What is metonymy? Expressive means of vocabulary. Metonymy
Russian language
What is metonymy? Types of figures of speech
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Metonymy from Greek translates as “renaming something.” Metonymy is a type of phrase, a figure of speech in which the author replaces one word with another.
Another meaning denotes an object or phenomenon that is in spatial or temporal connection with the replaced or designated word. The replacement word has a figurative meaning.
People confuse metonymy with metaphor, but they are two different terms. The main difference between metonymy and metaphor is that when the former is used in the text, the similarity between objects is not provided. And nothing to do with .
In order for contraction of speech patterns or phrases to occur, metonymy is used, for example:
- tableware made of gilding - tableware gilding;
- students in the audience listen - the audience listens;
- drink chamomile infusion - drink chamomile.
What is metonymy in Russian? Modern writers regularly use this technique in their writing. The main goal of metonymy is to create a model of semantics in a polysemantic word.
Metonymy is the result of a combination of several words, united according to the principle of semantic-grammatical and phonetic compatibility.
The regularity of occurrence is the result of an elliptical contraction with a bunch of words.
This or that limitation is preserved, but a new word with an independent contextual character is not created. For example: There are two Aivazovskys in the exhibition hall(meaning two works by the artist), but one cannot say “One Aivazovsky depicts a golden autumn b".
A strong connection between the metonymic context occurs when a specific situation is designated. It must be based on a statement in the subject, for example: "What's wrong with you? - oh, head”(that is, the answerer meant a headache).
Where is metonymy used?
Metonymy is used as a technique for situational nominations with individualization of details of appearance, for example: What are you doing, Beard? In this case, the name is used in the form of a meaning of belonging - a noun and an adjective.
This form of metonymic turnover provokes the creation of nicknames and nicknames, for example: Little Red Riding Hood, White Bim Black Ear.
When metonymy indicates the typicality of an individual, it will remain in Russian speech as the meaning of social positions. Such metonymic phrases do not have semantic stability.
In many historical records, the word “beard” was used to describe wise men and peasants.
The advantages of metonymy are that they identify the subject of speech and connect it with a syntactic position (address, subjects, object).
When should you not use metonymy?
Situational metonymy cannot be used in the predicate position. It does not perform a characterizing function.
If metonymy is used in a predicate, it turns into a metaphor. The main goal is to aspect the subject, but the technique cannot be considered as metonymy.
You should not use metonymy in an existential sentence and its replacing forms. In this case, the described object is introduced into the narrative world. Don't start your story with words “Once upon a time there lived (one) old man. Thus, the reader perceives the object in personified form, and not as a designated person.
Another limitation in using metonymy is to use a noun "soul" with meaning "Human"; “head” - “unit of livestock”; “saber” - “cavalryman”.
Metonymization of names is not reflected in the norm of its grammatical and semantic consistency, for example: went black beard (male), the black boots became agitated (although the phrase indicates the action of one person).
Rarely is a metonymic phrase used by a definition that has a connection with ellipsis.
Metonymy and its types
There are three main types in the Russian language. They are defined depending on related concepts, objects and actions.
Let's figure out how each type is used in written presentation, what its meaning is with examples, in order to avoid mistakes.
Spatial metonymy
Its meaning is in the spatial arrangement of objects or phenomena.
A common example is that the name of various institutions is transferred to the people who work in it, for example: in the phrases spacious hospital and bright store, the words hospital and store are used in their literal meaning, but if they are used in this context: the entire store took part in the cleanup and the hospital took part in city competitions, then this is already a metonymic turnover. The reader perceives what is said in a figurative sense.
Spatial metonymy consists in transferring a vessel or utensil to its contents, for example, a pan is boiling, the process of boiling something occurs in it.
Temporal metonymy
This technique is used when comparing objects that are in the same time period. For example, when an action (in the form of a noun) is transferred to its subsequent result (what occurs during the action).
Metonymy of logical form
Not only does it have a vast meaning, but it is different from each other. Differences in specific transfer.
- The author transfers the name of the vessel to what is in it. For example: broke a cup the phrase is used in its literal meaning, meaning the name of the vessel.
Now let's use them differently: broke a cup of tea, in this case, the noun has a figurative meaning in order to denote the volume of the product that they contain. - The authors transfer the name of the materials to the final product, for example: the team won gold(the team won the gold medal), put on the arctic fox(that is, wear an arctic fox fur coat), sort out papers(work with documents).
- When, when writing, the author's name is transferred to his work, for example: read Yesenin(read Yesenin’s book), admire Shishkin(admire his paintings) use Dahl(use the dictionary that was published under his editorship).
- Transferring the name of a process or action to the person doing it, for example: suspension(jewelry), putty(a substance that eliminates defects), change(a group of people).
