneous: “The sea after the storm is calm, gentle and plays with the rays of the sun”;
b) violation of the uniform design of components nominal predicates: use of different case forms the nominal part of homogeneous compound nominal predicates: “Their father was an experienced fisherman and a brave sailor”; joining homogeneous verbal predicate an addition that is controlled by only one of the predicates: “Everyone is really waiting and worried about the soldiers”; use of short and full forms adjectives and participles in the nominal part: “My room has recently been renovated: whitewashed and painted.”
7. Association of members and units different offers on a homogeneous basis: “Mushrooms grow under the birch tree, berries grow, snowdrops bloom in the spring.” “The children were waiting for their father and when his boat would appear.”
Sentences with introductory words and introductory constructions:
1. Incorrect choice of introductory word: “The girls peered intensely into the distance of the sea: a boat would probably appear on the horizon.”
2. Using an introductory word that leads to ambiguity: “According to the fishermen, there was a storm at night, but now it’s calm.”
3. Using the introductory sentence as an independent one: “A book is a source of knowledge. As many say.”
Offers with separate members:
1. Violation of word order in sentences with participial phrases.
- Separation of the participial phrase from the word being defined: “But again a misfortune happened to the tree: its low branches were cut off.”
- Inclusion of the defined word in the participial phrase: “Girls have their eyes fixed on the sea.”
2. Violation of the rules for constructing participial phrases.
- Construction of a participial phrase according to the model subordinate clause: “The painting shows a girl who has just gotten up.”
- Using a participial phrase instead of an adverbial phrase: “And every time we returned back, we sat down under a poplar tree and rested.”
3. Errors in sentences with isolated circumstances expressed participial phrase: “Resting in a chair, the painting “March” hangs in front of me.
Methods of transmitting direct speech. Direct and indirect speech:
1. Combining direct speech and the author’s words: “Before the war, my father told me: “Take care of the tree and went to the front.”
2. The use of direct speech without the author’s words: “The girls saw the longboat: “Dad!”
3. Mixing direct indirect speech: “Grandfather said that in childhood they had such a law: on birthdays we gave only what was made with our own hands.”
4. Errors when introducing quotes: “K. Paustovsky said that “A person who loves and knows how to read, happy man".
Complex sentences:
1. Violation of the logical-grammatical connection between the parts of a complex sentence: “My father did not forget this story for a long time, but he died.”
2. Use of a pronoun in the second part of a complex sentence, leading to ambiguity: “May hopes come true and they will return.”
3. Errors in using complex conjunctions:
a) connective - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “Yesterday there was a storm, and today everything was calm.”
b) adversatives - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “There is a birch tree growing in our yard, but buds are also swelling on it”;
c) double and repeated: “Either a bird has landed on the water, or the wreckage of a broken boat is floating on the sea”;
d) unjustified repetition of conjunctions: “And suddenly the girls saw a small black dot, and they had hope”;
e) unsuccessful choice of alliances: “Mitrasha was ten years old, but her sister was older.”
Complex sentences:
1. Inconsistency between the type of subordinate clause and the meaning of the main one: “But they will still wait for their father, since the fishermen must be waited on the shore.”
2. Using composition and subordination to connect parts in a complex sentence: “If a person does not play sports, he ages quickly.”
3. Making structures heavier by “stringing” subordinate clauses: “The sail appeared in the sea as happy news that the fishermen were all right and that the girls would soon be able to hug their parents, who were delayed at sea because there was a strong storm.”
4. Omission of a necessary demonstrative word: “Mom always scolds me for throwing my things around.”
5. Unjustified use of a demonstrative word: “I have an assumption that the fishermen were delayed by the storm.”
6. Incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words when choosing them correctly:
a) the use of conjunctions and allied words in the middle of a subordinate clause: “There is a TV on the nightstand in the room, on which I watch entertainment programs after school”;
b) violation of the agreement of the conjunctive word in the subordinate clause with the replaced or attributive word in the main clause: “On two shelves - fiction, which I use when preparing for lessons."
7. Use of the same type of subordinate clauses with sequential subordination: “Walking along the shore, I saw two girls sitting on an overturned boat, which was lying upside down on the shore.”
8. Using a subordinate clause as an independent clause: “The girls are worried about their relatives. That’s why they look so sadly into the distance.”
Non-union complex sentence:
1. Violation of the unity of designs of homogeneous units within the non-union complex sentence: “The painting shows: early morning, the sun is just rising.”
