What happened to the Ovechkin family after the hijacking. "seven simeons"
URARTU- powerful slave state Ancient world in the 9th–6th centuries. BC It was located on the territory of the Armenian Highlands, in the area of lakes Van (modern Turkey), Urmia (northwest Iran), Gokcha (Sevan), including the Araks River basin and up to the Kura River in the north.
The Armenian highlands were inhabited by the Urartian and Nairi tribes, linguistically close to the Hurrians, inhabitants of the ancient state of Mitanni in northern Mesopotamia (mid-2nd millennium BC).
The first Assyrian mentions of Urartu date back to the 10th century. BC By the middle of the 9th century. BC The state of Urartu begins to take shape. Ancient inscriptions in Tushpa (modern Van), the capital of Urartu, mention the Urartian king Sarduri I.
OK. 832 BC There are again references to Assyrian raids on Urartu. The Assyrians probably wanted to take control of the trade routes that supplied Mesopotamia with iron from southeastern Asia Minor (modern Turkey). However, the Assyrian campaigns of 856 and 832 BC. against Urartu were not successful. Therefore, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 829 BC. again invades the area of Lake Urmia to suppress the Urartians seeking independence. In all likelihood, the Assyrians were once again driven back, and Sarduri I declared himself “the great king, the strong king, the king of multitudes, the king of Nairi,” thereby challenging the powerful Assyria for dominance in Western Asia. These Assyrian campaigns against Urartu are depicted on the bas-reliefs of the temple gates in the Assyrian city of Imgur Ellil (modern Balawat in northern Iraq).
Having weakened the once powerful Assyrian power by the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries, the state of Urartu entered its heyday. From this time on, the expansion of the Urartian kings Ishpuini and Menua began. Having established themselves in the territories around lakes Van and Urmia, the Urartians made a series of successful campaigns in the country of Diauhi (the territory of modern eastern Turkey in the region of Kars and Erzerum) and Southern Transcaucasia (modern Armenia and part of southern Georgia). The Menuakhinili fortress was built in the Ararat valley as an outpost for the upcoming expansion of the Urartians deep into Transcaucasia.
Menua's successor, his son Argishti I, continued his father's aggressive policy. He founded the well-fortified fortresses of Erebuni (outskirts of Yerevan) and Argishtikhinili (later Armavir) on the left bank of the Araks. Argishti I defeated the country of Diauhi and came close to the “country of Kulha” (Colchis). The campaigns of Argishti I were accompanied by the capture of a large number of slaves and livestock. The so-called story tells us about these events. “Khorkhor Chronicle”, carved on the steep slopes of the Van rock in Tushpa.
In 764–735 BC Sarduri II, son of Argishti I, reigns on the Urartian throne. The advanced army of the Urartians, created on the model of the Assyrian (large round shields, pointed helmets made of bronze, protective plate armor, etc.), made a number of successful campaigns in northern Transcaucasia, Manu (the country of the Maneans on the territory of modern South Azerbaijan in Iran) and Kumahu (Commagenu - a Turkish enclave of Kurdistan). Sarduri II entered into a series of alliances with the Syrians and began to threaten the Assyrian state from the west.
The inevitable battle between Urartu and Assyria began after the accession of Tiglath-pileser III to the Assyrian throne, which put an end to the internecine wars and unrest within the Assyrian state itself. OK. 740 BC Tiglath-pileser III sent his army to Kumakha, and in the battle of Kishtan and Khalpa inflicted a serious defeat on the united allied army Urartians and Syrians. Sarduri II was forced to retreat beyond the Euphrates. The Assyrians drove the Urartians out of Northern Mesopotamia and Northern Syria. In all likelihood, Tiglath-pileser III c. 735 BC besieged the Urartian capital Tushpa, but the Assyrians were unable to capture the citadel on the Van Rock.
After the death of Sarduri II (30s of the 8th century BC), Rusa I reigned in Urartu, who carried out a number of reforms to strengthen the central government and erected new fortresses (on the shores of Lake Sevan, etc.).
At this time, nomadic Cimmerian tribes from Transcaucasia invade Urartu. Rusa I, at the cost of huge losses, was able to resist the devastating raids of the Cimmerians and successfully bring Urartu out of this crisis.
After this, a clash with Assyria again becomes inevitable. OK. 715 BC Assyrian ruler Sargon II moved to Lake Urmia. In the general battle of Uaush (near Lake Urmia), the Assyrians completely defeated the army of Rus I and his allies. The king of Urartu fled to Tushpa, where he committed suicide. After this, the Assyrians brutally plundered and devastated Urartu.
At the beginning of the 7th century. BC The Urartian king Rusa II tried to restore the relative power of Urartu. He built a number of fortresses (including Teishebaini in the Ararat Valley). In alliance with the Cimmerian tribes, Rusa II made a series of campaigns in Phrygia. Relations between Urartu and Assyria generally remained peaceful.
In the second half of VII BC. AD Scythian tribes appear near the northern Transcaucasian borders of Urartu, defeating and absorbing the Cimmerians. The mortal danger of a Scythian invasion loomed over the once powerful state of Urartu. Around 630 BC King of Urartu Sarduri III turns to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal for help ( cm. ASSHURBANAPAL) for help, calling himself no longer “brother” as before, but “son,” thereby recognizing the supremacy of Assyria. However, Assyria itself was soon defeated by the rise of the Median kingdom, which existed in the northwestern regions of the Iranian Plateau. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire, ca. 609 BC Median troops invaded Urartu and occupied Tushpa. By 590 BC the state of Urartu apparently completely lost its independence.
Urartu was rather a state union of various ethnic tribes and peoples. Herodotus of the 5th century BC talks about the four main ethnic groups of the population of Urartu - the Alarodis (the Urartians themselves), the Armenians (Armenians), the Matiens (related to the Hurrians) and the Saspeirs (corresponding to the Kartvelian tribes). Undoubtedly, the state of Urartu played a huge role in the formation and development of the peoples of the Armenian Highlands and Transcaucasia. It can be assumed that the end of the history of Urartu is the beginning of the history of the Armenian and Kartvelian (East Georgian) peoples.
The history of the state of Urartu is known to us from cuneiform tablets found in 1827 by the young archaeologist Friedrich Schulz. In the wake of extraordinary interest in the study of historical antiquities and the rapid development of archeology as a science, the Assyrian city of Nineveh, the palace of King Sargon II in Khorsabad, and the famous library of Ashurbanipal were soon discovered - all this greatly contributed to the rapid deciphering of cuneiform sources and obtaining information about the history of Urartu.
At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The indigenous population living on the territory of the Armenian Highlands enters into a persistent and lengthy struggle with the Assyrians, and the legendary king of ancient history, Tiglath-palassar I, goes on military campaigns against the “country of Nairi”. In the area of Lake Van in the middle of the 9th century, a united state of proto-Armenian tribes was formed, which in a short period of time became so strong that it was able to decisively repel the Assyrian invaders. The inhabitants of the new Urartian state could be called Khaldi (on behalf of Khaldi, the main god of the Urartians), and their country - Biayni. The long confrontation with the Assyrian kingdom became a powerful impetus for the unification of previously disparate tribes, and natural resources The Armenian Highlands created the economic prerequisites for the formation of a strong and prosperous state in this territory.
Fragment of an Urartian fresco
One of the main stages in the formation of the state of Urartu was the reign of King Ishpuini (828 - 810 BC), the son of the legendary founder of the Kingdom of Van - Sarduri I. Reforms and rearmament of the army gradually turned Urartu into one of the most influential states in Western Asia. During the reign of Ishpuini, Urartu began to undertake its own campaigns of conquest and expand its territory. The most important achievement of this ancient king was the capture of the city of Musasir, which was a religious center for the veneration of the god Khaldi, the supreme deity of the Urartian pantheon. In addition to Haldi, the divine triad included the god of thunder and war Teisheba and the god of the solar disk Shivini. The analogue of the Babylonian fertility goddess Ishtar was Arubaini, the wife of the supreme god Khaldi. As you can see, the schematic basis for constructing the divine pantheon of even ancient peoples indicates the presence of a single plot and composition of cosmogonic myths and religious rituals.
The memory of Urartu is preserved in genetic code modern Armenians
The capture of Musasir gave Ishpuini the legal right to carry out religious reform in Urartu, promoting the centralization of royal power. For the state of the ancient world, which was Urartu, the religious reform of Ishpuini had a very great value. The inhabitants of Urartu believed that their successes directly depended on the power of their supreme god. In the eyes of the Urartians, the God Khaldi, who was also revered in northern Assyria, could resist Ashur himself, the supreme god of his southern neighbor.
