Atmospheric circulation does not include. §7
Classification of minerals. More than 10 thousand mineral deposits have been discovered in the depths of Belarus, including about 30 types of minerals. Some of the minerals are currently being mined, some have been explored and may be developed in the future.
According to the conditions of occurrence, minerals in Belarus are divided into 2 groups: those confined to the crystalline basement and the platform cover. The first group includes predominantly igneous minerals. Among them are building stone, iron ores, non-ferrous metal ores, etc. Most of the mineral resources of Belarus are confined to the platform cover and are of sedimentary origin: oil, peat, rock and potassium salts, chalk, etc.
According to the conditions of use, minerals are divided into 4 groups: combustible, metallic, non-metallic and liquid (Fig. 23). Non-metallic (non-metallic) minerals are divided into construction materials and chemical raw materials. Many minerals (dolomite, gypsum, chalk, marl, etc.) can be used both as chemical raw materials and as building materials.
Combustible minerals play important role in the development of countries. Oil, brown coal, oil shale and peat have been discovered in Belarus, but their reserves are small (Fig. 24). Many of them are confined to the Pripyat trough. More than 60 deposits have been identified in its eastern part oil . Some of the largest among them are Rechitskoe, Ostashkovichskoe etc. Due to the complex tectonic structure of the Pripyat trough, small deposits predominate. Industrial oil production at the Rechitsa field began in 1965. Oil occurs at depths from 1600 to 4600 m and is confined to Devonian deposits. The greater depth of its occurrence increases the cost of its exploration and production. IN recent years About 50 oil fields are being developed and approximately 1.75 million tons of oil are produced per year.
Deposits discovered in Polesie brown coal . The largest of them are confined to Neogene deposits of the western part of the Pripyat trough. Brown coal layers lie at different depths - from 1100 m to 20 m. Coals of the Pripyat basin, located close to the surface, are of industrial importance. Explored in detail Zhitkovichskoe And Brinevskoe deposits, Lelchitskoye is promising. In the near future, open-pit mining is possible.
Confined to the Devonian and Carboniferous deposits of the Pripyat trough oil shale . The Turovskoye and Lyubanskoye deposits have been explored. Oil shale reserves are large, but they lie deep. Due to their low quality, they are considered as a reserve fuel.
Deposits peat are the most common in Belarus. Their number exceeds 9 thousand. In some cases, the thickness of peat can reach 11 m (Orekhovsky Mokh, Pukhovichi district). The deposits are confined mainly to Quaternary deposits. Now just over 100 of them are being developed and about 2-3 million tons of peat are extracted annually.
Metallic minerals. The geological structure of Belarus has determined the low distribution of metallic minerals. In the 1960s 2 deposits were discovered iron ores : Okolovskoe in Stolbtsovsky district and Novoselkovskoe in Korelichi. Iron ores are confined to the crystalline basement within the Belarusian anteclise. They lie at a depth of 140 to 360 m and contain 20-30% iron. The deposits are not being developed, but an economic assessment of the possibility of their use is being carried out.
Manifestations associated with crystalline basement rocks colored And rare metals , discovered on the Belarusian anteclise and the Mikashevichi-Zhitkovichi ledge. Because of low content in non-ferrous metal ores (less than 1-2%) they have no industrial significance. Gold manifestations are also unpromising.
Non-metallic minerals. Currently, about 20 types of minerals have been explored, which are raw materials for production. building materials and chemical industry.
Reserves are of great importance for Belarus potassium salts . In terms of their reserves and production, the republic is among the top three countries in the world. Potassium salts are confined to the Devonian deposits of the Pripyat trough. They occur at depths from 350 to 4000 m. Currently, 3 deposits have been explored: Starobinskoye, Petrikovskoye and Oktyabrskoye, the first of which is being developed (Fig. 25). Potash fertilizers are of great export importance and are exported to many countries around the world.
Deposits are confined to the Devonian deposits of the Pripyat trough rock salt . 3 deposits have been explored: Mozyrskoye, Starobinskoye And Davydovskoe. Industrial reserves of rock salt are considered virtually unlimited (more than 20 billion tons). Currently, salt production is carried out at the Mozyr deposit by underground dissolution. In the 1990s. Mining of rock salt also began at the Starobin deposit.
In the middle of the 19th century. deposits were discovered phosphorites . The largest of them are Mstislavskoye and Lobkovichskoye in the Mogilev region. Phosphorites occur in Cretaceous sediments close to the surface, but are not mined due to difficult hydrogeological conditions.
Deposits are confined to Devonian deposits in the northeast of Belarus dolomites . The largest of them, Rubovskoe, is developed in an open way. Dolomites are used for liming soils and producing building materials.
In the south of Belarus, deposits have been explored among Neogene deposits glass And molding sands . They are characterized by a high quartz content (98-100%), therefore they can be used in the glass industry. Highest value has the Leninskoye field in the Gomel region. Molding sands are mined at the Chetvernya deposit in the Zhlobin region.
It fully supplies the Belarusian Metallurgical Plant with raw materials.