2. Decomposition of parts of a non-union complex sentence into independent sentences: “The girls are dressed simply. They are wearing summer cotton dresses. The eldest has a scarf on her head.”
3. Simultaneous use of non-union and union communications: “The girls’ clothes are simple: the older one with a scarf on her head, in a blue skirt and gray blouse, the younger one without a scarf, in a purple dress and a dark blue blouse.”
Complex sentence with different types of connections:
1. Violation of the order of parts of the sentence: “The waves are still foaming, but they calm down near the shore; the closer to the horizon, the darker the sea; and therefore the girls have hope that their father will return.”
2. Using pronouns that create ambiguity: "We see that the girl's bed is not made, and she confirms that the girl just got up."
Error classification
Grammatical errors (G)– these are errors in the structure of a linguistic unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. violation of any grammatical norm– word-formation, morphological, syntactic.
No.
Type of error Examples
Incorrect word formation. Erroneous formation of forms of a noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb (personal forms of verbs, real and passive participles, gerunds).
Noble ness, miracle technology, according to d cherk, above laugh; more interesting, more beautiful; With five hundred rubles; juggled both hands, theirs pathos, around his there is nothing; How many moral principles we are deprived due to loss of spirituality; them moves feeling of compassion; streams of water, flowable down, struck the author of the text; higher onto the stage, the singers bowed.
Violation of approval norms
I know a group of guys who are seriously into... imisya jazz.
Violation of management norms
We need to make nature more beautiful. Everyone was surprised at him by force.
Disruption of the connection between the subject and the predicate or the way of expressing the predicate
The main thing I want to pay attention to now is artistic side of the work. He wrote a book that epic. Everyone was glad, happy and funny.
Errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members
A country loved And was proud poet.
In the essay I wanted to say about the meaning of sports and why I love it.
Errors in constructing sentences with participles
Reading the text, such a feeling of empathy arises.
Errors in constructing sentences with participial phrases
The narrow path was covered failing snow under your feet.
Errors in the construction of complex sentences
This book taught me to appreciate and respect friends, which I read as a child.
It seemed to the man That that this is a dream.
Violation of sentence boundaries
He was not accepted into the basketball team. Because he was short.
Violation of the types of tense correlation of verb forms
Freezes for a moment the heart and suddenly will knock again.
Omitting a sentence member (ellipsis)
At the meeting there was accepted (?) hold a cleanup day.
Errors associated with the use of particles: separation of a particle from the component of the sentence to which it belongs
It would be nice if the picture showed would artist's signature. In the text Total two problems are revealed.
Speech errors (P)– these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a linguistic unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, i.e. a violation of lexical norms. This is pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-discrimination of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, polysemy not eliminated by the context.
No.
Type of error Examples
Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it
We were shocked wonderful acting. Thanks to fire, the forest burned down.
Unjustified use of dialect and colloquial words
Such people always succeed burn others. Oblomov did nothing all day long played the fool.
Poor use of pronouns
The text was written by V. Belov. He refers to artistic style; I immediately had a picture of his imagination.
The use of words of a different stylistic coloring; confusion of vocabulary different eras; inappropriate use of clerical language, expressive, emotionally charged words, outdated vocabulary, jargon, inappropriate use of phraseological units
By idea author, the hero wins; Molchalin works secretary of Famusov; In the novel by A.S. Pushkin take place lyrical digressions; Author every now and then resorts to the use of metaphors and personifications. If I were there, then for such an attitude towards my mother I would cupcake V gnawing would give; Zoshchenko don't put your finger in your mouth, but let me just make the reader laugh.
Failure to distinguish shades of meaning introduced into a word by prefix and suffix
In such cases I I glance to the dictionary.
Failure to distinguish between paronyms and synonymous words; errors in the use of antonyms when constructing an antithesis; destruction figurative meaning phraseology in an unsuccessfully organized context
Were accepted spectacular measures; The name of this poet familiar in many countries; The third part of the text is not funny, but also not a major motive makes us think; the record hasn't said its thing yet last word.
Violation of lexical compatibility
Use of unnecessary words, including pleonasm
Young young man; Very beautiful.
Using nearby or closely related words (tautology)
In that the story is told O real events.
Unjustified repetition of a word
Hero story does not think about his actions. Hero He doesn’t even understand the depth of what he has done.