Image of the god Khaldi, Arin-Berd, Historical Museum of Armenia
The apogee of the struggle against foreign intervention occurred during the reign of King Argishti (778 - 750 BC). The long-term confrontation ended with the victory of the Urartians, for the glory of which the ruler ordered the description of this to be cut out long-awaited event on the Van Rock, not far from the residence of the rulers of Urartu in the capital - the city of Tushpa. In general, Urartian architecture is characterized by an abundance of rooms carved into rocks. Thus, the internal spaces of the Van Rock probably served as tombs for the Urartian kings, and the surface itself was carefully processed with the tools of stonemasons, the rocky slopes are covered with numerous ledges, stairs and niches.
Urartu fought with Assyria for hegemony in the Middle East
In terms of its political system, Urartu was a typical despotic state of the ancient Eastern type, the basis of which was a strong central government that kept various conquered tribes in subjection. To weaken local ethnic conflicts, the Urartu authorities used all those methods of state coercion that they would later use until our time. This includes punitive campaigns, the destruction of rebel tribal unions, and the resettlement of residents of occupied areas to other parts of the country. At the same time, their territory was given to new settlers, forcibly brought here from the most remote corners of the state. To strengthen power on the periphery of their kingdom, the Urartians built fortresses, created administrative centers and sent their governors there, on whose shoulders fell control over the timely payment of tribute and the work on the construction of fortresses and irrigation systems - artificial lakes and canals. They have become a vital necessity for the population of both lowland and mountainous regions of the country. The main wealth of the Van kingdom was cattle. Among the crafts in Urartu, metallurgy achieved great development, because iron began to be used here earlier than in other regions of Western Asia. Culturally, the Urartian state was close to Assyria, from which it, in particular, borrowed its writing, taking a ready-made linguistic system and adapting it to the peculiarities of own language. It is interesting that the temple of the supreme god Khaldi in Musasir was significantly different from Assyrian buildings: with its gable roof and decorated pediment, it was more similar to archaic Greek temples.
Cuneiform tablet from Urartu
The feature that distinguished Urartu from previous and subsequent empires that existed on the territory of Western Asia was the unified architectural and urban appearance of the entire state, known in archaeological literature as “fortress cities.” They were built on high hills dominating the surrounding plain, which either never had settlements or were abandoned by the inhabitants before the Urartian conquest, and in some cases destroyed. Among the unique features of the Urartian worldview, it is also worth noting the widespread cult of wolves or dogs - totemic analogues of ancient Egyptian cats. According to local beliefs, wolves accompanied the souls of the dead to afterlife and even had the ability to resurrect the dead. In collections of Urartian art you can often find a ritual figurine of Aralez, a deity of the ancient Armenian pantheon who revived the fallen on the battlefield by licking their wounds.
The Urartians were tolerant of non-believers
By the middle of the 8th century. BC e. the power of the state of Urartu began to gradually weaken, and the main rival, the Assyrian kingdom, on the contrary, entered its heyday. The country was headed by the talented ruler Tiglath-palassar III, who set as his goal to restore the former influence of Assyria. Having won a confident victory over the Urartian army, Tiglathpalassar in a cuneiform inscription says the following: “I locked Sarduri Urartu in Turushpa (Tushpa), its main city, and carried out a great massacre in front of the city gates. I installed the image of my dominion opposite the city.” The defeat of the ancient Urartian capital and the devastating march of the Assyrian army through enemy territory weakened the Urartian state, which soon lost its former dominant position in the northeast of Western Asia.
At the archaeological excavations of the city of Tushpa, 1915
The weakening of the Assyrian kingdom, which began a long and bloody war with Babylon and Media in the second half of the 7th century, did not stop the decline of the Urartu civilization. Around 590 BC e. The kingdom of Van lost its independence and was captured by Media and then by Persia. It should be noted that neither in eastern Turkey nor on the territory of modern Armenia have any post-Urartian structures been discovered earlier than the 1st century AD. e., ancient geographers and historians do not mention the existence of urban culture. The population of the Armenian Highlands during this period was heterogeneous and consisted of remnants of the Urartians, Proto-Armenians, Semites and Hittites. The memory of the state of Urartu became part of the traditions and customs of the Armenian nobility, which used Urartian art objects, jewelry and clothing. The population of the Armenian Highlands maintained the functionality of the Urartian hydraulic structures necessary for agriculture. For example, the Menua canal, 70 km long, is in operation to this day and, in terms of its engineering characteristics, is not inferior to modern hydraulic structures.
Urartu is one of the most powerful powers of antiquity. If you asked an ordinary peasant who is the greatest in Asia Minor, the answer would be the same - state of Urartu. It's time to meet him...
Urartu was an ancient state located in the territory of modern southwest Asia Minor. Today Armenia is located there. The first evidence of the people of Urartu dates back to the thirteenth century BC. The state was formed half a thousand years later - only in the eighth century BC.
For almost 250 years, this power conquered the peoples of Asia Minor and strengthened its hegemony in the region. Urartu flourished from the ninth to the sixth centuries BC. The beginning of the decline, according to historians, occurred in the middle of the sixth century BC.
In general, to be honest, the Urartu people did not exist at all. That is, all citizens of the state and descendants of the same Urartu who originally founded it were considered as such, but by the ninth century BC the population had become so heterogeneous that historians lost the common thread.
If we talk about today's descendants of Urartu, scientists have not yet decided. On the one hand, modern Armenians may well lay claim to this title. On the other hand, the Semites, Hittites and Luwians lived in the same way next to the Armenians in Urartu, and therefore they can also be called direct descendants of the people and the state itself. However, most historians are still on the side of the “Armenian version”, since even the language of the Armenians still retains some Urartian words.
Considering how many nationalities lived on the territory of the state of Urartu, one can guess that there was no trace of a single language there. The state language, including written language, was present, but it was used either by officials or ruling dynasty, or ambassadors.
This made it possible to at least somehow unify the entire “bureaucracy” of the state. At the same time the common "village" language of Urartu was very similar to Assyrian.
About religious affairs of Urartu
To be honest, in this regard everything is Urartu was adjusted as much as possible to the standards of that time. A large pantheon of gods of seventy personalities of varying degrees of cruelty. The main god of Urartu was Khaldi- the only one who came to state religion from the very Urartu tribes that we talked about at the beginning of the article. It is believed that the name of God Haldi meant "heavenly".
The gods of the Ancient World, who were accustomed to their duties, were also present here. Teisheba was responsible for wars and thunderstorms, and Shivini the sun rolled across the sky. IN lately facts appear indicating that the gods of Urartu were not as cruel as those of neighboring states. But I still don’t dare call them sweethearts.
Like any other state of antiquity, especially those located in Asia Minor, Urartu constantly had to fight, then for new lands, then defending the right to live on our own.
The main enemy of Urartu is Assyria. As you know, the Assyrian Empire managed to achieve a lot, but in the first decades of its existence there was only a struggle for hegemony in the region, where the main enemy was Urartu. It is interesting that the army of Urartu borrowed almost 70% of its strategy and weapons from Assyria. Actually, that's why Urartu constantly lost open battles, but quickly learned from their mistakes and actively developed the defense industry.
All citizens of the state, mercenaries, and sometimes slaves served in the army of Urartu. Wars are the daily life of the state. It is interesting that the rulers and their court were obliged to participate in all major battles, and sometimes in military tournaments, which were especially popular in Urartu in its heyday. During those same bright centuries, the army reached almost 10,000 light cavalry, 3,000 spearmen and 100-150 royal chariots, which were borrowed from Egypt.
In the middle of the sixth century BC, a crisis arose, both for Urartu and for their main enemy and neighbor, Assyria. A wave of Cimmerians, Scythians and Medes swept into the state, and it was very difficult for the rulers of Urartu to cope with them. The first problems began after a couple of decades of incessant wars, when the power began to disintegrate into small parts. The end of the majestic Urartu came with the fall of the walls of the last major city - Teishebaina. It is not known for certain who destroyed it, but you can equally blame the Babylonians, Medes, Cimmerians and Scythians.
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. The southern regions of Transcaucasia became part of the slave state of the Ancient East - Urartu, which at one time occupied a leading position among other states of Western Asia.
The history of Urartu is well known to us from Assyrian cuneiform sources, which described in detail campaigns against neighboring countries. The Assyrians, who lived at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. on the Armenian Highlands, the territory of the future Urartian state, they met with large associations of tribes that offered stubborn resistance to the Assyrian advance.
The Assyrians called these associations “the countries of Nairi”; During the campaigns of the Assyrian king Tiglath-palassar I to the north, 23 “kings of Nairi” opposed his army.
In the middle of the 9th century. In the area of Lake Van, the Urartian state was already formed. In a short period of time it grew and became stronger, and the Assyrians, as they moved north, constantly had to meet stubborn resistance from the Urartians.