Deposits have been explored within different tectonic structures of Belarus gypsum, amber, kaolin, tripoli, diamonds , but they have no industrial significance. (Find these deposits on the maps of the atlas and textbook and make oral reports about them.)
Belarus is well supplied with building materials. Deposits chalk And marl dedicated to Cretaceous deposits Mogilev and Grodno regions. 40 deposits of raw materials have been explored, which are used for the production of lime, cement, and slate. The largest of them: Kommunarskoe(Kostyukovichi district), Kamenka(Krichevsky), Sandy Mountain (Klimovichsky), Kolyadichi(Volkovysk). Clays are found throughout the republic. About 20 deposits have been discovered in the south of Belarus refractory clays . There are significantly more deposits in the republic (more than 200) low-melting clays . Almost half of them are now being developed and provide raw materials to more than 120 brick factories. Largest deposits: Gaidukovka, Fanipolskoe(Minsk region) and Lukoml-1, Zapolye (Vitebsk region).
Confined to Quaternary deposits construction sands And sand and gravel mixture . Currently, about 350 deposits of sand and gravel have been explored. Almost half of them are developed and used for the production of building materials and road construction.
Deposits associated with crystalline basement rocks building stone . Open method are being developed Glushkovichskoe deposit within the Ukrainian shield and Mikashevichiskoe within the Mikashevichi-Zhitkovichi ledge, where granites and facing stone are mined.
Liquid minerals. These include underground fresh and mineral waters. Fresh groundwater used for drinking and industrial purposes. They must meet the conditions for the content of various chemical elements, be transparent, palatable and odorless. The quality of drinking groundwater in Belarus is one of the best in Europe. More than 250 fields with operational reserves of more than 6 million m 3 /day have been explored. Unlike other mineral resources, groundwater is renewable. Belarus is one of the countries well supplied with groundwater. They are confined to the Belarusian, Voronezh and Ukrainian hydrogeological massifs with aquifers lying at depths from 100 to 700 m.
The territory of Belarus is rich and diverse mineral waters . Currently, about 70 deposits of different chemical compositions are being exploited. mineral waters. Total reserves exceed 14 thousand m 3 /day. Among them are hydrocarbonate, chloride, sulfate, sodium, and radon waters. Sanatoriums have been created on the basis of mineral springs.
References
1. Geography grade 10/Textbook for grade 10 institutions of general secondary education with Russian as the language of instruction/Authors: M. N. Brilevsky- “From the authors”, “Introduction”, § 1-32; G. S. Smolyakov- § 33-63 / Minsk "People's Asveta" 2012
Man has long learned to use what nature so generously gives him. Minerals are another wealth of the Earth. In this lesson we will talk about the extraction, properties and use of minerals such as granite, limestone, sand, clay, peat, coal, iron ore, oil, natural gas. Let's talk about the protection of underground wealth and mineral deposits.
It is very durable and heavy, found not only in mountainous areas, but also on the plains. Granite can be gray, dark red, smoky colors. White or black inclusions are often found. Consists of quartz, mica, feldspar. Used in construction as a facing material. It has low water absorption and high resistance to frost and pollution, making it optimal for paving both indoors and outdoors. In the interior, granite is also used to decorate walls, stairs, and to create countertops and columns (Fig. 2-4).
Rice. 2. Granite staircase steps ()
Rice. 3. Floor and wall cladding with granite ()
Rice. 4. Granite column ()
Limestone is a monomineral rock consisting of calcite with impurities (Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. Limestone ()
Entire mountain ranges in the Alps are made of limestone, and it is widespread in other places. Limestone does not shine, usually light gray in color, although it can be white and dark, almost black, bluish, yellowish or pink - depending on the composition of the impurity. It is used in construction, as a fertilizer, and school chalk is made from it (Fig. 6).
Rice. 6. School chalk ()
Sand and clay- these are very common rocks; they are formed in nature when granite breaks down. Sand is used in construction, as well as in the manufacture of glass (Fig. 7-9).
Rice. 8. Sand is used in construction ()
Bricks, roof tiles, facing tiles are made from clay, flower pots, dishes, beautiful vases (Fig. 10-12).
Rice. 12. Tiles ()
Wet clay molds very well and retains the shape it is given. This property is called plasticity. Products made from clay are fired in special kilns to make them strong and hard (Fig. 13-15).
Rice. 13. Clay is plastic ()
Rice. 14. Clay product ()
Rice. 15. Ceramics ()
Products made from baked clay are called ceramics(Fig. 15).
Peat is a combustible mineral formed by the accumulation of plant remains that have undergone incomplete decomposition in swamp conditions (Fig. 16).
A swamp is characterized by the deposition on the soil surface of incompletely decomposed organic matter which later turns into peat. The layer of peat in swamps is at least 30 cm. Peat is used in a complex way: as fuel, fertilizer, and thermal insulation material. Peat should be used sparingly because it forms slowly in nature. It is very important to protect peat deposits from fires. Such fires are very difficult to extinguish, but they can arise due to an unextinguished fire, from a carelessly thrown match, and for other reasons.
Coal- this is a rock that was formed in the bowels of the earth from the remains of ancient plants (Fig. 17).