Poverty and monotony of syntactic structures
When the writer came to the editorial office, he was accepted Chief Editor. When they talked, the writer went to the hotel.
Using unnecessary words lexical redundancy
Then so that you can smile, about it Our bookstore will take care of it.
Logical errors (L). Logical errors are associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within one sentence, judgment, and at the level of the entire text.
No.
Type of error Examples
Comparison (contrast) of two logically heterogeneous (different in scope and content) concepts in a sentence or text
Attended the lesson director, librarian, and Anna Petrovna Ivanova And Zoya Ivanovna Petrova; He leaned his back to the battery; Behind good studies and raising children parents students received letters of gratitude from the school administration.
Violation of cause-and-effect relationships
In recent years so many done to modernize education, but teachers work in the old way, because Issues of modernization of education are being resolved weak.
A missing link in an explanation, a “logical leap.”
It is hardly possible to block the flow of people through our yard. [?] How I want the yard to be an adornment for both the school and the village.
Rearranging parts of the text (if it is not due to the assignment for the essay or presentation)
It's time to return this word to its true meaning! Honor... But how to do this?
Unjustified substitution of the person from whom the story is told (for example, first from the first, then from the third person)
Comparison of logically incomparable concepts
Syntax encyclopedic articles are excellent from other scientific articles.
Composition and text errors
Bad start
The text begins with a sentence containing an indication of the previous context, which is absent in the text itself, by the presence of demonstrative word forms in the first sentence, for example: In this text the author ...
Errorsin the main part
a) Bringing together relatively distant thoughts in one sentence.
b) Lack of consistency in presentation; incoherence and violation of sentence order.
c) The use of sentences of different types in structure, leading to difficulty understanding the meaning.
Bad ending
Duplication of conclusion, unjustified repetition of previously expressed thoughts.
Factual errors (F) - a type of non-linguistic error, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about factual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge)
No.
Type of error Examples
Bazarov was a nihilist and therefore killed an old woman with an ax; Lensky returned to his estate from England; Happiness for Oblomov was loneliness and indifference.
Inaccuracy in the quote. No indication of the author of the quotation. Incorrectly named author of the quote.
The book means a lot to me, because Lenin said: “ Live and learn!»
Ignorance of historical and other facts, including time displacement.
Great Patriotic War of 1812; The capital of the USA is New York.
Inaccuracies in names, surnames, nicknames literary heroes.
Distortions in names literary works, their genres, an error in the indication of the author.
Turgen b ev; "Taras And Bulba"; V Turgenev's stories"Crime and Punishment".
Sayapina Oksana Valerievna
Air mass (VM) is a volume of air that is relatively homogeneous in its basic physical and meteorological properties and retains its individuality for more or less a long time. The air mass spreads over several thousand kilometers in the horizontal direction and several kilometers in the vertical direction. It is formed under the condition of a long stay of air over an area with approximately uniform physical and geographical conditions. As air masses move, they transfer their characteristic properties to different regions of the Earth.
Thermal classification VM.
cold air masses - colder than the surrounding air and/or underlying surface. Moving to more warm surface (usually from high to low latitudes), bring.
cold snap warm air masses - warmer than the surrounding air and/or underlying surface. Moving to more cold surface.
(to higher latitudes), bring warming
local air masses - are in thermal equilibrium with the environment. Consistent change of warm and cold
air masses leads to fluctuations in temperature conditions in the area. In accordance with
geographical classification
air of temperate latitudes, divided into sea and continental;
tropical air, divided into sea and continental;
equatorial air, Not is divided into maritime and continental, since in the region of the equator the temperature and humidity of the air over land and over the sea differ little.
Continental air is drier, sea air is more humid.
Atmospheric fronts
Adjacent air masses, differing from each other in their physical properties, are separated from each other by relatively narrow transitional, i.e.frontal zones (width – up to several tens of kilometers) . Main distinguishing feature frontal zone -sudden change meteorological characteristics in the horizontal direction, i.e. large horizontal gradients these characteristics.