The chronicles of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (860-825 BC) from the first year of his reign record campaigns to the north, against Urartu. Illustrations for these texts are images on bronze gate trims found on the Balavat hill (Assyrian Imgur-Bel), near Nineveh. One of the reliefs depicts the assault on the Urartian fortress of Suguniya. The burning fortress is besieged by the Assyrian army from two sides, and the assault is carried out using ladders attached to the walls. The defenders are visible in the fortress - Urartian warriors - archers and spearmen. To the right of the fortress is a group of Urartians with their hands tied behind their backs and stocks around their necks - these are prisoners being taken into slavery.
At the Van Rock, the citadel of the Urartian capital Tushpa, the remains of a wall made of huge stone blocks have been preserved. On the stones there are three inscriptions in Assyrian, speaking about the construction of this wall by the Urartian ruler Sarduri, son of Lutipri, who is mentioned in the chronicles of Shalmaneser III. The special interest of the Sarduri inscription lies in the fact that the Urartian ruler does not call himself King Biayni, as the Urartians usually later called their country, but the king of the country of Nairi. This circumstance indicates that in the middle of the 9th century. BC e. the state of Urartu replaced the union of Nairi countries. The title “King Nairi” was also borne by the Urartian king Ishpuini, the son of Sarduri, from whom the first wedge-shaped inscriptions in the Urartian language came down.
In the literature on the history of the Ancient East, the inhabitants of the Urartian state are often incorrectly called Chalds, named after the god Khaldi, the main god of the Urartians. It has now been proven that the Urartians themselves did not call themselves that. They called the central part of their state Biayni. The modern name of Lake Van may have come from this name. The term Urartu is preserved in the name of Mount Ararat and the Ayrarat region of Armenia.
The history of Urartu has been well known since the end of the 9th century. BC e. In addition to the ancient Urartian fortresses, many wedge-shaped inscriptions have been preserved in the Van region, telling about the successes of the Urartian campaigns undertaken to expand the territory of the kingdom. The inscription of King Ishpuini speaks of intensive construction activity in the central part of Urartu, in the area of its capital, Tushpa. Construction especially intensified in the center of Urartu under King Menua, son of Ishpuini (810-778 BC). More than a hundred inscriptions date back to the reign of Menui, with 31 of them talking about construction work, and 19 about the laying of canals. All architectural buildings of Menua have long been destroyed, but the canal that supplied water to the city of Tushpu exists and is still in operation. Modern population The Van region calls it the “Shamiram Canal,” linking the canal not with the builder himself, but with his contemporary, Queen Shamiram (Semiramis), the mother of the Assyrian “king Adadnirari III.”
Along with large construction work in the central part of Urartu, Menua continued the strengthening and expansion of the Urartu state begun by his predecessors. The Urartian army penetrated to; north of the river Arak, subjugating certain areas. At first, the Urartian campaigns in Transcaucasia pursued only predatory goals, and their task was to capture livestock and prisoners, who turned into slaves. Having gained a foothold on south coast r. Araks, Menua created his own there administrative center Menuahinili, near the modern village. Tashburun, and began to regularly exploit the conquered country by collecting tribute from its population.
In the west, Urartian troops made campaigns in the regions of the ancient Hittite state and reached the river. Euphrates. Here the interests of the Urartians collided with the interests of the Assyrians, who had long laid claim to ownership of these areas. The Urartians also had to encounter opposition from Assyria when attempting to move south. Wedge-shaped inscriptions tell about the victory of the Urartians in the country of Mana, south of Lake Urmia, which became in the 7th century. BC e. one of the contenders for hegemony in the northeastern part of Western Asia.
Menua's son, Argishti (778 - 750 BC), also had to endure a fierce struggle with Assyria. The Argishti chronicle, carved on the Van rock, notes the victory of the Urartians over the Assyrian army. In the 8th century BC e. Assyria lost its possessions in the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and the primacy in the northeast of Western Asia passed to Urartu.
At this time, the advance of the Urartians to the north intensified. The Urartian state included the areas around Lake Sevan. At the same time, the Urartian center in Transcaucasia was moved from Menuakhinili to the north across the river. Arak, where the Argishtikhinili fortress was built, the remains of which are located on Armavir Hill, in the Oktemberyan region Armenian Republic. This is where many Urartian inscriptions come from, talking about the construction of fortresses and temples, as well as the construction of irrigation canals. The great attention Argishti paid to the northern lands is emphasized by the fact that most of his inscriptions, currently known, were found north of the river. Araks. But it would be incorrect to conclude from this that the center of the Urartian state was moved from the city of Tushpa to the north. Tushpa still remained the capital of Urartu, where even under Argishti large construction work did not stop, in particular the construction of grandiose premises carved into the Van rock.
Sarduri, son of Argishti (750-733), at the beginning of his reign successfully continued the policy of strengthening and expanding Urartu. In one of the niches of the Van rock, a large stele was discovered containing the annals of Sarduri, illustrating the position of Urartu among other countries of Western Asia. In the west, the Urartians defeated the country of Kumukha-khali (Kom-Magenami), invading Syria, where Sarduri captured 40 min (20 kg) of gold, 800 min of silver, 3,000 min of lead and a lot of bronze. In Transcaucasia, the subjugation of new regions continued, accompanied by brutal reprisals against the rebellious and mass migrations of residents who were turned into slaves. So, for example, a trip to the country of Eriahi (in the area of the present city of Leninakan) is described in the following words: “[I went] to the country of Eriahi, did I capture the country? he burned and destroyed the settlements, devastated the country, and took the men and women to Biayni.” In addition, 412 horses, 6,665 bulls and 25,735 sheep were captured in the country of Eriahi. The same fate befell the country of Uelikukhi on the western coast of Lake Sevan, where Sarduri captured and destroyed 22 fortresses. Sometimes local rulers surrendered to the Urartian king without a fight. Thus, the chronicle says that “Murini, the king of Abilianich, came, hugged Sardur’s knees and fell on his face.” The defeated local rulers, as well as the inhabitants taken prisoner, were taken to the central part of Urartu. In one inscription of Sarduri, found in Van, we read: “The god Khald came out, with his weapon he conquered Sinalibi, the son of Luehu, the king of the country of the city of Tulihu, he conquered Ashurnirari, the son of Adadnirari, the king of the countries of Assyria.” As can be seen from this text, the fight against weakened Assyria at that time did not present serious difficulties and the victory of the Urartians over the Assyrian king was put on a par with victories over the rulers of small Transcaucasian regions.
The time of kings Argishti and his son Sarduri, i.e. the middle of the 8th century. BC e., was the period of greatest prosperity of the state of Urartu. Huge areas were united; the defeated tribes paid rich tribute to the Urartian kings, thousands of slaves built fortresses and canals and worked on the farms of the Urartian nobility.
In terms of its political system, Urartu was a slave state of the ancient Eastern type. Its characteristic feature was the fragility of unification and instability of borders, since state power on the outskirts, conquered by force of arms, required constant measures to maintain it. The fragility of the power of the Urartians on the periphery of the Kingdom of Van is evidenced by repeated campaigns against the rebel tribes. Where the power of the Urartians was especially fragile, they tried to destroy tribal alliances, destroying settlements, devastating the country and seizing rich booty. At the same time, the local population, who did not have time to hide in the mountains, was simply destroyed. Later, residents from the occupied areas began to be resettled to other areas, and their place was taken by new settlers, sometimes brought from very remote places. This brutal event was a reliable means in the fight against local tribal unions.
To strengthen power on the outskirts of their state, the Urartians built fortresses, created administrative centers and installed their governors, whose duties were to oversee the temporary payment of tribute and the work on the construction of fortresses and irrigation systems: artificial lakes and canals.
The construction of canals was of great importance for Urartu, since agriculture not only in the lowlands, but also in the mountainous areas was based on artificial irrigation. The technology of Urartian agriculture was relatively high and the main agricultural tools, including plowshares, were made of iron. Along with agriculture, great importance in economic life Urartu had livestock farming. Cattle was the main wealth of the Van kingdom.
Among the crafts in Urartu, metallurgy achieved great development. Bronze products of Urartian craftsmen have high artistic and technical qualities. Iron came into widespread use in Urartu earlier than in other regions of Western Asia.
The monuments of Urartian art are very close in style to Assyrian ones, which is explained not only by the cultural influence of Assyria, but also by the fact that both these cultures - Assyrian and Urartian - had common basis - ancient culture Western Asia. But the influence of Assyria on Urartu was very significant. This can be seen at least in the example of Urartian cuneiform. The oldest inscriptions of the Urartian rulers were written in the Assyrian language, and texts in the Urartian language proper appeared only from the end of the 9th century. BC e. The Urartians borrowed their writing from the Assyrians, taking a ready-made writing system and adapting it to the peculiarities of their language. The Urartian language was significantly different from Assyrian, having direct connections with the Western Asian Subaric and some Caucasian languages.
About monuments material culture The kingdom of Van can be judged mainly from archaeological excavations. During excavations at the Toprah-Kale fortress, the ruins of a temple and a palace were discovered, the walls of which were lined with marble slabs with carved images, as well as stone panels decorated with inlays of colored stone and metal. The floor of the premises was also decorated with inlay.