First, peat was formed, and then coal was formed from it. There are several types of coal: brown coal, anthracite, hard coal (Fig. 18-20).
Rice. 18. Brown coal ()
Rice. 19. Coal ()
Rice. 20. Anthracite ()
Coal is a combustible mineral. When burned, it produces a lot of heat, which is why it is used as fuel. In addition, coal serves as a raw material for the chemical industry; paints, plastics and other valuable materials are obtained from it. Coal is coked, and coke is used in metallurgical production. Coal is mined in special mines and quarries (Fig. 21).
Rice. 21. Coal mine ()
Iron Ore- This common name several types of materials that serve as a source of iron (Fig. 22).
Rice. 22. Iron ore ()
They come in black, brown, yellowish or reddish colors. The most important property of iron ore is its fusibility. At metallurgical plants, cast iron is smelted from iron ore, and steel is made from cast iron (Fig. 23).
Rice. 23. Melting()
Rice. 24. Cast iron heating radiator ()
Rice. 25. Stainless steel cutlery ()
Cast iron is very fragile, so it is used to make only some parts. Steel has great importance for the economy. A lot is made from steel: from kitchen knives to machine mechanisms (Fig. 24, 25). Iron ore is mined in mines or quarries. Like other minerals, iron ore must be used economically. IN iron ore In addition to iron, it contains other valuable chemical elements such as titanium, vanadium, and cobalt. These are very important substances. For example, it is impossible to do without titanium when creating space rockets.
Oil is a thick, oily, dark-colored liquid with a pungent odor (Fig. 26).
She's flammable. Once in the water, oil spreads as a thin film over its surface. Scientists believe that oil was formed from the remains of plants and animals that lived many millions of years ago. This is a very valuable mineral. Fuel (gasoline, kerosene), fuel oil, lubricating oils, various varnishes, paints, plastics and much more are obtained from oil. To extract oil, special drilling rigs are built and deep wells are drilled (Fig. 27).
Rice. 27. Oil production ()
Through them, oil first rises from the ground itself, and then it has to be helped. To do this, it is pumped out with powerful pumps. The extracted oil is used not only in our country. Russia is one of the world's largest oil exporters. IN different areas Oil is supplied to Russia and abroad through oil pipelines - these are long underground pipelines made of pipes. In addition, oil is transported by rail in tanks and special sea vessels- oil tankers (Fig. 28).
Rice. 28. Oil tanker ()
Natural gas- this is a very good fuel, it is used not only in everyday life, but also in power plants, boiler houses and factories (Fig. 29-31).
Rice. 29. Loot natural gas ()
Rice. 30. Gas pipeline ()
Rice. 31. Use of natural gas in everyday life ()
To extract gas from the ground, a well is drilled; gas pipelines are laid thousands of kilometers from the field, through which gas is supplied to different regions of our country and abroad.
Unfortunately, minerals are such riches that cannot be restored. Clean up the polluted river, plant new forest on the site of a deforested one, although it is not easy, it is possible to obtain offspring from rare or endangered species of animals. But it is almost impossible to restore natural resources. Minerals have been formed in the depths of our earth over millions of years, which is why we need to use them very economically. It often happens this way: one mineral is mined, and along with it others are found, for example, in iron ore, other valuable metals are mined along with iron, and associated gas is mined along with oil. They also need to be used.
When minerals are transported, strict care is taken to ensure that solids did not crumble, and oil did not spill, did not get into the soil, rivers, seas, because this way you can lose a lot of minerals and pollute environment(Fig. 32).
Rice. 32. Transportation of minerals ()
Instead of iron ore, scrap metal can often be used, and valuable materials can be replaced with cheaper ones. For example, steel - plastic.
As you know, minerals belong to inanimate nature, but it turns out that many of them were formed from the remains of living organisms. It turns out that plants and animals that lived a long time ago, when there were no people, did not disappear without a trace, their remains turned into limestone, coal, oil, natural gas, and we use these minerals now. Such a close connection exists between living and inanimate nature, between nature and man.
A mineral deposit is a territory where there are accumulations of mineral formations that come to the surface or are located in the depths of the earth’s crust. As a result of certain geological processes natural character acceptable conditions for the occurrence of mineral resources are created. The following types of mineral formations may occur in mineral deposits:
Gas-type minerals (combustible and non-flammable gases).
Liquid minerals (groundwater and oil).
Minerals solid type(rocks).
Mineral deposits have several classifications, differing in functional and practical features. From the point of view of industrial exploitation, mineral deposits are divided into the following types:
Metal ore deposits containing ores of various metals (ferrous, precious, non-ferrous or even radioactive).
Deposits of non-metallic and non-metallic nature, which are used for the extraction of raw materials for industrial, technical, chemical, construction and metallurgical purposes.
Combustible mineral deposits containing materials such as peat, oil, coal, flammable gases, etc.
Hydromineral deposits where underground mineral waters occur.