Intersection line frontal zone with the surface of the earth - atmospheric front .Length the front lines correspond to the horizontal dimensions of the frontal zone and can reach 5 thousand km and more. Upward, most atmospheric fronts extend to altitude no more5-6 km. (Let's look at this using a simple example. The air in the classroom is one mini-mass, outside is another: they differ from each other in temperature, humidity, air composition. The outer wall is the “frontal zone”, the base of the wall is the “atmospheric front”. Length of the wall corresponds to the length of the frontal zone and the front line, the height corresponds to the vertical extent of the frontal zone). Front surface necessarily tilted, since air masses always differ in temperature - cold air(as a denser one) flows under the warm one, trying to occupy the lowest position. Interaction air masses in the zone front causes the formation of clouds, precipitation, and is accompanied by changes in weather conditions.
Depending on what air mass , warm or cold , approaching to this point , are being formed warm or cold fronts .
If it's approaching warm air mass (warm air front) the atmospheric front is called warm. Warm front , thus moving to the side cold air mass . Wherein warm air as lighter, smoother rises along the wedge cold air , forming the corresponding system of stratiform clouds. Typically driving speed warm front is 30-40 km/h, i.e. 720 – 960 km/day. Approximationwarm front leads to the replacement of cold air with warm air.
If it's approaching cold air mass(frontcold air), the atmospheric front is called cold .Cold front moves to the side warm air mass . Cold air is denser and heavier displaces warm air upwards. Approximationcold front results in the replacement of warm air with cold air.
Weather
Weather reflects complex of meteorological elements(weather elements) and atmospheric phenomena observed in the area in a certain limited period of time(analogue hydrological conditions).
Weather elements: atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity.Weather phenomena : wind, number and shape of clouds, precipitation, aurora, rainbow, mirage, etc. Weather phenomena can be catastrophic: hurricane, thunderstorm, downpour, drought, blizzard, squall, dust storm and etc.
Weather in a warm atmospheric front .Before approachingwarm front the observation point was in the area cold air mass The weather is clear cold(cool, not very warm - depending on the season), little wind. As approachingwarm front is decreasingAtmosphere pressure ,increasesair temperature .Clouds become more and more dense, fall out blanket precipitation . Sometimes observed thunderstorms.After passing warm front (behind the front line) observation point turns out entirely in the regionwarm air . Air temperature increased.Precipitation stop,Atmosphere pressure downgraded,wind subsides.
weather in cold front .Before approachingfront the observation point was in the area warm air mass . The weather is clear warm, little wind. The cloud system as a whole similar cloud system of a warm front, but it is developing in reverse order.Before passing front lines as a result of more powerful upward air movement, cumulonimbus clouds , accompanied thunderstorms . Along the entire cold front lines there is a sharp increase in wind, acquiring the character squalls .After passing front lines the observation point is entirely in the area cold air . There is a noticeable (sometimes dramatic) ) (usually from high to low latitudes), bring , clarification , suddencessation of precipitation , strongincrease in pressure ,wind subsides.
Weather in a cyclone. IN cyclone circulate twoair masses, resulting in twoatmospheric front . weather in cyclone determined propertiesair masses ,activitiesatmospheric fronts , ascending air flows in the center, the size pressure gradients,season of the year. Generally, weather in area cyclone usually cloudy, rainy, windy (to stormy), often with long fogs, winter with abundant snowfalls And snowstorms . Atmosphere pressure downgraded. In summercyclones bring cool weather, warming in winter.On the peripherycyclone weather relatively calm.
IN tropical cyclone Due to very large horizontal pressure gradients, the weather is particularly violent. Wind inside hurricane (typhoon) reaches a speed of 50-60 m/s, individual gusts exceed 100 m/s. It's pouring rain .Tropical cyclones have enormous destructive force often their passing accompanied by human casualties, sometimes quite numerous. To each tropical cyclone , having a storm intensity or higher, is assigned given name.Tropical cyclones cause enormous damage, which is significantly reduced thanks to a well-organized prevention service. Tropical cyclones included in the category of dangerous (natural) phenomena.
(At the end of October 2012 in Caribbean Sea, where it was especially powerful (69 people died, including 54 Haitians) Hurricane Sandy arose. On October 28, although weakened, it reached the east coast of the United States. Great destruction, houses along the coast were washed away, power supply was disrupted, schools and government agencies were closed, some city subway stations were flooded in New York, 7-8 thousand flights were canceled, more than 94 people were killed, economic damage was about 50 billion dollars).
IN anticyclone one air mass circulates, since atmospheric fronts are carried diverging from the center air currents to its periphery. Weather V anticyclone depends on time of year, states underlying surface, properties air mass and other factors. Generally, weather V anticyclone usuallyclear,little wind,atmospheric pressure increased.In summeranticyclones bring hot weather, in winter - cold, frosty, but sunny. On peripheryanticyclone usually happens cloudy weather With precipitation, in the zone of contact with cyclone observed strong winds.