The appearance of the Urartian temples can be judged from the Assyrian image of the temple in Musasir, on a relief in Sargon's palace. The Urartian temple, which had a gable roof and a decorated pediment, was significantly different from Mesopotamian temples and resembled archaic Greek temples.
Urartian building art is characterized by rooms carved into rocks. The premises of the Vaiskaya Rock, which probably served as the tombs of the Urgrt kings, are excellent examples of monuments of this kind. The entire Van rock bears traces of the extensive work of stonemasons; its rocky slopes are covered with numerous ledges, stairs and niches. After the middle of the 8th century. BC e. the power of the state of Urartu began to decline.
The Assyrian power, Urartu's main rival, grew stronger again during this period, and its king Tiglath-pileser III set about restoring the former borders of his state, increasing and reorganizing the Assyrian army for this purpose. After restoring his power in Parsua and Media to the south of Lake Urmia, Tiglath-palassar undertook a campaign in northern Syria, with whose rulers the Urartian king Sardurp was in an alliance. In the region of Kumukh (Commagenach) a meeting between the Assyrian and Urartian troops took place. The Assyrians were victorious and captured the Urartian military camp. King Sardurp, under cover of the night, hid in the mountains of Tiglath-palassar and continued to pursue the Urartians to the crossing of the Euphrates.
After the victory in northern Syria, the Assyrian army headed to Urartu. Tiglathpalassar tells the following about this campaign in a cuneiform inscription: “I locked Sarduri Urarta in Turushpa (Tushpa), its main city, and carried out a great massacre in front of the city gates. I installed the image of my dominion opposite the city.” Having defeated the city located at the foot of the Van fortress, in which Sarduri had locked himself, Tiglathpalassar headed deep into Urartu and passed through the country “from top to bottom” without encountering resistance. The successes of the Assyrian army greatly weakened the Urartian state, which immediately lost its former dominant position in the northeast of Western Asia. At the same time, the regions that were part of it began to fall away from Urartu one after another.
Sarduri's successor, the Urartian king Rusa, who ascended the throne in the thirties of the 8th century. BC e., made an attempt to restore the former power of the state.
During the siege of the Van citadel, in which Sarduri locked himself, the Urartian capital Tushpa was destroyed. Rusa restored this city, but at the same time moved his residence from the Van Rock to the Toprah-Kale hill.
Rusa spent a lot of effort on restoring Urartian power in northern regions. On the shores of Lake Sevan, two fortresses built by the Urartians have been preserved. One of them is located on a high cliff above the city of Nor Bayazed. On the wall of the fortress there is a wedge-shaped inscription with the following content: “Rusa, the son of Sarduri, says: I conquered the king of the country of Uelikikha, took slaves captive, took possession of the country, installed a ruler here, built the gates of the god Khaldi and built a powerful fortress, calling [it] a city God Khaldi..."
Another Urartian fortress is located on the southern coast of Lake Sevan, near the villages. Tsovinar. On the rock above the lake, a wedge-shaped inscription has been preserved, telling about the captivity of 23 rulers of small regions in this area and about the construction of a fortress, called the fortress of the god Teishe-ba. Rusa waged a stubborn and lengthy struggle and southern regions, in particular in Musasir. He entered into an alliance with Urzana, the ruler of Musasir, whom he apparently helped gain a foothold on the throne.
Under Tiglath-palassar's successor, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I, Rus' policy did not encounter obstacles from Assyria. But the situation changed dramatically after 722 BC. e. the Assyrian throne was seized by King Sargon, under whom Assyria became even stronger militarily. Some of the regions north of Assyria, such as the Urmi region of Mana, immediately fell under Assyrian rule. Apparently, Rusa avoided conflicts with Sargon and entered into an alliance with him. This was also necessary because at this time Urartu began to experience pressure from the Cimmerians from the north.
Sargon closely followed the events in Urartu. Letters from royal agents containing information about events in Urartu have been preserved in Nineveh. Among the Assyrian intelligence officers, a certain Ashurrisua, the author of many letters about the situation in Urartu, is especially well known. By order of Sargon, he sent his people to Tushpa. He wrote to Assyria about the movement of the three-thousand-strong Urartian army to the city of Musasir, about the uprising of the Mannaeans on the Urmian coast, about sending detachments to guard the Urartian borders and about the defeat of the Urartians in a campaign against the Cimmerians. In one of the letters, Ashurrisua reports an uprising in the center of the Kingdom of Van, directed against the Urartian king. The uprising was led by the military leader (turtan) Kakkadan, the ruler of one of the regions; Part of the Urartian army went over to his side. The uprising was crushed and the letters note brutal reprisal Urartian king with the rebels.
The peace between Assyria and Urartu was, however, short-lived. Feeling the fragility of his position, Rusa won over the country of Manu, where during the uprising the former ruler was killed and his throne passed to Rusa's protege. Having learned about this, Sargon made a campaign to Manu and established power there that was pleasing to Assyria. Rusa, meanwhile, retreated deeper into his country, from Oegai meeting with the Assyrian army, but continuing to secretly fight against Assyria. A very tense situation was created, but none of the opponents began open hostilities.
Finally, in 714, the Assyrian army invaded the territory of Urartu and inflicted a severe defeat on the Urartians. Having devastated the country, Sargon moved back to Assyria, plundering the Urartian-allied country of Musasir along the way. By this Sargon weakened Urartu even more. The chronicles of Sargon say that when “Rusa, the ruler of Urartu, heard that Musasir was destroyed and his god Khaldi was taken away, [then] with his own hand, with the iron dagger of his belt, he took his own life.” Apparently, the kingdom of Van at this time became dependent on Assyria. The chronicles of the Assyrian king Sennacherib contain indications of gifts brought to the Assyrian king by the Urartian ruler Argishti, the successor of King Rusa.
At the end of the 8th century. BC e. Particularly difficult times have come for the Urartian state. In addition to the unequal struggle with the ascendant Assyria, the Urartians had to withstand the brutal pressure of the Cimmerian tribes (Gimirru of Assyrian texts) from the north. Having lost influence in the south, Urartu turned its main attention to Transcaucasia. Most of the inscriptions of the Urartian king Rusa II, son of Argishti (7th century BC), were found north of the Van region. During excavations near Etchmiadzin in Armenia, the inscription of Rusa II was discovered, telling about the large construction work he carried out in Transcaucasia - the construction of a canal, cultivation of gardens and vineyards. The canal mentioned in the inscription has survived to this day. It is located on the right bank of the river. Hrazdan, near Yerevan, opposite Karmir Blur hill. Excavations of this hill, on which the ancient Urartian center of Teishebaini was located, provided enormous material for characterizing the Urartian culture. This fortress was a border fortress; tribute collected by the Urartians in the surrounding regions of Transcaucasia flocked into it. Excavations carried out in the fortress by B.B. Piotrovsky discovered the ruins of the citadel and city blocks. In the storerooms of the palace, outstanding works of Urartian art were found: decorative bronze shields of Argishti and Sarduri, decorated with images of lions and bulls, quivers and helmets of the same kings, also richly decorated with relief-made Urartian war chariots, horsemen and gods near the sacred trees. In one storeroom, 97 bronze bowls with wedge-shaped inscriptions were discovered, indicating their belonging to the Urartian kings of the 8th century. BC e. A number of objects testify to the connection of this important administrative Urartian center with other states of the Ancient East: Assyria (seals, bronze items, beads), Egypt (pendant depicting the goddess Sokhmet, scaraboids with hieroglyphs), as well as with the countries of Asia Minor and the Mediterranean (gold earrings ). Of exceptional interest are the finds at Karmir-blur of several clay tablets with cuneiform writing, indicating that a cuneiform archive was kept in the city of Teishebaini.
Near the citadel with the palace of the Urartian governor there were city blocks occupying an area of about 40 hectares. Currently, a small part of them has been excavated, indicating the complete identity of the Urartian city with the cities of other ancient Eastern states. The city was built according to a pre-planned plan, in blocks containing several separate dwellings, and the inhabitants of the city - slave artisans and warriors - did not have their own households and were on state pay.
The Urartian city of Teishebaini in Transcaucasia is currently the oldest of the cities explored in RUSSIA.
Excavations also showed that the city was destroyed in the 7th century. BC e. Scythians who penetrated here from the north and inflicted cruel blows on the possessions of Urartu.