After discovery, a mineral deposit is examined: the amount of useful and harmful components in mineral formations that are suitable for processing is determined. If the deposits contain a minimum amount of useful raw materials and their quality does not reach the set limits, but are still suitable for exploitation in a particular area, then such deposits are called industrial conditions. Mineral deposits can be depleted, so you need to treat minerals with care and use them economically.
In the next lesson we will learn what all living organisms are made of (including our body), what the cell of any living organism is made of, and many other interesting facts.
References
- Vakhrushev A.A., Danilov D.D. The world around us 3. - M.: Ballas.
- Dmitrieva N.Ya., Kazakov A.N. The world around us 3. - M.: Publishing House "Fedorov".
- Pleshakov A.A. The world around us 3. - M.: Enlightenment.
- Protown.ru ().
- Ido.tsu.ru ().
- Travel-siberia.ru ().
Homework
- Make a short test (6 questions with three answer options) on the topic “Russian Mineral Resources”.
- Prepare a short report about one of the minerals in Russia.
- Justify the need for rational use of coal or oil.
- * Using the knowledge gained in class, create a crossword puzzle (up to 20 questions) “Mineral resources of my region.”
Natural minerals, used in the national economy, are called minerals, and their accumulations in the bowels or on the surface of the Earth are called deposits. Minerals are solid, liquid and gaseous. Based on their area of use, they are divided into five groups. The first group consists of fuel and energy mineral resources (coal, oil, natural gas, peat, oil shale, uranium). The second includes ores of metals: ferrous (iron), non-ferrous (copper, aluminum, zinc, tin), rare and noble (vanadium, germanium, etc.). The third group is chemical raw materials: sulfur, potassium salts, apatites, phosphorites, etc. The fourth group is building materials, ornamental and precious stones (granite, marble, refractory raw materials, jasper, agate, diamond, etc.). Fifth - hydromineral minerals (underground fresh and mineralized waters).
In the bowels of the Earth there is a very large amount coal- its estimated reserves are, according to some sources, 15 trillion. t. There are very large deposits of iron ore in the depths. There are large reserves of oil shale, peat and natural gas. The scale of mining is indicated by the following fact: for every inhabitant of our planet, an average of about 5-6 tons are mined annually.
In recent years, the demand for various types of minerals has been increasing. From different places, geologists report the discovery of new and new mineral deposits. Advances in engineering and technology make it possible to extract valuable substances from the poorest ores and the most inaccessible deposits.
Mineral reserves of the subsoil are not unlimited. And although nature can restore its strength and in the depths of the Earth there is a constant process of formation and accumulation of mineral wealth, the pace of this restoration is incommensurate with the current rate of use of the earth's resources.
In just one day, in various furnaces and power plants around the world, as much mineral fuel is burned as nature has created in the depths over many, many years. for many years. Counted today total reserves many minerals. Taking into account the rate of their production, the approximate time frame within which they can be exhausted has been determined.
For some types of minerals, these periods are short, so the attitude towards mineral wealth should be very careful.
It is necessary to introduce integrated use of mineral resources everywhere.
With this method of using minerals, everything that is raised from the bowels of the Earth is subjected to complex processing at mining and processing and mining and metallurgical plants using various mechanical and physical-chemical processes. And at each stage of processing, more and more new elements are extracted. Wastes from one process serve as valuable raw materials for another.
In the Soviet Union there are already many examples of this complex method of mining and processing minerals. At non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, along with 12 main non-ferrous metals, another 62 elements are simultaneously extracted from ore. Thus, together with copper and aluminum, silver, bismuth, platinum, and platinoids are obtained. Sulfur and helium are being extracted as a by-product from natural gas deposits, and rare metals are being extracted from coal deposits. Even waste rock that has to be brought to the surface to open up valuable deposits can be used to make building materials.
Mineral beneficiation. Mineral resources extracted from the depths, as a rule, cannot be immediately sent to metallurgical furnaces or thermal power plants. The coal is clogged with pieces of sandstone, limestone, and clay; ores are a solid mixture of minerals and a wide variety of substances. Even in rich iron ore, pure iron rarely exceeds 50%, and in copper, lead, tin, zinc ores- only a few percent or fractions of a percent of these essential metals. The process of isolating the most valuable component from minerals and freeing them from various impurities is called enrichment.
The process of ore enrichment begins in powerful crushers, where massive steel rods, cones or balls are used to grind and crush fossils, turning large pieces into small ones.
The second stage is sorting the ground minerals by size. Crushed ore and coal are sifted on vibrating sieves and sieves with “windows” of different sizes. Large pieces are sent again for crushing, the rest goes to the final stage of enrichment.
At the final stage, grains of valuable minerals are separated due to their special, unique properties. If they are heavier than others, the so-called gravitational method is used. Minerals of different densities are also separated in a centrifuge, for example, diamonds are separated from their less valuable companions. Many metal ores enriched by magnetic separation, using the ability of metals to be attracted to a magnet. On the different ability of minerals to conduct electric current Electric separation is based.
Each mineral has its own special color, luster, shape, coefficient of friction, and interacts differently with acids and alkalis. All this is used in the enrichment of various minerals.