Replacement of an ongoing process at the place where it occurs, for example: signs with the words “ transition”, “detour”, “stop”, “turn” and further. - Cases when we transfer characteristic features to the phenomenon or object to which they belong. For example, let's take the phrases: tactless words, banal assessment- they have abstract features. If we rearrange them, we get: commit a tactlessness, admit a banality. We used metonymic type transfer.
What is the difference between metonymy and metaphor?
These two concepts are perceived as something similar, but this statement is incorrect.
Unlike metaphors, a metonymic phrase replaces words not by similarity, but by the contiguity of the concept.
In metonymic usage there are connections:
- a substance involved in the process of making an item, the item itself, for example, drank two cups- the author meant that he drank the contents of two cups;
- relationship between content and contained, for example: boiling pot- in fact, what is meant is what is bubbling in the pan;
- any action and its final result, for example: a sign with the inscription exit- that is, a place to exit;
- using the author's name instead of his work, for example: the other day I read Yesenin - in fact I read his works;
- connection between people and the place they are in, for example: the capital fell asleep— the people who are in the capital actually fell asleep.
A type of metonymy
In the Russian language there are certain types of metonymy that are widely used. Metonymic turnover is one of the most common.
1. General linguistic menonymy
When speaking, people do not notice that they use metonymic expressions in their speech. This is especially true for general linguistic metonymy. What can be attributed to this species? For example, the word gold, gilding, ceramics, porcelain- this is a product, but gold plate collector- a person who collects collections of gilded items.
Words shop, hospital, factory- these are institutions, but if you use the phrase the hospital has confirmed its qualifications, implies that hospital workers have confirmed their qualifications.
Words turn, detour, and so on - this is the place of actions that imply that here you need to turn, go around.
Instead of talking about a new thing, people use the name of the material that was used in production, for example: instead of a fox fur coat, people prefer to just say: put on a fox.
2. General poetic metonymy
Refers to an expressive form; in other sources it can be found under the name artistic metonymy. It is called that because it is used in artistic expressions, for example: clear cold autumn - metonymy is the word transparent.
Russian poets in their works blue sky called glaze. In such cases glaze - metonymy. Since the use of general poetic metonymy is characteristic of artistic presentation, it has two names.
3. General newspaper metonymy
The list of similar metonyms includes the words: fast (quick minute), golden (golden flights). Statements and phrases that publicists use in their work.
4. Metonymies of individual type
The trails have a wide variety. This is justified by the fact that they have forms, types, and the use of metonymy is no exception. This is a technique in the Russian language when a phrase or phrase is used in the works of one author, that is, individual. They are not used everywhere.
5. Synecdoche
Among the authors there is a question about what is the relationship between metonymy and synecdoche. The authors believe that these are two different concepts; this opinion is erroneous. Synecdoche is one of the forms of metonymic phrase. Its goal is to identify a part of an object with its whole. It is used to highlight some part of an object. A detail is used that makes it stand out from the rest, syndecoha consists of a definition.
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If we consider the structure of the sentence, then it will play the role of a nominal member, the person to whom you are addressing, for example: Beard, where did you go? In this case, the synecdoche is the word beard.
When, in oral speech or when writing artistic statements, authors resort to the use of metonymic phrases, they add expressiveness to the language. You can reveal the richness of your vocabulary.
METONYMY(Greek “renaming”), a trope, or a mechanism of speech, consisting in the transfer of a name from one class of objects or a single object to another class or individual object associated with the data by contiguity, contiguity, belonging, partitivity or other type of contact; eg drink two cups of coffee, Where cup("vessel") means a measure of liquid. The action of the metonymy mechanism leads to the emergence of a new meaning or a contextually determined change in the meaning of a word. The basis of metonymy can be the relationship between homogeneous and heterogeneous categories, for example, objects and their attributes (actions). Regular relationships between objects or an action and an object determine the contact position of the words corresponding to them in the text. In this case, metonymy often arises due to ellipsis (contraction of the text); compare: Listen to Chopin's music And Listen to Chopin.