The weakening of Assyria, which entered the second half of the 7th century. in a difficult struggle with Babylonia and the rise of Media, did not save Urartu from final destruction. Urartu ceased to exist and was subjugated by the Media around 590 BC. e. The rule of the Medes in Western Asia was, however, short-lived, already in 550 BC. e. The capital of the Medes, Ecbatana, was taken by the Persians. The name Urartu in the form "Urashtu" is found in the Babylonian texts of the inscriptions of King Darius (about 520 BC), and in the Persian text it corresponds to the term "Armina". IN last time the term “Urashtu” is found in the inscriptions of Xerxes dating back to the beginning of the 5th century. BC e. In works on the history of the Ancient East, there is an incorrect view about the resettlement of the Urartians after the fall of their kingdom to the north of Transcaucasia. The Chaldeans, who later lived on the southeastern coast of the Black Sea, are considered as remnants of the Urartians. This incorrect position is based on an arbitrary interpretation of the name of the god Khaldi in Urartian cuneiform writings as the name of the people, an interpretation that stands in complete contradiction with the principles of cuneiform writing. There is no other data to suggest the movements of the Urartians, and one should think that after the fall of the kingdom, the Urartians most likely remained in the area of Lake Van and were known to Herodotus under the name Alarods. In the state of Urartu, the Urartians themselves were by no means the overwhelming majority of the population. The state of Urartu, as we saw above, was a fragile union of many small tribes that did not have common language, not connected by a common culture and economy. Urartu did not differ in this respect from other states of the Ancient East. That is why the history of the state of Urartu is equally related to the history of all the peoples of Transcaucasia, and not just one of them, Georgian or Armenian, as bourgeois nationalist historiography tried to prove.
In connection with the development of iron metallurgy, the development of agriculture and crafts, the process of social development of the tribes inhabiting the Armenian Highlands and Transcaucasia is accelerating. At the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. a number of small slave-owning states arose here, the most important of which was Urartu, which grew up in the 9th-8th centuries. BC e. to one of the largest states of antiquity. Urartu included some territories of the current Soviet republics of Transcaucasia. Thus, the emergence of the most ancient class society on the territory of our Motherland is connected with the history of Urartu.
Urartu
Natural conditions
The Armenian Highlands are located east of the Asia Minor peninsula and separated from it by the Upper Euphrates valley.
This territory is occupied mainly by mountain ranges (the Armenian Taurus in the south and parallel mountain ranges further to the north) and is cut through by valleys, the most important of which are the valley of the Aratsani River (Murat-su), a large tributary of the Euphrates flowing to the west, and the valley of the Araks River , current in east direction. In the center of the southern part of the highlands is the bitter Lake Van. It is adjacent to the east by a relatively low-lying fertile area; to the north of the middle reaches of the Araks there is located (already on the territory of present-day Soviet Armenia) the Airarat lowland with the Hrazdan (Zanga) river crossing it, a tributary of the Araks flowing from the freshwater Lake Sevan.
The country communicates with Mesopotamia through the valleys of the Greater Zab and Bokhtan rivers, as well as the western passes through the Armenian Taurus and the Upper Euphrates valley. In the northern direction, the pass from the Upper Euphrates valley leads to the valley of the Chorokha River, which flows into the Black Sea at Batumi and connects the Armenian Highlands with the mountainous and forested region of Pontus, as well as with the humid, forested Colchis.
To the east, the Armenian Highlands are separated by mountain ranges from southern Azerbaijan (in modern Iran), the most important area of which is the fertile, hilly plain adjacent to the bitter Lake Urmia (Rezaie) to the south.
Compared to other areas of the ancient civilizations of the East, the entire described territory was significantly less convenient for agriculture, which was possible here (in the valleys and lowlands) mainly based on the use of water from mountain streams. For a long time Much more important than agriculture was cattle breeding, with cattle being driven to summer pastures in the mountains. Rapid development slave relations occur here only at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. in connection with the mining of iron in these areas (which, like copper, these territories were relatively rich in) and with the transition to agriculture and crafts based on relatively high technology. More advanced bronze and then iron tools made it possible, in particular, to lay irrigation canals in rocky soil, which significantly advanced the development of agriculture in mountainous areas.
Only those areas of the described territory that are now part of the USSR have been archaeologically well explored. Information about the southern regions is provided mainly only by written sources.
The ancient population of the Armenian Highlands
As far as can be judged, the main part of the described territory, including the Upper Euphrates valley and the southern parts of the Armenian Highlands, were, according to at least from the 2nd millennium BC e., inhabited by Hurrians and related tribes. The eastern part of Pontus, Colchis and the Western Caucasus were, in all likelihood, inhabited in the Bronze Age mainly by Abkhaz-Circassian and possibly Kartvelian tribes. Further in the interior of the continent there was a strip of closely related cultures created, apparently, by “proto-Hittite” and Kartvelian tribes, and in the eastern part of this strip lived tribes of unclear ethnicity, possibly associated with the later population of the Eastern Caucasus and Azerbaijan. These cultures are represented by remarkable finds in the graves of tribal leaders in Trialeti (Georgia) and Kirovakan (Armenia). This also probably included the culture of the Hayasa tribe, who lived in the Upper Chorokhi region and were in close relations with the Hittite kingdom. According to some researchers, the Hayasa tribe subsequently became the core of the Armenian nation.
In the western parts of the Armenian Highlands already in the 2nd millennium BC. e. There were also tribes who spoke Indo-European languages close to the Hittite group. It is possible that the oldest basic vocabulary and the main features of the grammatical structure of the later Armenian language go back to the languages of these tribes or to the language of any one of them.
The eastern part of the Armenian Highlands - the strip from the Araks valley through the region of Lake Van to the upper reaches of the Greater Zab - was, in all likelihood, already in the 2nd millennium BC. e. occupied by tribes who were later called Urartians in Assyrian sources; in language they were related to the Hurrians. The ethnicity of the tribes located even further to the east, living on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan, has not yet been established for such an early time.
The southwestern parts of the Armenian Highlands (probably this is the territory that Hittite sources call the country of Hurri) in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. depended on Mitanni or even were part of this state. Since the time of the Hittite king Suppiluliuma, they have come under the influence of the Hittite kingdom.
In the period following the fall of the Hittite kingdom, around 1200 BC. e., the Mush tribes penetrate into the valley of the Upper Euphrates and up to the upper reaches of the Tigris. Along with the flies in the eastern territories of the former Hittite kingdom (northwest of the Upper Euphrates), they played at the same time big role tribes of Kaskians and others, who probably belonged to the Abkhaz-Circassian tribes of the Koban-Colchian culture.
First clashes with the Assyrians
The most significant slave state with which the tribes of the Armenian Highlands had to deal since the 15th century. BC e., there was Assyria.
In the first half of the 13th century. BC e. The troops of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I appear already in the depths of the Armenian Highlands. His inscription states that he defeated Uruatri (apparently the name of the tribal union) in “three days,” that is, in three battles. The purpose of his campaign was apparently to capture slaves for the slaveholding farms of Assyria. Shalmaneser also fought with the tribes, which he designates as “Kutians.” These tribes lived between Uruatri and the Upper Tigris Valley. Subsequent Assyrian kings during the XIII-XI centuries. also repeatedly raided the Armenian Highlands. Most important had campaigns carried out by Tiglath-pileser I (1115-1077), during which Assyria became a constant threat to the tribes of the Armenian Highlands.
The threat from Assyria forced these tribes to unite and act as tribal unions, which appear in Assyrian sources under the names Uruatri and Nairi. At the head of the militias of the “Nairi countries” were “kings”, who, apparently, were still leaders of tribes or tribal unions. Some of these tribal alliances, such as the Diauehi in the Chorokha Valley, proved extremely resilient, and it is quite possible that their “kings” were already something more than just tribal leaders, and that class relations and a state began to take shape there.
The campaigns of Assyria in the area of the Armenian Highlands ceased in the 11th century. BC e. due to the invasion of the Arameans into Mesopotamia.
The first states on the Armenian Highlands
During the XI-X centuries. BC e. There is a consolidation of rudimentary state formations in a number of highland centers. The most important centers were: Diauehi (“the country of the Taohs” according to ancient Greek authors) in the Chorokha valley and the areas adjacent to it from the southeast; Alzi in the Aratsani Valley; Shubria north of the upper Tigris; Khubushkia or "kingdom of Nairi" in the Bokhtan valley south of Lake Van; Kumeni (center of the cult of the god of rain and thunder Teisheba) and Ardini-Musasir (center of the cult of the sky god Khaldi) in the Greater Zab valley; a little later - Mana to the south of Lake Urmia, etc. Probably during this period, the state of Biainili, which the Assyrians called Urartu, emerged in the area of Lake Van, the successor of the Uruatri tribal union.
The penetration of the Assyrian variety of the Akkadian cuneiform system, which was then used in Urartu, probably dates back to this time. Even earlier, a distinctive Urartian hieroglyphic writing developed, perhaps under the indirect influence of Hittite writing, which, although it had a narrower scope of application, was not completely supplanted by cuneiform.