Anticyclones often originate in the backcourt cyclone among the masses cold air, therefore, as a rule, anticyclone usually precedes cyclone .
Air masses
Air masses -- large volumes of air at the bottom earth's atmosphere-- the troposphere, having horizontal dimensions of many hundreds or several thousand kilometers and vertical dimensions of several kilometers, characterized by approximately uniform temperature and moisture content horizontally.
Fig.7.
The uniformity of the properties of the air mass is achieved by forming it over a homogeneous underlying surface under similar conditions of thermal and radiation balance. In addition, circulation conditions are necessary under which the air mass would circulate for a long time in the region of formation. Values meteorological elements within the air mass they change insignificantly - horizontal gradients are small. Sharp increase in gradients meteorological quantities, or, by at least, a change in the magnitude and direction of gradients occurs in the transition zone between two air masses - the zone of the atmospheric front. Objects arising in the troposphere as a result of the interaction of air masses - transition zones (frontal surfaces), frontal cloud systems of cloudiness and precipitation, cyclonic disturbances, have the same order of magnitude as the air masses themselves - comparable in area to in large parts continents or oceans, their existence time is more than 2 days. The centers of formation of air masses are usually regions where the air descends and then spreads in the horizontal direction - anticyclonic systems meet this requirement. Anticyclones are more likely than cyclones to be low-moving, so the formation of air masses usually occurs in extensive low-moving (quasi-stationary) anticyclones. In addition, the requirements of the source are met by slow-moving and diffuse thermal depressions that arise over heated land areas. Finally, the formation polar air occurs partly in the upper atmosphere in slow-moving, extensive and deep central cyclones at high latitudes. In these pressure systems, the transformation (conversion) of tropical air drawn into high latitudes in the upper troposphere into temperate air occurs. Air masses are classified, first of all, by the centers of their formation, depending on their location in one of the latitudinal zones. According to the geographical classification, air masses can be divided into main geographical types according to the latitudinal zones in which their centers are located:
· Arctic or Antarctic air (AV),
Temperate air (HC),
· Tropical air (TV),
· Equatorial air (EA).
These air masses, in addition, can be divided into oceanic (m) and continental (k). As practice shows, since a moderate air mass has a significant meridional extent (in the CIS from approximately 45-48° to 60-65° northern latitude), its thermal (and other) properties vary significantly in the northern and southern parts of this vast geographical zone, so it is more correct to divide the temperate VM into two independent ones - northern temperate (NMT) and southern temperate (SMT).
AIR MASSES are moving parts of the troposphere, differing from each other in their properties - temperature, humidity, transparency. These properties of air masses depend on the territory over which they are formed under the condition of a long stay. Depending on the geographic focus of formation, there are 4 main types of air masses: Arctic (Antarctic), temperate, tropical and equatorial. Each of these four types is formed over an area of land and sea. Since land and sea heat up to different degrees, subtypes can form in each of these types - continental and marine air masses. The resulting air masses inevitably begin to move. The reason for this is uneven heating earth's surface and, as a consequence, the difference atmospheric pressure. If there were no movement of air masses, then at the equator average annual temperature would be 13° higher, and at latitudes 70° - 23° lower than at present. Invading areas with different surface thermal properties, air masses are gradually transformed. For example, temperate sea air, entering land and moving inland, gradually heats up and dries out, turning into continental air. The transformation of air masses is especially characteristic of temperate latitudes, into which warm and dry air from tropical latitudes and cold and dry air from subpolar latitudes invade from time to time. Large masses air in the troposphere, comparable in size to a continent or ocean and having more or less identical properties(temperature, humidity, transparency, dust content, etc. - note from geoglobus.ru), are called air masses. They extend upward for several kilometers, reaching the boundaries of the troposphere. Air masses move from one area of the globe to another, determining the climate and weather in a given area. Each air mass has properties characteristic of the area over which it formed. Moving to other territories, it carries with it its own weather regime. But passing over a territory with different properties, air masses gradually change, transform, acquiring new qualities. Depending on the regions of formation, four types of air masses are distinguished: Arctic (in the Southern Hemisphere - Antarctic), temperate, tropical and equatorial. All types are divided into subtypes that have their own characteristic properties. Continental air masses form over continents, and oceanic air masses form over oceans. Shifting along with the atmospheric pressure belts throughout the year, air masses occupy not only the permanent belts of their residence, but seasonally dominate in neighboring, transitional zones. climatic zones. In progress general circulation atmosphere, air masses of all types are interconnected. Air masses that move from a colder earth's surface to a warmer one and that have a lower temperature than ambient air, are called cold air masses. They bring cooling, but they themselves warm up from below from the warm earth's surface, and powerful Cumulus clouds and heavy rain falls. Particularly severe cold snaps occur in temperate latitudes with the invasion of cold masses from the Arctic and Antarctica - approx. from geoglobus.ru. Cold air masses sometimes reach southern regions Europe and even North Africa, but are most often delayed by the mountain ranges of the Alps. In Asia, Arctic air freely spreads over vast territories, up to the mountain ranges of southern Siberia. IN North America The mountain ranges are located meridianally, so cold arctic air masses penetrate as far as the Gulf of Mexico. Air masses that have a higher temperature than the surrounding air and arrive at the colder earth's surface are called warm air masses. They bring warming, and themselves cool from below, thus forming stratus clouds and fogs. In summer, warm tropical air masses from North Africa sometimes penetrate up to northern regions Europe and significantly increase the temperature (sometimes up to +30 °C). Local, or neutral, air mass is a mass that is in thermal equilibrium with its environment, that is, maintaining its properties day after day. A changing air mass can be either warm or cold, and once the transformation is complete, it becomes local. Where air masses of different types meet, atmospheric fronts form.
![](https://i2.wp.com/studbooks.net/imag_/32/175642/image008.jpg)
Fig.8. Types of atmospheric fronts
Moderate air masses form in temperate latitudes. Those that form over the continent are characterized by low temperatures and low content moisture and bring clear and frosty weather. In summer, continental temperate air masses are dry and hot. Temperate air masses formed over the ocean are warm and humid. In winter they bring thaws, and in summer they bring cold temperatures and precipitation. Arctic and Antarctic air masses form over the icy surface of the polar latitudes. They are characterized by low temperatures and small amounts of moisture. They significantly lower the temperature of the areas they invade. In the summer, moving towards the center of Eurasia, these air masses gradually warm up, dry out even more and become the cause of dry winds in the southern regions of the West Siberian Lowland. Tropical air masses are hot at any time of the year. The marine subtype of tropical air masses is characterized by high humidity, while the continental subtype is dry and dusty. The trade winds dominate the oceans in the tropics all year round - approx. from geoglobus.ru. The air masses that form in these areas are characterized by moderately high temperatures from +20 to +27 °C in summer and cool temperatures up to +10 +15 °C in winter. In the areas tropical deserts Extremely dry air masses with average temperatures of +26 +40 °C are formed over the continents. Equatorial air masses form in equatorial latitudes. They have high temperature and high humidity, regardless of where they formed - over the continent or over the ocean. The average temperatures of equatorial air masses in all months of the year range from +24 to +28 °C. Since evaporation in these areas is high, the absolute humidity, and the relative humidity even in the driest months of the year is above 70%.
Looking at weather maps, one can notice that over individual large geographical areas there is a different weather pattern and, at the same time, more or less uniform for each of them separately. Research has found that the main reason for the difference in weather conditions over different geographical regions is the heterogeneity of tropospheric air, which arises as a result of the unequal influx of solar heat and the unequal nature of the underlying surface (land, water). In view of this, the tropospheric air becomes, as it were, divided into separate large-scale volumes, commensurate in the occupied area with continents, oceans, or their large parts and having relatively homogeneous properties. Such more or less homogeneous large air volumes in the troposphere are called air masses. One and the same air mass can occupy such spaces as, for example, half of all Europe, European part Russia, waters of the Arctic Ocean. Western Siberia etc., which corresponds to hundreds of thousands and millions of square kilometers.
The homogeneity of a given air mass can be expressed in temperature, humidity, cloudiness, and the degree of dustiness (transparency). The change in these meteorological elements in the horizontal direction within the same air mass occurs gradually or is generally insignificant.