The most common enrichment method is flotation (from the French flotation - swimming) - based on the difference in the wettability of substances with water. Substances that are well wetted are called hydrophilic, and substances that are not wetted by water are called hydrophobic. Hydrophobic substances collect air bubbles around themselves and rise to the surface. The operation of the flotation machine is based on this property. In its large tanks, crushed ore is mixed with water, to which special substances are added - foaming agents. Air is forced through this mixture. Formed huge amount foam - tiny air bubbles. They stick to particles of copper, silver or lead, but do not stick to grains of impurities. The waste rock sinks, and the necessary particles, although they are heavier, float up along with the foam. The main advantage of flotation is that it allows you to isolate any minerals contained in the ore.
The bowels of the earth are rich in various minerals. Minerals are mineral formations in the earth's crust that can be effectively used in the economy. Accumulations of minerals form deposits.
Mineral deposit is a section of the earth's crust in which, as a result of certain geological processes, an accumulation of mineral matter occurred, in quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence, suitable for industrial use. Minerals are gaseous, liquid and solid. TO gaseous belong to accumulations in the bowels of the earth of flammable gases of hydrocarbon composition and non-flammable, inert gases, such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, etc. liquid include oil and groundwater deposits. TO hard owns the majority of minerals that are used as deposits of elements or their compounds(iron, gold, bronze, etc.), crystals(rock crystal, diamond, etc.), minerals(fossil salts, graphite, talc, etc.) and rocks(granite, marble, clay, etc.).
According to industrial use, mineral deposits are divided into ore or metal deposits; non-metallic, or non-metallic; combustible, or caustobiolites, and hydromineral (Table 2).
Ore deposits in turn, they are divided into deposits of ferrous, light, non-ferrous, rare, radioactive and noble metals, as well as trace and rare earth elements.
Nonmetallic deposits break up into deposits of chemical, agronomic, metallurgical, technical and construction mineral raw materials.
Deposits of combustible minerals Fossil deposits are usually divided into deposits of oil, combustible gases, coal, oil shale and peat.
Hydromineral deposits They are divided into underground waters: drinking, technical, balneological, or mineral, and oil, containing valuable elements in quantities suitable for their extraction (bromine, iodine, boron, radium, etc.).
Mineral raw materials are used for industrial needs both directly, without preliminary processing, and to extract from them valuable natural chemical compounds or elements necessary for the national economy. In the latter case it is called ore.
Table 2 Industrial taxonomy of mineral deposits
Metal |
Non-metallic |
|||
Deposits elements or their connections |
Mineral deposits |
Crystal deposits |
||
Metal ores |
Metallurgical and thermal insulation raw materials |
Chemical and agronomic raw materials |
Technical raw materials and precious stones |
optical |
Ferrous metals: Fe, Ti, Cr, Mn. Light metals: Al, Li, Be, Mg. Non-ferrous metals: Cu, Zn, Pb, Sb, Ni. Rare and small metals: W, Mo, Sn, Co, Hg, Bi, Zr, Cs, Nb, Ta. Noble metals: Au, Ag, Pt, Os, Ir. Radioactive metals: U, Ra, Th. Trace elements: Sc, Ga, Ge, Rb, Cd, In, Hf, Re, Te, Po, Ac. Rare earth elements: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu. |
Fluxes Fluorspar Calcite and dolomite Feldspar and quartz Refractories and heat insulators Xrpsotilasbest Vermiculite Talc and soapstone Magnesite Highly refractory Andalusite Sillimanite Kyanite (disthene) Dumortierite |
Chemical raw materials Halolites (salts) Native sulfur Sulfur pyrite Arsenopyrite Realgar Orpiment Celestine Strontianite Aragonite Agronomic raw materials Phosphorites Potassium salts Tourmaline Glauconite |
Dielectrics Muscovite Phlogopite Abrasives Gems crystals Aquamarine Alexandrite |
Piezo crystals Tourmaline Optical minerals Optical fluorite Iceland spar Optical quartz |
fossils (according to N. Ermakov with additions).
Hydro- and gas-mineral |
||||
Deposits of amorphous and cryptocrystalline substances |
Deposits rocks |
Deposits of liquids and gases |
||
Ornamental raw materials and colored stones |
Construction materials and glass-ceramic raw materials |
Solid fuel and chemical raw materials |
Fuel and chemical raw materials |
water and gases |
Obsidian Chalcedony (and jadeite) Agalmatolite Anhydrite |
Construction materials Building stones (wall, roofing, road, rubble) Facing stones (marbles, granites, labradorites, etc.) Acid-resistant stones (andesites, felsites, etc.) Raw materials for stone casting (diabase, basalt, etc.) Cementing materials (marl, limestone, clay, gypsum) Fillers (gravel, sand, etc.) Hydraulic additives (pipes, pumice, diatomites and tripoli, menilite shales, etc.) Mineral paints (chalk, ocher, mummy) Glass-ceramic raw materials Glass Sands Pegmatites Clays and kaolin |
Gummites Brown coal Stone Anthracite Semi-sapropelites Half-boghead Sapropelites Oil shale Asphaltite Anthraxolite Ozokerite |
naphthenic paraffin Flammable gas |
Fresh water for drinking and technical supplies Mineral balneological waters (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, radioactive, etc.) Salt water springs Oil waters with Br, J, B, Ra, etc. Lake brines Mineral muds and silts Non-flammable, inert gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, etc. |
TREASURES OF THE EARTH
Minerals are found in various areas of the Earth. Most deposits of copper, lead, zinc, mercury, antimony, nickel, gold, platinum, and precious stones are found in mountainous areas, sometimes at an altitude of more than 2 thousand meters. m.