The new rise of the Assyrian power at the end of the 10th century. BC e. again led to clashes between Assyria and the tribes and states of the Armenian Highlands. But only the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III dared to penetrate deep into the highlands in 859 and 856. BC e., first encountered Urartu. The events of these campaigns are depicted on the reliefs of the bronze casings of the temple gates, located in the Assyrian city of Imgur-Ellil (now the village of Balavat). These reliefs allow us to judge the military affairs and weapons of the Urartians of the 9th century. Urartian warriors are depicted here in belted shirts, helmets with crests, small round shields and short straight swords - weapons generally similar to the Hittite-Syrian ones. The warriors defending the walls are also armed with bows. The same reliefs depict the Assyrians taking away captured goods in large clay vessels placed on carts, and the theft of naked prisoners in neck stocks, which shows the predatory nature of the Assyrian campaigns, the purpose of which was to capture slaves.
Rise of Urartu
Shalmaneser's raids did not crush Urartu and did not affect the central, most fertile regions east of Lake Van. It was after 856 that the strengthening and consolidation of the young Urartian state took place, at the head of which we meet by 832 BC. e. King Sarduri I - the first of the Urartian pareys, from whom his own inscriptions have reached us, although not yet in the Urartian language, but in the Assyrian dialect
Apart from the campaign against Shubria in 854, the Assyrians from 856 BC. e. did not disturb the mountaineers. But by 832, they apparently began to consider the strengthening of Urartu dangerous. A series of Assyrian campaigns to the north begins again. These campaigns were perhaps also connected with the struggle that began at that time in Northern Syria. The goal of this struggle for Assyria was to seize the routes along which Mesopotamia was supplied with iron, as well as the very sources of this raw material, now so necessary for the Assyrian army. Main mining sites iron ore were at that time in the southeastern corner of Asia Minor; but, apparently, Urartu was also a supplier of iron and therefore was closely connected economically and culturally with the cities of Northern Syria, specializing in intermediary trade this metal.
Assyrian, campaign 832 BC. e. was carried out along the same route as the campaign of 856, but was unsuccessful. The victory of Sarduri I aroused hopes of liberation among the small kingdoms dependent on Assyria, and Shalmaneser III sent in 829 and 828. troops to suppress liberation aspirations in Khubushkiya, Musasir and on the western coast of Lake Urmia.
Already at this time, the Urartian king styled himself not only “King Biainili” and “ruler of Tushpa,” but also accepted the title of “great king, strong king, king of multitudes, king of Nairi.” This title repeats, with the word “Assyria” replaced by the word “Nairi,” the title of the Assyrian kings. The young Urartian state challenged Assyria to fight for dominance in Western Asia.
The policy already outlined by Sarduri I was continued by his son Ishpuini, without encountering serious resistance from Assyria.
Quite early, his son Menua became the de facto co-ruler of Ishpuini, although during his father’s life he did not bear the royal title. During the joint reign of Ishpuini and Menua, Urartu's power in the east further expanded; The country of Mana on the southern coast of Urmia was occupied, and Urartian troops penetrated even further to the south.
Thus, Urartu posed a serious threat to Assyria in the east. However, the continuous struggle of the Maneans against the Urartian government made the position of the Urartians in these regions, which are part of modern South Azerbaijan, precarious. These areas had to be conquered by them again and again. Assyria also tried to capture these areas, but it also met with fierce resistance from the Manei tribes.
By the time of Ishpuini, the main areas of the central part of the highlands were already firmly assigned to Urartu. During the joint reign of Ishpuini and Menua, the Urartian campaigns in Transcaucasia begin. The first objects of these campaigns were, apparently, the regions of the upper reaches of the Araks and Kura, located in the vicinity of the kingdom of Diauehi.
The streamlining of public administration in Urartu must be attributed to the time of Ishpuini and Menua. At this time, a system of governorships headed by regional commanders was introduced. Subsequently, this system was introduced, apparently on the Urartian model, also in Assyria. In the field of religious cult, the pantheon of deities that sanctifies state power is systematized, and the number of obligatory offerings of livestock to sanctuaries is established.
The strengthening of the Urartian state continued during Menua's sole rule, which began shortly before 800 BC. e. Soon after this date, the Assyrians lost their upper Euphrates provinces, and the entire upper Euphrates valley fell into the hands of Urartu. This, naturally, led to a clash between Urartu and the kingdom of Diauehi, closely associated with the Upper Euphrates region. King Diauehi was forced to pay Menua a rich tribute, including gold and silver. It should be noted that the Urartians received tribute in metal almost exclusively from areas located along the Upper Euphrates route and its continuation in the valley of the Chorokha River; along this route, metals, in particular silver and iron, reached the Black Sea coast, where they were possibly acquired by Greek colonists who began settling in Sinope, Trebizond, etc. already in the 8th century, and more firmly - from the 7th century. BC e.
The Urartians also strengthened significantly during the reign of Menua in the Araks Valley. Here, on the northern slopes of Mount Ararat, the Menuakhinili fortress was built, which was supposed to be the starting point for further campaigns in Transcaucasia.
But the most important part of Menua's activity was construction. During his reign, many irrigation canals were built throughout the country, including the so-called “Shamiram Canal,” which still supplies the city of Van with water. Many defensive structures were also erected. The large scale of construction became possible due to the surplus of labor that arose as a result of the importation of slaves captured in numerous Urartian campaigns.
The period of the highest power of Urartu
Around 780 BC e. The son of Menua, Argishti I, ascends the throne, under whom Urartu reaches its highest power. From his reign came one of the largest ancient Eastern inscriptions - the huge “Khorkhor Chronicle”, carved on the steep slopes of the Van rock. From this chronicle it is clear that at the beginning of his reign, Argishti repeated Menua’s campaign against Diauehi, turning this country, at least partially, into an Urartian governorship. Then, passing along the southern periphery of Colchis (in Urartian inscriptions - Kulha), he advanced to the area of \u200b\u200bChildyr Lake and the upper reaches of the Kura, and from there, bypassing Mount Aragats, he returned through the Araks valley. Somewhat later, Argishti created a new administrative center for Transcaucasia (already on the left bank of the Araks) - Argishtikhinili (modern Armavir). Having thus strengthened its positions in the north-west, Argishti the next year moved to Asia Minor, where he occupied the city of Melid (modern Malatia) and probably established connections with the cities of Northern Syria. In 774, a clash occurred between the Urartians and the Assyrians far to the southeast, in the valley of the Diyala River, already on essentially Babylonian territory. Thus, the Urartians increasingly embrace Assyria from the flanks. Subsequently, Argishti made a number of campaigns in the Transcaucasus, in the Urmi region and in the outlying Assyrian provinces.
The number of prisoners brought by Argishti from campaigns and, probably, most of them then turned into slavery, was large: for example, in one year alone he captured almost 20 thousand people. Such a number of slaves was excessive for the relatively poorly developed slave industry of Urartu, so some of the prisoners were killed on the battlefield. Some of the men may have been accepted into the Urartian army. For example, Argishti I resettled 6,600 prisoners from Aratsan and Asia Minor - probably for the construction of defensive structures, and perhaps as a garrison - to the Erbu fortress he founded, or Erebu (now Arinberd near the city of Yerevan). The remaining prisoners were driven to Biainili - the central part of the state. Along with slaves, the Urartian kings captured a lot of livestock during their campaigns.
Public relations
We still have little information about the social structure of the Urartian kingdom. Still, it is clear that tribal remnants were strong in him; power belonged to representatives of the royal family, as well as military and service nobility, whose origins perhaps went back to the local noble families of various Urartian tribes. The importance of the nobility was reflected, among other things, in that major role, which was played in the army by the “aristocratic” arms - chariots and cavalry. The noble Urartians had large land holdings, and probably a significant part of the slaves fell into their hands. Even larger lands and especially huge herds of cattle belonged to the temples.
The bulk of the adult population apparently consisted of ordinary free soldiers who owned land that was individually owned or perhaps owned by large families, most likely within a rural community. Warriors also had slaves. Apparently, some of the slaves were also communally owned: some Urartian sources indicate that captive slaves were distributed not only to warriors, but also to “countries,” i.e., entire tribes or communities. The kings were probably the supreme owners of a significant part of the land on which ordinary free people sat - in particular, the owners of numerous lands that were developed for the first time at that time or that had previously been ruined and were not irrigated.
However, we have no evidence that a large royal agricultural economy existed in Urartu, as, for example, in ancient Sumer. The fields belonging to the royal economy were relatively small, and the products of field farming came to the kings mainly in the form of taxes from the population. Numerous royal slaves were probably used in construction, as well as in gardening and in large royal workshops, where products received in the form of taxes were processed, weapons were made for the army, etc. Garrisons and other troops of the governors were concentrated in the royal fortresses scattered throughout the country . There were also warehouses for fodder and bread for the army, wine storerooms, and workshops.