So, the name can be transferred: 1) from the vessel to the contents or volume of the contents, for example dish -“large flat plate” and “food, dish”, as well as “ordinal place of food in the meal” (cf.: There was chicken with rice on the platter; Chicken with rice is my favorite dish;The second course was chicken with rice.);cup: “drinking vessel” and “measure of liquid and granular masses”; 2) from material to products made from it: crystal– “high quality glass” and “products made from such glass”; silver– “metal” and “coins or cutlery made of silver” ( silver plate); 3) from the material to the result of the action carried out with its use: paper– “writing material”, “sheet” and “written document”; 4) from a place, a settlement to its population or an event that occurred there: The whole city(i.e. city residents) went outside;Waterloo– “a village in Belgium” and “the battle in which Napoleon was defeated”; 5) from a social organization, institution to its staff and the premises occupied by it: The institute works hard And Renovation work is underway at the Institute; 6) from a social event, event to its participants: The congress is scheduled for May And The congress adopted an important resolution; 7 ) from place to the action for which it is intended, or the time of action: road,path -“a place adapted for movement” and “travel, trip; travel time" (cf.: unpaved road And long road); 8) from an action to its result, place, time or object involved in the action (subject, object, instrument): stop –"action on a verb" stop" and “place of transport stop”; security –"action on a verb" guard and "guards"; food– “eating” and “food”; whistle -“act of whistling” and “instrument of whistling”; sewing- “action on a verb” sew"and "what is sewn", "embroidery" ( gold embroidery); 9) from the name of the author to the name of his work or the style created by him: read(parody)Dostoevsky; 10) from the material form in which the content is contained, to the content itself; compare: thick book(about the subject) And interesting book(about content); 11) from the branch of knowledge on its subject: grammar- “structure, structure of language” ( grammatical structure) and “a branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of language” ( theoretical grammar); 12) from whole to part and vice versa: pear– “tree” and “fruit”, face– “the front of a person’s head” and “person, personality”, etc.
In a number of cases, metonymy turns out to be reversible, i.e. can develop in both directions; eg from place to action ( road) and from action to place ( stop).
Transferring a name from a part to a whole is called synecdoche; this type of metonymy can be used to highlight different aspects or functions of an object; Wed face,figure,personality when applied to humans ( legally responsible person,historical figure,the role of personality in history). However, the main function of synecdoche is to identify an object by indicating a characteristic detail, a distinctive feature. Therefore, identifying metonymy (synecdoche) often includes definitions. The typical function of synecdoche is the nominal members of the sentence (subject, object, address): Hey,beard!how to get from here to Plyushkin,So,so as not to pass the manor's house? (Gogol); Hey,umbrella!Make way for the cane. Even a pince-nez will fit perfectly with her(from a humorous poem). The use of synecdoche is pragmatic (situational) or contextually determined: usually we are talking about an object either directly included in the speaker’s field of perception (see examples above) or characterized in the pretext. To name a person Panama,cap or hat, you must first inform the addressee about his headdress: Opposite me in the carriage was an old man in a Panama hat.,and next to him is a woman in a flirty hat. Panama was reading the newspaper,and the flirtatious hat flirted with the young man standing next to her. Synecdoche is thus anaphoric, i.e. focused on pretext. Therefore, it cannot be used in existential sentences and their equivalents that introduce some object into the world of narration. So, you can’t start a fairy tale with words Once upon a time there was(one)Little Red Riding Hood. Such an introduction would presuppose a story about a personified cap, but not about a girl wearing a red cap on her head.
In the case of situationally determined metonymy, a change in its subject assignment does not affect the norms of grammatical and semantic agreement of the word; Wed Cap got worried(about a man) Whiskers got angry(about one person). The definition is usually part of metonymy and cannot be attributed to its denotation (the designated object). In combinations old hat,fashion boots the adjective characterizes the item of clothing, and not the person, which is the denotation of metonymy. This distinguishes metonymy (synecdoche) from nominative metaphor, the definitions of which often refer specifically to denotation: old pepper shaker(about an old evil man).
The designation of an object by its characteristic detail serves as a source not only of situational nominations, but also nicknames, nicknames and proper names of people, animals, and settlements: Krivonos,White Fang,White-fronted,Pyatigorsk,Kislovodsk,Mineral water. The metonymic principle underlies such surnames as Kosolapov,Krivoshein,Dolgoruky. Metonymy of this type is often used in familiar colloquial speech and in literary texts, in which it can serve to achieve a humorous effect or create a grotesque image .
Situational metonymy (synecdoche) is not common in the position of the predicate, i.e. does not perform a characterizing function. However, if the designation of a part (component of the whole) contains qualitative or evaluative connotations, it can serve as a predicate. Thus, metonymy is transformed into metaphor: And you,turns out,hat(i.e. a bungler), Yes he is a bast shoe(uncultured person). Metaphors like hat,bast shoe,head(in the meaning of “smart person”), are based on the metonymic principle of transferring a name from a part to a whole: Snowden is the head!- answered the asked vest. - But no matter what you say,I’ll tell you frankly - Chamberlain is still a head too. Pique vests raised the shoulders(I. Ilf, E. Petrov). The above text shows the functional difference between metonymy and metaphor: metonymy ( vest,pique vests) identifies the subject of speech, metaphor ( head) characterizes him.