On the plains there are deposits of coal, oil, various salts, as well as iron, manganese, aluminum.
Ore deposits were developed back in ancient times. At that time, ore was mined with iron wedges, shovels and picks, and carried out on oneself or pulled out in buckets with primitive cranks, like water from a well. It was very hard work. In some places, ancient miners did enormous work for those times. They carved out large caves or deep, well-like workings in the strong rocks. In Central Asia, a cave carved out of limestone with a height of 15, a width of 30 and a length of more than 40 has still been preserved. m. And recently they discovered a narrow, burrow-like working, going 60 meters deep. m.
Modern mines are large, usually underground, enterprises in the form of deep wells - mines, with underground passages resembling corridors. Electric trains move along them, transporting ore to special
elevators - cages. From here the ore is lifted to the surface.
If the ore lies on great depth, then they dig huge pits - quarries. They operate excavators and other machines. The mined ore is transported by dump trucks and electric trains. In one day, 10-15 people, working on such machines, can extract as much ore as 100 people could not previously produce with a pick and shovel in a year of work.
The amount of ore mined increases every year. More and more metals are needed. And it was no coincidence that anxiety arose: would the mineral resources soon be exhausted and there would be nothing left to extract? Economists even made calculations, the results of which were disappointing. For example, it was calculated that at the current rate of production, the reserves of known nickel deposits around the world will be completely exhausted in 20-25 years, tin reserves in 10-15 years, and lead reserves in 15-20 years. And then the “metal hunger” will begin.
Indeed, many deposits are rapidly depleted. But this applies mainly to those deposits where ores reached the surface of the Earth and have been developed for a long time. Most of these deposits have actually been partially or completely depleted over several hundred years of mining. However, the Earth is the richest storehouse of
mineral resources, and it is too early to say that the riches of its subsoil have been exhausted. There are also many deposits near the surface of the Earth; many of them lie at great depths (200 or more meters from the surface). Geologists call such deposits hidden. They are very difficult to find, and even an experienced geologist can walk over them without noticing anything. But if earlier a geologist, going in search of deposits, was armed only with a compass and a hammer, now he uses the most complex machines and instruments. Scientists have developed many in various ways search for minerals. The deeper nature has hidden reserves of valuable ores, the more difficult it is to discover them, and therefore, the more perfect the methods of searching for them must be.
HOW TO SEARCH FOR DEPOSITS
Since man began to smelt metals from ores, many brave ore miners have visited the difficult taiga, the steppes and inaccessible mountains. Here they looked for and found mineral deposits. But the ancient ore miners, although they had generations of experience in searching for ores, did not have enough knowledge for scientifically based actions, so they often searched blindly, relying “on instinct.”
Often large deposits were discovered by people not associated with geology or mining - hunters, fishermen, peasants and even children. In the middle of the 18th century. peasant Erofey Markov, looking for rock crystal in the Urals, found white quartz with shiny grains of gold. Later, a gold deposit called Berezovsky was discovered here. Rich mica deposits in the 40s of the 17th century. in the river basin The hangars were found by the townsman Alexei Zhilin. The little girl opened the South Africa the largest diamond deposit in the capitalist world, and the first Russian diamond was found in the Urals in 1829 by a 14-year-old serf boy Pavlik Popov.
Large accumulations of a valuable stone - malachite, from which various jewelry is made, were found for the first time in the Urals by peasants while digging a well.
A deposit of beautiful bright green precious stones - emeralds - was discovered in the Urals in 1830 by resin farmer Maxim Kozhevnikov, when he was uprooting stumps in the forest. Over 20 years of development, 142 pounds of emeralds were extracted from this deposit.
One of the mercury deposits (Nikitovskoe in Ukraine) was accidentally discovered by a student who saw a bright red mercury mineral - cinnabar - in the adobe wall of a house. In the place from which the material for building the house was transported, there turned out to be a large deposit of cinnabar.
Development northern regions The European part of the USSR was hampered by the lack of a powerful energy base. Coal required industrial enterprises and cities of the North had to be transported from the south of the country several thousand kilometers away or purchased in other countries.
Meanwhile, in the notes of some travelers of the 19th century. indicated the discovery of coal somewhere in the north of Russia. The reliability of this information was questionable. But in 1921, an old hunter sent to Moscow “samples of black stones that burn hot in a fire.” He collected these flammable stones together with his grandson near the village of Ust-Vorkuta. The coal turned out to be of high quality. Soon an expedition of geologists was sent to Vorkuta, which, with the help of Popov, discovered the large Vorkuta coal deposit. Subsequently it turned out that this deposit is the most important area Pechora coal basin, the largest in the European part of the USSR.