Dwellings excavated in the city of Teishebaini (now the site of Karmir-Blur, on the territory of Soviet Armenia near the city of Yerevan) give an idea of the daily life of the population of the Urartian state. Apparently, they were inhabited by people who worked in the workshops of the citadel, served as part of the garrison and in lower positions in the administration.
The houses were apparently built in entire blocks at once, simultaneously with the founding of the Urartian fortress. Each family lived in a dwelling that had an irregular shape, consisting of two or three rooms, only half of which was covered with a roof resting on pillars. The other half served as a courtyard. There was also a hearth dug into the ground. The residents of these houses did not have their own permanent storage facilities for food supplies, and did not keep livestock at the house. Some researchers believe that they received regular food allowances from the fortress administration.
As in other countries of the ancient East, there was almost no furniture in the Urartian house; The main utensils were clay vessels. They cooked food, stored grain and small things. Boxes, spoons, and scoops were made from bone and wood. The food of the population was made mainly from barley, millet, leguminous plants, sesame oil; grapes and raisins were well known, in large quantities wine and beer were produced. Some tools of the Urartian farmer are known - iron sickles, coarse grain grinders made of two stones that replaced millstones, mortars, grinders, etc.
The life and way of life of the rural population of the Armenian Highlands can be judged from later information (about 400 BC) preserved by the Greek writer Xenophon. In his time, villages consisted of groups of semi-underground dugouts, where the upper opening served as the entrance to the room, a skylight, and a chimney. How the Urartian slave lived, we cannot yet judge, but we must assume that his life was even more pitiful than the life of free farmers, and the only value remaining with him was his life, saved for hard work, while his the tribesmen were exterminated by the victorious Urartian troops.
Although the wars were waged by the Urartians with the usual cruelty of that time and their campaigns led to the mass deportation of the population and the devastation of the territory, nevertheless, the consequences of the Urartian conquests were different than the consequences of the Assyrian conquests that were contemporaneous with them. Unlike Assyria, Urartu could not meet the growing needs of its power for agricultural products; Therefore, the Urartians paid special attention to the development of agricultural production through the development of empty and devastated lands and the expansion of irrigation.
Urartian army of the 8th century. It was, apparently, similar in structure and weapons (plate armor, pointed bronze helmets, large round shields, etc.) to the Assyrian.
The Urartian slave society was not in ethnically homogeneous. It included not only the Urartians in the narrow sense of the word - the Biayins, the inhabitants of the area near Lake Van. Both society as a whole and the Urartian army were multi-tribal and multilingual. Over time, the struggle not only between its various social strata, but, it is believed, also among its ethnic components was bound to intensify. The significance of this struggle for the fate of the state of Urartu was reflected later. But in the period we are considering, internal contradictions have not yet matured.
Conquests of Sarduri II
At the beginning of the reign of the new Urartian king, Sarduri II, who ascended the throne around 760 BC. e., the favorable situation for the Urartians generally remains. However, Sarduri had to fight repeatedly in the country of the Manaeans, southwest of Lake Urmia, and even further to the south, right up to the valley of the Diyala River, and the Urartians met here with increasingly fierce resistance. By the end of Sardur's reign, the kingdom of Mana and other areas of this outskirts managed to finally achieve independence.
A number of Sarduri’s campaigns were sent to Transcaucasia. Unfortunately, due to the fact that a large stele (stone pillar) in a niche of the Van Rock with an inscription containing the annals of Sarduri II has not been completely preserved, the sequence of his campaigns is not entirely clear to us.
The number of captured prisoners is increasingly increasing; Thus, in one year of Sarduri II’s three campaigns against Manu, in Transcaucasia and the western regions, he brought 12,735 young men and 46,600 women.
The most important direction of the Urartu state's campaigns was the southwest. Sarduri II twice made a trip to Kumakha (Commagene), from where the route to Syria opened. He destroys Kumakha, subjugates it and enters into relations with Northern Syria (the city of Arpad). With the help of alliances, the influence of Urartu spread all the way to Damascus, and the Syrians acted together with the Urartians against Assyria, which threatened them all.
Warriors with Assyria
Sarduri II also managed to subjugate the country of Arma, possibly identical with Shubria, on the southern slopes of the Armenian Taurus.
By 745 BC. e. a decisive battle between Urartu and Assyria became inevitable. Assyrian sources note a number of clashes with Urartu during 781-778, as well as in 766. This does not exhaust the number of such clashes. The outlying regions subordinate to Assyria, here and there, gradually came under the rule of Urartu. If the Assyrians were still forced to put up with the ever-increasing power of the Urartian state, then this is explained by the difficult internal position Assyria, shaken since the end of the 9th century. internal turmoil.
In 745 BC. In Assyria, the reign of a new king, Tiglath-Pileser III, begins, with whose accession the period of unrest and civil strife ends and a new period of strengthening of the Assyrian power begins. Tiglath-pileser III carried out a number of significant reforms in his state. At the same time, he apparently used the most important achievements of Urartian state practice.
Tiglath-pileser managed to significantly strengthen the combat effectiveness of the Assyrian army. Apparently, already in 743 Tiglath-pileser invaded Commagene to divide the forces of Sarduri and the Syrians. In the battle of Kishtan and Khalpa, he managed to inflict defeat on his allies: Sarduri was forced to flee across the Euphrates, leaving his entire camp in the hands of the Assyrians. After this, Tiglath-pileser returned to Assyria part of the provinces north of the upper reaches of the Tigris and during 745-738. Arpad subdued. But, apparently, only in 735 did he manage to invade deep into Urartu and even besiege Tushpa. However, he was unable to take the Tushpa citadel on the Van rock (According to another interpretation of the text, Sarduri was defeated by Tiglath-pileser in 743 near Arpad, and the battle of Kishtan and Khalpa took place at the beginning of the campaign in 735 BC).
Sarduri II died at the end of the 30s of the 8th century, and Rusa I ascended the throne of Urartu. It was a difficult time for the state. The centrifugal forces of the Urartian state, hitherto restrained by the force of arms of the Urartian kings, now received scope for action. Local kings and even governors from the highest Urartian nobility were separated from the king of Urartu. We know about the circumstances of the beginning of Rusa's reign mainly from an inscription composed in Akkadian and Urartian, which was erected by Rusa near Musasir, and from the surviving reports of Assyrian spies in Urartu.
According to one Assyrian source, Rusa subsequently erected a statue in the Musassir temple depicting him on a chariot, with the inscription: “With my two horses and one charioteer, my hand took possession of the royal power of Urartu.” Although these words contain boasting, they still more or less correctly convey the historical situation: the position of Rusa at the beginning was very difficult. He, however, managed to cope with the uprising of the governors and again subordinate to his power the small but religiously, politically and strategically important kingdom of Musasir. It is believed that Rusa reformed and disaggregated the governorships. New fortresses were created - administrative centers, including in Transcaucasia, on the shores of Lake Sevan. But as soon as Ruse managed to put the Urartian state back together, he was faced with a serious external danger- invasion of the Cimmerians.
Clashes with the Cimmerians and Scythians.
The Cimmerians were one of the nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes (or group of tribes) of the Northern Black Sea region, which during the 8th century. BC e. infiltrated into Transcaucasia and Asia Minor. According to Assyrian spies, the country in which the Cimmerians were at that time was located next to Guriania (Kuriani), one of the western or central Transcaucasian regions. Rusa's campaign against the country of the Cimmerians ended in defeat for him. The Cimmerians broke into Urartian territory, devastating and destroying everything. In their onslaught on Urartu, they probably united with outlying tribes striving for liberation, and perhaps with slaves. The Cimmerians thus posed a serious threat to the very existence of the slave-holding Urartian state. However, the Cimmerians, like the Scythians who later broke through the territory of modern Azerbaijan, did not know how to take fortresses, and the fortresses were the backbone of the Urartian state. The Cimmerians limited themselves only to raids on Urartian territory. Later there were cases when they even entered the service of Urartu or Assyria, forming mercenary troops.
The campaign of Sargon II to Urartu in 714 BC. e.
Ruse I managed to safely lead the Urartian state out of this serious crisis. But as the strength of Urartu grew, the inevitability of a new clash with Assyria was brewing. Apparently, in preparation for this, Rusa established relations with Phrygia and with the small kingdoms located in the Taurus Mountains in the west. In the east, he supports anti-Assyrian groups in Mana, a country that has meanwhile become a strong and independent state, which covered almost the entire territory of present-day Southern Azerbaijan - and in the neighboring Median and other tribes and kingdoms. The new king of Assyria, Sargon II, could only maintain his influence in these areas through continuous campaigns. In 714, Sargon set out on a punitive campaign in the area east of Lake Urmia. Rusa decided that the moment had come to inflict a decisive defeat on Assyria, and moved at the head of his troops with the goal of getting to Sargon's rear. But in time, Sargon, warned by his agents, came out to meet him. In the battle on Mount Uaush (Bushi, near Sakhend near Lake Urmia), Sargon II completely defeated the army of Rusa. Rusa fled to Tushpa and, unable to withstand this new failure that befell him, committed suicide (713 BC).