Reflecting the constant contacts of objects, metonymy is typified, creating semantic models of polysemantic words. As a result of metonymic transfers, new meanings appear in a word, while in the semantics of a word fundamentally different types of meaning can be combined: attribute, event and objective (abstract and concrete). Thus, action names are regularly used to indicate the result or location of the action, i.e. get subject meaning: composition,departure,story,work,landing,sowing,sitting and so on. If metonymic transfer is carried out within a word-formation type, then its consequence may be polysemy of the suffix (for example, suffixes - aniye,-ing). The association of objects by their contiguity, as well as concepts by their logical proximity, thereby turns into a connectedness of categories of meaning. This kind of metonymy serves nominative purposes and contributes to the development of lexical means of the language. However, the use of metonymic meaning often remains limited. So, soul meaning "person" bayonet meaning "infantryman" head in the meaning of “unit of livestock” are used only in counting: five souls of children,a herd of one hundred heads.
Metonymy, which arises on the basis of syntactic contacts and is the result of text compression, retains a certain degree of dependence on the conditions of use, without creating a new lexical meaning of the word. So, read(be in love,research)works of Tolstoy,read(be in love,research)Tolstoy, but wrong: * Tolstoy describes Russian life;The museum has two paintings by Rembrandt(There are two Rembrandts in the museum, but wrong: * One Rembrandt shows an old woman. Metonymy is especially strongly connected with context, in which the full designation of a situation, based on a predicate, is reduced to the name of the object: headache pills - headache pills;What happened to you?- Heart(meaning “My heart hurts”), Round table(meaning “round table discussion”) It was interesting. Concrete nouns receive event meanings after temporal, causative and concessional conjunctions: be late because of the train,tired after skiing. Metonymy is sometimes also defined as the variation in the semantics of a verb, characteristic of colloquial speech, depending on the focus of the action on the immediate object or on the expected result; compare: mow the grass And cut hay,cook chicken And cook chicken broth. Metonymy of this kind serves as a means of expanding the semantic possibilities of using words mainly in colloquial and casual speech.
Metonymy also includes shifts in the meaning of characteristic words (adjectives and verbs), based on the contiguity of the objects they characterize (secondary metonymization of meaning); Wed ironed suit And ironed young man; Wed also an expansion of the compatibility of characteristic words caused by the semantic proximity of the defined names: daring expression in the eyes,daring look,daring eyes,daring lorgnette; eg: I pointed my lorgnette at her and noticed,that my daring lorgnette really angered her(Lermontov), where is the adjective bold characterizes the actor, not the instrument of action.
So, the use of metonymy can be free or encounter certain types of restrictions. In accordance with this, they distinguish: 1) actual lexical (nominative) metonymy, 2) syntactically and semantically related metonymy and 3) situationally determined metonymy. The phenomenon of metonymy is considered in lexicology, semantics, stylistics and poetics.
Defining tropes and knowing all their features has always been problematic for most people. If you think about how often they are used and consider their features in examples found in everyday life, it becomes much easier to understand how to distinguish one from the other. Hearing the intricate name metonymy, many people get confused and lower their eyes, not understanding how to define it and distinguish it from a metaphor. This article will answer these questions.
Metonymy is a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal) connection with the object, which is denoted by the replaced word (as in metaphor). The replacement word is used in a figurative sense.
Interest in the trope arose and began to develop in ancient times, when Aristotle in his “Rhetoric” distinguished metaphorical expressions from visual ones. By “visual” he understood metonymy. Aristotle meant expressions that depict a thing visually.
Cicero called such expressions metonymic: in which, instead of a word that exactly corresponds to the object, another word with the same meaning is substituted, borrowed from an object that is in close connection with the given one.
The Roman rhetorician and theoretician Quintilian also contrasts metonymy with metaphor. He gave a classic definition, emphasizing that its essence is manifested in replacing the described with its cause. It means that
Metonymy replaces one concept with a related one. Reference!
Knowing the etymology of the word will help you understand more precisely what metonymy is. Word of ancient Greek origin (μετονυμία “renaming”, from μετά- “over” + ὄνομα/ὄνυμα “name”)
Example:
On December 15 there was a book fair, I couldn’t pass by and bought all of Dickens there. This sentence clearly demonstrates how often people use metonymy without even thinking about it. Expression "bought Dickins" is defined as a metonymy, because Dickens himself was not purchased at the fair, but from the context it becomes clear that it is implied that all of Charles Dickens's books were purchased. Based on the definition, which states that the words being replaced and the replacing words must be related in one way or another, we can now confidently say that
this is precisely a metonymy, the connection is that Charles Dickens is the author of these books.