In the river basin Vorkuta soon grew into a city of miners; railway. Now the city of Vorkuta has become the center of the coal industry in the European North of our country. Metallurgy and the chemical industry of the North and North-West of the USSR are developing on the basis of Vorkuta coals. The river and sea fleets are provided with coal. So the discovery of the hunter led to the creation of a new mining center and solved the energy problem for a huge region Soviet Union.
No less interesting is the history of the discovery of magnetic iron ores by the pilot M. Surgutanov. He served state farms and various expeditions in the Kustanai steppe east of the Urals. Surgutanov carried people and various cargo on a light plane. On one of the flights, the pilot discovered that the compass no longer showed the correct direction: the magnetic needle began to “dance.” Surgutanov suggested that this is due to magnetic
an anomaly. Having finished his flight, he went to the library and found out that similar anomalies occur in areas where powerful deposits of magnetic iron ores occur. On subsequent flights, Surgutanov, flying over the anomaly area, marked on the map the places of maximum deviations of the compass needle. He reported his observations to the local geological department. A geological expedition equipped with drilling rigs drilled wells and discovered a powerful iron ore deposit at a depth of several tens of meters - the Sokolovskoye deposit. Then the second deposit was discovered - Sarbaiskaya. The reserves of these deposits are estimated at hundreds of millions of tons of high-quality magnetic iron ore. Currently, one of the country's largest mining and processing plants with a capacity of several million tons of iron ore per year has been created in this area. A mining town, Rudny, arose near the plant. The services of pilot Surgutanov were highly appreciated: he was awarded the Lenin Prize.
In most cases, prospecting and discovery of deposits require serious geological knowledge and special auxiliary work, sometimes very complex and expensive. However, in a number of cases, ore bodies come to the surface along mountain slopes, in cliffs river valleys, in river beds, etc. Such deposits can also be discovered by non-specialists.
In recent years, our schoolchildren have taken an increasingly active part in studying the mineral resources of their native land. During the holidays, high school students go on hiking trips. native land. They collect rock and mineral samples, describe the conditions in which they found them, and map the bridge where the samples were taken. At the end of the hike, with the help of a qualified leader, the practical value of the collected rocks and minerals is determined. If any of them are of interest to the national economy, then geologists are sent to the discovery site to check and evaluate the found deposit. Thus, numerous deposits of building materials, phosphorites, coal, peat and other minerals were found.
To help young geologists and other amateur prospectors, a series of popular books on geology have been published in the USSR.
Thus, the search for deposits is accessible and feasible for any observant person, even without special knowledge. And the wider the circle of people who are included in the search, the more confidently we can expect the discovery of new deposits of minerals needed national economy USSR.
However, rely only on random discoveries Amateur search engines are not allowed. In our country, with its planned economy, we must look for sure. This is what geologists do, knowing what, where and how to look.
SCIENTIFICALLY BASED SEARCHES
Before you start searching for minerals, you need to know the conditions under which certain deposits are formed.
A large group of deposits was formed with the participation of the internal energy of the Earth in the process of penetration of fiery liquid melts - magmas - into the earth's crust. Geological science has established a clear relationship between the chemical composition of intruded magma and the composition of ore bodies. Thus, deposits of platinum, chromium, diamonds, asbestos, nickel, etc. are associated with igneous rocks of black-green color (dunites, peridotites, etc.). Deposits of mica, rock crystal, and topaz are associated with light-colored rocks rich in quartz (granites, granodiorites). etc.
Many deposits, especially of non-ferrous and rare metals, were formed from gases and aqueous solutions that separated when magmatic melts cooled at depth. These gases and solutions penetrated into cracks in the earth's crust and deposited their valuable cargo in them in the form of lens-shaped bodies or plate-shaped veins. Most deposits of gold, tungsten, tin, mercury, antimony, bismuth, molybdenum and other metals were formed in this way. In addition, it was established in which rocks certain ores were precipitated from solutions. Thus, lead-zinc ores are more often found in limestones, and tin-tungsten ores are more often found in granitoids.
Sedimentary deposits are very widespread on Earth, formed in past centuries as a result of the deposition of mineral matter in water pools- oceans,
seas, lakes, rivers. In this way, many deposits of iron, manganese, bauxite ( aluminum ore), rock and potassium salts, phosphorites, chalk, native sulfur (see pp. 72-73).
In places of ancient sea coasts, lagoons, lakes and swamps, where plant sediments accumulated in large quantities, deposits of peat, brown and coal were formed.
Ore sedimentary deposits have the form of layers parallel to the layers of the sedimentary rocks that host them.
Accumulation various types mineral resources did not occur continuously, but in certain periods. So, for example, most all known sulfur deposits were formed in the Permian and Neogene periods history of the Earth. Masses of phosphorites in our country were deposited in the Cambrian and Cretaceous periods, largest deposits coals of the European part of the USSR - during the Carboniferous period.
Finally, on the surface of the Earth, as a result of weathering processes (see page 107), deposits of clays, kaolin, silicate nickel ores, bauxites, etc. can appear.