Air masses are always in continuous movement. Moving from one area to another, they gradually acquire new properties: when moving south, they warm up. to the north - they cool, over the sea - they get moistened, etc. The intensity of changes in the properties of air masses depends on the speed and direction of their movement. When moving slowly, they relatively quickly acquire properties characteristic of a given geographical area, and, conversely, when moving quickly, air masses change little in their basic properties, maintaining them along their path. Change of air masses in this place, as a rule, is accompanied by a change in weather, for example, cold to warm, dry to wet, clear to cloudy, etc.
There are two classifications of air masses: thermal and geographic.
According to thermal classification, air masses, depending on their thermal properties, are divided into warm and cold.
Warm is any air mass that is warmer than its neighbor or warmer than the underlying surface. Cold air mass is determined using the same principle.
Warm air masses are characterized, as a rule, by a stable state, in which, as is known, thermal convection is excluded, and therefore the formation of cumulus, especially shower clouds. This type of air mass is characterized by relatively quiet, often cloudy weather with light drizzle and advective fog (in winter). The latter usually occupy large spaces, covering the land or sea with a continuous cover. Sometimes, instead of fog, a foggy haze forms everywhere. The formation of persistent fogs is facilitated by the high humidity inherent in this type of air mass
These properties of warm air masses are best manifested in winter, when temperature differences between the cold underlying surface (water or land) and more warm air above it can be especially pronounced. In summer, the warm air mass is usually dominated by partly cloudy, hot and dry weather, which is typical for southern continental regions and moraines. Finally, it should be noted that the invasion of warm air mass is accompanied by an increase in temperature.
Cold air masses, in contrast to warm ones, are characterized, as a rule, by an unstable state, which is especially evident when they invade areas with a heated underlying surface. The thermal convection that develops leads to the formation of cumulus, powerful cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds, of which. As you know, rainfall occurs. The best way this feature of cold air masses manifests itself in warm time years when temperature differences between cold air and the heated underlying surface can be most pronounced.
Cold air masses have small moisture reserves, and the colder they are, the smaller they are. At night, clear and calm weather usually sets in over land in the cold air. The resulting strong radiation from the earth's surface leads to the formation of morning radiation fogs. Over the sea at this time of day, when the water is warmest, fogs of this kind do not form.
Cold air masses, unlike warm ones, are characterized by good visibility, which is explained by their low contamination with both dust and water vapor condensation products.
The invasion of cold air masses is usually accompanied by strong winds and a decrease in temperature.
According to geographical classification, air masses, depending on the areas of their formation, are divided into four main groups:
1) arctic air (AW), which forms over vast areas of the Arctic and Antarctic;
2) air of temperate latitudes (AM), which is formed or acquires its properties in the zone of temperate latitudes of the earth. ra;
3) tropical air (TA), which forms in subtropical, and in summer, partially in temperate latitudes;
4) equatorial air (EA), formed in the equatorial zone.
Each of the above air masses (except for air masses), depending on the underlying surface over which it acquired its properties (over water or land), can be marine or continental. This feature of air masses is taken into account in their full symbol, for example, kAV and mAV; kUV and muV; kTV and mTV.
Continental air masses differ from marine air masses in having smaller moisture reserves, sharper daily temperature fluctuations and greater dust content (less visibility).
Arctic air has distinct properties of cold air masses. The rapid invasion of KAV is always accompanied by a sharp and severe cold snap. Arctic air often penetrates far to the south - right up to Mediterranean Sea, Turkey, Iran, northern regions of China and Japan. Due to very small moisture reserves in areas occupied by Arctic air (especially airborne air), clear or partly cloudy, dry and cold weather with visibility up to 50 km or more.
Air of temperate latitudes (mUV and kUV) can be both cold and warm, having the corresponding previously described properties.
Continental tropical air has the properties of warm air masses, with the only difference, however, that it is usually very heated, relatively dry and dusty, since its formation occurs in dry and hot climates. subtropical zone globe, over vast dry steppes and deserts, such as over Kazakhstan and Central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, the Middle East, North Africa. Penetrating into temperate latitudes, TV causes cloudy and warm weather with fogs.
Marine tropical air, forming over warm, southern seas and corresponding parts of the oceans, is characterized by high temperature and high moisture saturation. Therefore, the invasion of such air into temperate latitudes is usually accompanied by heavy rains with thunderstorms and, of course, warming.
Equatorial air flows from the equator to the north and south, but at the surface of the earth it usually does not extend beyond a latitude of 20-25°. In temperate latitudes it is found only in the upper layers of the troposphere