This transfer of the name of the creator to his creations is a logical metonymy, as you will learn about in the next paragraph. Types of metonymy
- As stated, replacement is carried out according to the principle of contiguity. Based on the contiguity between words, metonymies are divided into 3 types: Spatial. Communication is space and the physical arrangement of objects. The most common case of this type is replacing the people in the room with the name of the building in which they are located. “The whole hall applauded after the explosive speech of the German representative”, it is obvious that the people who were in the hall at that moment and listening to the performance applauded.
- “The hostel celebrated the end of the session” Similarly to the previous example, the students in the dormitory celebrated. Temporary. For temporary the moment of contiguity is the coexistence/appearance in one period of time. Simply put, "wonderful magazine edition"(here “publication” is already the result of the action). “On the stone, which was located near the entrance to the cave, images of mammoths were carved”(result of action)
- Logical. Most a broad type of metonymy, which is divided into three main categories:
The first is transferring the name of the container to the contents. "If he's hungry, he can eat two plates.", that is, eat the volume of soup that two plates can hold
The second is the transfer of the name of the material to the object that consists of it. “She was from a wealthy family and wore furs.”, we are talking about the fact that she constantly wore wardrobe items made of fur, for example, a fur coat, a hat
Third - transferring the name of the creator to the creation(which was discussed above). “The Van Gogh exhibition created a sensation among the younger generation”- an exhibition featuring his paintings.
Kinds
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Differences from metaphor
Metaphor - transferring the name of one object to another based on their similarity(by shape, color, properties). Metaphor is easy can be transformed into a comparative phrase by adding conjunctions:“as”, “as if” and others.
Metaphor | Metonymy |
When using a word in a metaphorical turn, its original meaning does not become complicated. | When a word is used metonymically, its meaning expands due to its use in a figurative meaning. |
The main feature of a metaphor is the content of comparison. | Metonymy does not carry any comparison. |
Metaphor is an artistic device that carries an image. | Metonymy does not contain any image. |
It is actively used in fiction and journalism. | It is an integral part of colloquial speech. |
Attention! When not to use:
- In the predicate position.
- In an existential sentence and its replacing forms (a type of sentence indicating the existence of something in the world/part of it).
- Restriction in use by semantic factor. For example: using the word “soul” to mean “person”.
Use in Russian language and literature
What's happenedmetonymy in Russianexamples of using:
- The scientific conference decided to postpone the implementation of the project until 2025(by conference we mean people who took part in it).
- When I'm on the verge of a nervous breakdown, I drink lemon balm; it helps stabilize my emotional state.(Lemon balm tea is the use of the name of a material/substance to mean the product containing it).
- All of Beijing is sleeping after a hard day of work.(Beijing residents are sleeping).
- Doctors recommend eating fruit during illness, since there is no fruit in winter; many people make do with cherry jam.(Jam is an action, cherry jam is the result of an action).
In literature:
“I ate three plates” (I.A. Krylov “Demyanov’s ear”)
The article showed that metonymy is firmly entrenched in the vocabulary of almost every person. This trope helps avoid long constructions by making sentences shorter and “broader” (in meaning) when needed. And it simply enriches speech, making it more lively and spontaneous.
Useful video
Use and definition of metonymy in the view below.
Often there is a problem with defining certain tropes that are found mainly in poetic texts. This article will be devoted to this problem. We will analyze, define the term and consider in detail the cases of use in the literature.
What is metonymy?
So, let's look at the meaning of the word "metonymy". Metonymy is the transfer of a word by contiguity (relatedness of concepts). The famous ancient Greek philosopher Marcus Quintilian said, defining this concept, that the essence of metonymy is manifested in the replacement of what is described by its cause. That is, there is a replacement of related concepts.
Here is an example of metonymy:
- “All flags will come to visit us” (A.S. Pushkin), flags mean different countries, and if you replace the word “flags” with “states”, the meaning of the line will not change at all.
- “Bronze Age” - implies that the age was not made of bronze, but that this time was famous for the beginning of the use of this material.
- “Applicant for director’s portfolio,” that is, an applicant for the position of director, whose attribute is the portfolio.
Metonymy is used to enhance the expressiveness and richness of language. This technique is widespread in poetics, lexicology, stylistics, and rhetoric. With its help you can influence the public for a long time.
Connection in metonymy
Metonymy in Russian has the property of establishing an adjacent connection between two objects. Actually, this is its main essence and purpose. So, there are the following metonymic connections:
- Name not the thing itself, but the material from which it was made: “I walked in gold” instead of “I walked in gold jewelry.”
- A concrete noun is replaced by an abstract one. “My beauty is indescribable,” says the lover about the object of his desire.
- The content is replaced with content or the owner is indicated instead of ownership: “I’ll have another glass” instead of the name of a specific drink.
- The item's name is replaced by its attribute: "The Man in Black" instead of giving a clear description of his clothing.