As for Sargon, he walked through Urartu, destroying everything in his path, burning settlements, demolishing fortresses, destroying canals, gardens and crops, capturing or burning food supplies. The detailed report on this campaign that has come down to us, compiled by the Assyrian court historiographer in the form of a letter to God, is the most complete source about the internal life of Urartu.
The king of Khubushkiya (the country of Nairi) came out in advance to meet the winner with gifts, but Urzana, the king of the country of Musasir, did not do this. Sargon and a small detachment suddenly crossed the mountain range and took Urzana by surprise. He fled, and his palace and the temple of the god Khaldi were plundered by the Assyrians. This temple, although it was located outside the Urartian territory itself, was the main sanctuary of the Urartian tribes; The coronation ceremonies of the Urartian kings took place here. Naturally, the temple was a repository of countless treasures. A detailed inventory of the things captured here by Sargon has reached us. This inventory indicates high level development of Urartian craft.
The defeat of 714 and what happened during the last two decades of the 8th century. BC e. Assyria's complete subjugation of Syria and adjacent parts of Asia Minor forced subsequent Urartian kings to radically change their foreign policy. They no longer dare to compete with Assyria in the southwest and southeast, but direct their forces mainly to the north, in Transcaucasia, and to the west, to Asia Minor.
Urartu under Rus II.
A new period of strengthening of the Urartian state begins under Rus II, who ascended the throne in the 690s or 680s BC. e.
Rusa II carried out large construction both in the capital and especially in Transcaucasia. The construction of a large canal dates back to the time of Rusa II, diverting water from the Zangi River and irrigating the Airarat Valley. A new administrative center was built here - Teishebaini, where rich tribute from the surrounding areas flocked. On the steep bank of the river stood a citadel, where administrative buildings were located. A correctly planned city lay at the walls of the citadel. In Teishebaini, huge reserves of various types of grain, warehouses of bronze products, an oil workshop, tools, weapons, remains of wall painting and other monuments were found, giving a vivid idea of the culture, art and life of the Urartians. Noteworthy are the numerous cultural connections established between the population of Urartu and the Scythians, both living at that time in Eastern Transcaucasia and other places in Western Asia, and living in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region. In the Urartian court art of the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. there is a noticeable great similarity with the features of Assyrian art. Apparently, the culture of the Urartian nobility of this time was largely subject to Assyrian influence.
According to one of the inscriptions of Rusa II, he made a campaign in the south-eastern part of Asia Minor, in Phrygia and against Halitu - this is apparently how the Urartians called the region of the mountain people of the Chaldai (Khalibs of the Pontic Mountains, considered by the Greeks to be the most ancient suppliers of iron products; do not mix with the Chaldeans of Babylonia). The Cimmerians acted this time, apparently in alliance with Urartu. It is believed that the campaign of the Cimmerians is discussed in Greek sources, which report the death of the Phrygian soar Midas and the destruction of the Phrygian kingdom. From this time on, Lydia's role increased in Asia Minor.
Although there were sometimes border skirmishes between Urartu and Assyria under Rus II, and the intentions of Rus and the Cimmerians sometimes aroused distrust in Assyria, in general peaceful relations remained between both states. When in 673 BC. e. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon defeated the small mountain kingdom of Shubria, where fugitive slaves and farmers were hiding, he handed over the Urartian fugitives he discovered to Ruse. For his part, Rusa, around 654, sent an embassy to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in order, apparently, to calm the fears of the latter, who expected attacks against Assyria from Urartu, the Cimmerians and the Scythians. The neutrality of these. forces was important for the victory of Ashurbanipal in the war that followed in the coming years with Babylonia and its many allies.
Decline and death of Urartu
In the 640s BC. e. Sarduri III becomes king of Urartu. We have almost no news about his reign, but, undoubtedly, it was very alarming. The Scythians, who by this time had defeated the Cimmerians, together with the oppressed population of the outskirts of the Urartian kingdom, became, in all likelihood, a serious force that threatened the existence of the state of Urartu. At least Sarduri III in the early 30s of the 7th century. BC e. in a letter to the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, for the first time in the history of Urartu, he no longer recognizes himself as the “brother” of the Assyrian king, i.e., the king of a power of equal importance, but as a “son.” He thus recognizes, albeit formally, the supremacy of Assyria. New enemies - Media, Scythians - threatened the old states of the ancient East, and internal social contradictions weakened these states. That is why Urartu, like neighboring Mana, now seeks to rely on the seemingly unshakable power of Assyria.
Further events in the history of Urartu are unknown to us; we only know the name of another Urartian king - Rusa III, son of Erimena. The state of Urartu, like Mana, was drawn into the maelstrom of events that brought the death of Assyria. In 610 or 609, Median troops, during a war aimed at destroying the Assyrian state, apparently occupied Tushpa. However, judging by Hebrew data, in the 90s of the 6th century. BC e. Urartu, Mana and the Scythian kingdom (in Azerbaijan) continued to exist, however, as kingdoms dependent on Media. By 590, when the war broke out in Asia Minor between Media and Lydia, the remnants of Urartian independence had probably already been eliminated.
The destruction of Teishebaini (Karmir-Blura) in Transcaucasia also dates back to approximately this time. Before its occupation by enemies, the citadel was, apparently, uncontrollably in the hands of the population of the city; the central Urartian power, apparently, had already ceased to exist. The citadel was taken, burned and plundered by troops, armed with arrows Scythian type - perhaps by the Scythians in the Median service or by the Medes themselves, who had weapons similar to the Scythians.
Urartian culture. Religion
The material at our disposal, unfortunately, does not make it possible to judge the literature, science and other areas of culture of Urartu. However, we can say that, for example, the style of the Urartian royal inscriptions influenced - probably through Media - the style of the Persian kings' inscriptions. The Persian syllabary cuneiform, the origin of which remains unclear, perhaps also goes back, through Media and Manu, to the Urartian cuneiform cursive.
Monuments of material culture of Urartu speak of high development crafts, especially metalworking. Magnificent artistic products made of bronze (figured furniture, figurines, artistic weapons, etc.), made from a wax model, with carvings and chasing, covered with forged gold sheets, carvings on red marble (facing the walls of the palace in Rusakhinili, near Tushpa), numerous paintings in Erebu (Arinberd) and Teishebaini - all these monuments clearly speak of a craft that was already specialized and had a long tradition of craftsmanship. Urartian craft technology was of great importance for the development of Transcaucasian and Scythian crafts.
In Urartian religion great place occupied by the cults of deities of mountains, waters and various natural phenomena, especially the sky god Khaldi and his wife Uarubani, the god of thunder and rain Teisheba (Hittite-Hurrian Teshub), the sun god Shivini, etc. In Musasir, a temple somewhat reminiscent of the Greek one was dedicated to the god Khaldi - with a ridge roof, pediment and portico-colonnade. This temple is known to us from an Assyrian image. The most common type of sanctuary was the so-called “god’s gate,” judging by some data, niches in the rocks where, according to Urartian beliefs, deities lived. Many rituals were performed, apparently, under open air and were accompanied by abundant sacrifices of livestock.
At the time of the creation of the state, the cults of Urartian deities were brought together into a well-known system: the main place was occupied by deities who were considered the patrons of royal power and the most important centers of the state. The campaigns of the Urartian kings in the inscriptions were passed off as the campaigns of the supreme god Khaldi himself. Religious center Urartu - the temple of the main god Khaldi - lay, as already indicated, outside the Urartian state proper, in Musasir. The Urartian kings donated large numbers of slaves and especially cattle from their war booty to both this temple and the temples and sanctuaries of Tushpa and other important settlements. Trophies, handicrafts, and statues of kings and their relatives were also donated to temples. The sanctuaries were very rich, and the priesthood probably had in the state heavy weight and meaning.
Historical significance of Urartu
The Urartian state played a big role in the formation of the peoples of Transcaucasia and the Armenian Highlands and their states. The kingdom of Urartu itself was an association that included an ethnically diverse population that had not yet managed to turn into nationalities and largely retained a tribal structure. The Greek writer Herodotus knew this territory in the 5th century. BC e. four ethnic groups: the Saspeirs (corresponding to the Kartvelian tribes), the Matiens (apparently corresponding to the Hurrians), the Alarodians (Urartians) and the Armenians (Armenians). In connection with the formation of class society and the state, the formation of nationalities took place on the periphery of the former Urartian state; small tribal groups speaking a variety of tribal languages, especially archaic Hurrian dialects, merge into larger ethnic units. The process of creating nationalities occurs mainly around two centers - Georgian in the north-west and Armenian in the south-west and in the center. Thus, the end of the history of Urartu is simultaneously the beginning of the history of the Georgian and Armenian peoples.