- Replacing the action with the instrument with which it is usually performed: “His pen breathes vengeance” (A. Tolstoy) instead of “His poetry breathes mysticism.”
- Naming works after the author: “I read Chekhov” instead of “I read Chekhov’s works.”
- Substitution between a person and the place where he is: “It was quiet in the house” instead of “No one made noise in the house.”
All metonymic connections are divided into types.
Types of metonymy
Metonymy is divided into three main types, which are determined depending on the contiguity of concepts, objects, and actions:
- Spatial.
- Temporary.
- Logical.
Let's analyze each of these types separately in order to understand the specifics of use and not make mistakes in the future in practice.
Spatial
Such metonymic transfer is based on the physical, spatial arrangement of phenomena or objects.
The most common example of metonymy of this type is the transfer of the name of a premises (institution, etc.) or part of it to persons working or living in a given house or enterprise. For example: a spacious workshop, a dark hut, a cramped editorial office, a multi-story building. In these cases, the words “workshop”, “hut”, “edition” and “house” are used in their literal meaning. Now let’s look at the following phrases: “the entire editorial staff went out for a subbotnik”, “the whole house was asleep”, “all the huts took part in the competition”, “the whole workshop was in favor”. Here these same words acquire a metonymic meaning and are perceived in a figurative meaning.
Also, spatial metonymy is the transfer of the name of a container or vessel to its contents. For example, “the kettle is boiling,” that is, the liquid poured into the kettle is boiling.
Temporary
This type of metonymic connection occurs when the objects being compared come into contact with each other within a time frame.
An example of metonymy: when the name of an action, which is a noun, is transferred to its result (what should arise in the process of action). So, the action will be “publishing a book”, and the result of the action will be “a wonderful gift edition”; “the artist had difficulty depicting details” - “images of dragons are carved on the bas-relief” (that is, the result of drawing).
Also, examples of a temporary type of transfer would be “shirt with embroidery”, “bring in the transfer on time”, “decorate with carvings”, “ancient embroidery”, “collector’s coinage”, “polishing has worn off”.
Logical
Logical metonymy is widespread. Examples in Russian of this type are not only extensive, but also differ in the specifics of transfer:
- Transferring the name of a container or vessel to the volume of the substance contained in this item. Consider the phrases: “break the plate”, “find a spoon”, “wash the pan”, “untie the bag”. All nouns are used in their literal meaning and are called containers. Compare these examples with such usages as “taste a spoonful of jam”, “eat two plates”, “buy a bag of sugar”. Now the same nouns are used in a figurative meaning and serve to designate the volume of substance they contain.
- Transferring the name of a material or substance to what is made from it. This type of metonymy is used as follows: “to win silver” (that is, a silver medal), “to wear furs” (fur clothing), “to collect ceramics” (ceramic products), “to rearrange papers” (documents), “to write watercolors” ( paint with watercolors).
- Transferring the author's name to the creation he created. For example: “reread Pushkin” (Pushkin’s books), “love Shishkin” (Shishkin’s paintings), “use Dahl” (a dictionary edited by Dahl).
- Transferring the name of an action to the people or object with the help of which it is carried out. For example: “pendant” (decoration), “putty” (a substance for eliminating defects), “shift” (people who make up a certain group).
- Transferring the name of the action to the place where it is performed. For example, signs with the words “exit”, “entrance”, “stop”, “detour”, “crossing”, “crossing”, “turn”, “passage”, etc.
- Transferring the name of a quality (property) to something that has this property or quality. Let's consider the phrases “tactlessness of words”, “mediocrity of a person”, “tactless behavior”, “caustic expressions”, “banality of assessments”. The words used indicate abstract qualities and properties. Now let’s compare: “commit tactlessness”, “talk nonsense”, “she was surrounded by mediocrity”, “speak banalities”, “make barbs”. Here a metonymic transfer of meaning already occurs.
- Transferring the name of an area to the material or substance that is mined or produced there. For example: "harbour", "Gzhel".
Types of metonymy
Now we list the main types of metonymy:
- General language.
- General poetic.
- General newspaper.
- Individually authored.
Let's look at each type in more detail.
General language
Various types of tropes are used everywhere in the Russian language, and metonymy is one of the most common. Often people use it without even noticing it. This is especially true for this species.
So, what will relate to general linguistic metonymies:
- The words “silver”, “casting”, “crystal”, “porcelain” when they designate products. For example, a “porcelain collector,” that is, a collector of porcelain products.
- The words “impregnation”, “putty” and others denoting a substance.
- The words “factory”, “shift”, “factory”, “attack”, “defense”, when they indicate people. For example: “The plant took part in the competition,” that is, the plant employees took part in the competition.
- The words “turn”, “exit”, “entry”, “crossing” when denoting the location of the action.
- The words “hare”, “mink”, “fox”, “squirrel” and others when used instead of the name of the product. For example: “Dressed in mink,” that is, in a product made from mink fur.
General poetic
Perhaps the most expressive type is general poetic metonymy. Examples from fiction belong specifically to this group:
- “A cloud / You alone rush across the clear azure” (Pushkin). The word "azure", meaning blue sky, is a metonymy here.
- “Transparent and cold day” (Kuprin). “In the transparent cold” (Yesenin). The word "transparent" is a metonymy.
- “In duels... Meeting disastrous lead” (Pushkin). “Deadly lead tore the poet’s heart apart” (Tyutchev). The word "lead" is a metonymy.
- “The blue wind whispers” (Yesenin). “On such a blue day” (A. Tolstoy). The word "blue" is a metonymy.
Thus, general poetic metonymy is a type of metonymy that is typical for use in artistic (usually poetic) texts.
General newspaper
Such metonymies include the following words: “fast” (“fast seconds”, “fast water”), “green” (“green harvest”, “green patrol”), “golden” (“golden flight”, “golden jump” ). That is, these are the techniques of metonymy that are most often used in journalistic texts.
Individually-authored
The types of tropes have a huge variety, this is due to the fact that most of them have several types and types, and metonymy, as we see, is no exception.
Individual author's metonymies are those metonymies that are characteristic of the work of a single writer and are not used everywhere. For example: “I’ll put you to sleep with a quiet tale... I’ll tell you a sleepy tale” (Blok); “From the cool wooden purity of the house” (V. Soloviev).
Synecdoche
Another frequently encountered problem is the question of how synecdoche and metonymy relate to each other. Often these two concepts are mistakenly perceived as completely separate, but this is not the case. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy and denotes the transfer of a name (name) from a part of an object (substance, action) to its whole. Typically, this subtype is used when it is necessary to highlight a specific aspect or function of an object. For example, let’s take the words “figure”, “person”, “personality” and apply them to a person: “historical figure”, “legally responsible person”, “the role of the individual in our victory”.
But the main function of synecdoche is its ability to identify an object using indications of its distinctive feature or a detail peculiar only to it. Therefore, this trope usually includes a definition. If we talk about the structure of sentences, then synecdoche will occupy the role of nominal members, that is, object, subject or address. For example: “Hey, beard! How do you get from here to Plyushkin?” (Gogol). The word "beard" is a synecdoche. Knowing this feature can help in cases where you need to find a synecdoche in a text.
The use of synecdoche in a text is always contextual or situational (pragmatic): most often it will be about an object that either comes directly into the speaker’s field of vision, or its characteristics were given earlier in the text. For example, if a person is called a “hat”, “cap” or “bowler hat”, then the addressee is first given a description of his headdress: “An old man in a Panama sat opposite me, and across from me sat a woman in a flirty hat. Panama was dozing, and the flirty hat was chattering about something with the young man...” Thus, as we could see, synecdoche is always context-oriented, that is, anaphoric. Therefore, its use in all kinds of existential sentences (they introduce readers to characters for the first time) is unacceptable. Let us illustrate this error with the following example: we begin the fairy tale with the words: “Once upon a time there was a Little Red Riding Hood.” Such a beginning would mislead the reader, since the main character would not be the girl in the red cap, but the object itself, that is, the cap painted red.
Metaphor and metonymy
Questions also arise in cases where it is necessary to distinguish in the text such tropes as metaphor, metonymy, epithet. And if the situation with epithets is quite easy - this is an adjective that enhances the expressiveness of a word, then it is much more difficult to deal with metaphor and metonymy.
So, let's look at what a metaphor is. It serves as a connecting link not for adjacent concepts that have common structural connections in the real world (like metonymy), but for the correlation of completely different objects, united only by association, function or characteristic. Let's look at the example of two sentences: “Lera is meek” and “Doe is meek,” from this we conclude that “Lera is as meek as the doe,” the final metaphor will be: “Lera-doe.”
The structures of constructing metaphor and metonymy are similar: two objects are taken in which a common semantic element is identified, which makes it possible to reduce some elements of the description, but at the same time preserve the semantics. But in the case of metonymy, the connection (semantic element) is always materialized and can only be perceived with the help of the senses. When creating a metaphor, the semantic element is synthesized in our minds on the basis of associations and memory.
Metaphors, by their very nature, are a collapsed comparison that can be expanded when done. For example, a “family tree”: if you graphically depict family ties, they will look like a tree.
A metaphor is created based on a comparison, but not every comparison is suitable for creating it. Only logical structures that serve to unite heterogeneous (foreign, heterogeneous) phenomena can be used.
To clarify, let’s give an example: “Katya is as wise as Veronica.” A metaphor in this case cannot be created, since objects of the same kind are taken as a basis: a girl is compared with a girl (the action would not work if a person were compared with a person). But if you construct the sentence like this: “Katya is as wise as a snake,” then a metaphor would work, since the objects being compared are heterogeneous (animal and a person).
Despite the fact that metaphor has a very abstract meaning, the basis (comparison) of transfer is just as easy to determine as in the case of metonymy.
Thus, metonymy, in comparison with metaphor, always has a more real connection between the concept and the object that replaces it, and it also eliminates or significantly limits features that are unimportant for the phenomenon (object) being described.
Metonymy in literature
Metonymy is very common in this area. Examples from fiction are full of all kinds of this trope. As noted above, metonymy is widespread in all types of speech, including everyday speech. However, nowhere does it play such a significant role as in a literary work.
The trope was especially popular among writers of the first half of the twentieth century. Especially among those of its representatives who were engaged in constructivism and created poetry based on this teaching. Metonymy and metaphor in their works were opposed to each other, and preference was given to the first. They believed that only the text has the main meaning, and the reader should not interfere with its content with his associations and memory, and therefore, metaphorical images could not be created.
In everyday speech, metonymies of place occur frequently. For example, they say: “the samovar is boiling” or “the kettle is boiling,” but it is not the samovar or kettle itself that is boiling, but the water in them; “the lamp is burning,” but it is not the lamp itself that is burning, but the kerosene or oil in it; “this carriage got wet,” but it was not the carriage itself that got wet, but the fruits transported in it; “I ate the whole plate,” “he drank a whole glass,” but they don’t eat plates and drink not glasses, but what’s put on them or poured into them.
Metonymies of place are very frequent and unique in modern political and newspaper speech. This is the use, instead of the names of governments - of different countries, instead of various government agencies - of the names of cities, buildings in which they are located and function. For example: “London does not have enough strength for this”; “Moscow and Bonn exchanged notes”; “The White House issued clarifications,” etc.
In literary and colloquial language metonymies of time are also often used. They say: “what a difficult year it was,” “what a difficult time,” or “it was the happiest day of my life,” but what can be happy, difficult, difficult for certain people is not some period of their life in itself , but those events and experiences that took place during this period.
A special type of metonymy is phrases in which certain actions are designated by the names of the means (tools, organs) with the help of which they are carried out. Here are examples from everyday vernacular: “he has a very faithful eye”; “hold your tongue; “this writer has a very lively pen”; “he has no ear for such music”; “what an elegant pencil” (in the sense of a drawing), etc.
Along with this, there are metonymies of ownership, in which this or that object or phenomenon is designated by the name of its creator, owner or manager. Very often they say: “he knows all of Yesenin by heart”, “I bought Hemingway”, “she doesn’t like Scriabin”; or: “they met at the Mossovet”, “we went there in a cab.”
Often in literary speech and in common parlance metonymies are used, in which certain objects are designated by the name of the substance from which they are made.
For example, they said or are saying: “I was eating gold back then,” “I only have copper in my pocket,” “they gave him silverware,” “have you seen his wonderful watercolors,” “this sculptor is especially strong in bronze,” etc. . P.
There is a type of metonymy in which certain states and relationships of human life are designated by their external expression or attribute. For example, they say: “he is a guy with a head”; “there’s no need to bare your teeth”; “You shouldn’t turn a blind eye to this”; “yes, the milk on his lips hasn’t dried yet”; “he was offered the portfolio of Minister of Foreign Affairs”; “I can’t raise my hand to this”; “lived to see gray hair.”
These are the main types of qualitative metonymies in the Russian literary language and in the vernacular of various social strata.
But quantitative metonymy, or synecdoche, also has its own varieties. We talked about this type of synecdoche, as the designation of a whole object through the name of its part.
For example, “there are not enough workers at the factory”; “under his command there was a detachment of two hundred bayonets”; “I won’t let her in the door now”; “In recent years, the number of livestock on the collective farm has doubled.”
Another type of synecdoche is phrases in which
a set of any kind of phenomena or objects
denoted through one such phenomenon or object.
For example: “there are no bears in these forests”; "Russian
a person cannot understand this”; "the student has now gone
inquisitive, demanding"; "our brother-teacher."
A type of synecdoche is the use of proper names in a common noun. For example: “Do you imagine yourself to be Pushkin?”; “we need Suvorovs and Kutuzovs”; “We have many playwrights, but no Shakespeares yet.”
Introduction to literary criticism: Proc. for philol.. special. un-tov / G.N. Pospelov, P.A. Nikolaev, I.F. Volkov and others; Ed. G.N. Pospelov. - 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 1988. - 528 p.