A geologist, going on a search, must know what rocks the complexity of the search area and what deposits are most likely to be found in it. A geologist must know how sedimentary rocks lie: in which direction the layers are elongated, how they are inclined, i.e. in which direction they plunge into the depths of the Earth. This is especially important to take into account when searching for minerals that were deposited on the seabed or in sea bays in the form of layers parallel to rock layers. This is how, for example, layered bodies of coal, iron, manganese, bauxite, rock salt and some other minerals occur.
Layers of sedimentary rocks may lie horizontally or be folded into folds. Large accumulations of ores sometimes form at the bends of folds. And if the folds have the shape of large, gently sloping domes, then oil deposits can be found in them.
Geologists try to find fossilized remains of animal and plant organisms in sedimentary rocks, because they can be used to determine in what geological era these rocks were formed, which will facilitate the search for minerals. In addition to knowing the composition
rocks and the conditions of their occurrence, you need to know the search signs. So, it is very important to find at least some ore minerals. They are often located near the deposit and can tell you where to look for ore more carefully. Thin plate-like bodies (veins), composed of non-metallic minerals - quartz, calcite, etc., are often located near ore deposits. Sometimes some minerals help to find deposits of other, more valuable ones. For example, in Yakutia, diamonds were searched for by the bright red minerals accompanying them - pyropes (a type of garnet). In places of occurrence ore deposits The color of rocks is often changed. This happens under the influence of hot mineralized solutions rising from the bowels of the Earth on the rocks. These solutions penetrate through cracks and change the rocks: they dissolve some minerals and deposit others. Zones of altered rocks that form around ore bodies often have a large
Hard rocks rise in the form of ridges among the destroyed softer rocks.
severity and are clearly visible from a distance. For example, altered orange-brown granites clearly stand out among the usual pink or gray ones. As a result of weathering, many ore bodies acquire striking colors. A classic example is the sulfur ores of iron, copper, lead, zinc, and arsenic, which, when weathered, acquire bright yellow, red, green, and blue colors.
Landforms can tell a prospecting geologist a lot. Different rocks and minerals have different strengths. A piece of coal is easy to break, but a piece of granite is difficult. Some rocks are quickly destroyed by the sun, wind and moisture, and pieces of them are carried down from the mountains. Other rocks are much harder and break down more slowly, so they rise up in the form of ridges among the destroyed rocks. They can be seen from afar. Look at the photo on page 94 and you will see ridges of strong rock.
In nature, there are ores that are destroyed faster than rocks and in their place depressions are formed, similar to ditches or pits. A geologist checks such places and looks here
WITH special attention Search engines are classified as ancient workings. Our ancestors mined ore in them several centuries ago. Here, at a depth where ancient miners could not penetrate, or near ancient workings, there may be an ore deposit
Sometimes the places where ore occurs are told by the old names of settlements, rivers, lairs, and mountains. Thus, in Central Asia, the names of many mountains, lairs, and passes include the word “kan,” which means ore. It turns out that ore was found here a long time ago, and this word became part of the name of the place. Geologists, having learned that there was a ravine or mountains in the area with the word “kan” in their names, began to look for ore and sometimes found deposits. In Khakassia there is Mount Temir-Tau, which means “iron mountain”. It was named so because of the brown deposits of oxidized iron ore.
There was little iron in the mountain, but geologists found more valuable ore here - copper.
When a geologist searches for deposits in any area, he also pays attention to water sources: he finds out whether the water contains dissolved minerals. Often even small sources
Such ditches are dug to determine what rocks are hidden under a layer of soil and sediment.
can tell you a lot. For example, in the Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic there is a source to which sick people come from far away. The water of this source turned out to be highly mineralized. The area surrounding the source is covered with dark brown rusty iron oxides. In winter, when the spring water freezes, brown ice forms. Geologists have discovered that here underground water penetrates through cracks into the ores of the deposit and brings dissolved chemical compounds of iron, copper and other elements to the surface. The source is located in a remote mountainous area, and for a long time geologists did not even know about its existence.
We briefly looked at what you need to know and what prospecting geologists have to pay attention to along the route. Geologists take samples from rocks and ores to then produce them. precise definition using a microscope and chemical analysis.
WHY DO YOU NEED A GEOLOGICAL MAP AND HOW IS IT COMPLETED?
Geological maps show what rocks and what age are located in a particular place, in what direction they extend and plunge to depth. The map shows that some rocks are rare, while others stretch for tens and hundreds of kilometers. For example, when they compiled a map of the Caucasus, it turned out that granites stretch almost along the entire mountain range. There are many granites in the Urals, Tien Shan and other mountainous regions. What do these rocks tell a geologist?
We already know that in granites themselves and in igneous rocks similar to granites, there are deposits of mica, rock crystal, lead, copper, zinc, tin, tungsten, gold, silver, arsenic, antimony, mercury, and in dark-colored igneous rocks - dunites, gabbros, peridotites - chromium, nickel, platinum, and asbestos are concentrated.
Knowing which rocks are associated with deposits of certain minerals, you can reasonably plan their searches. Geologists compiling a geological map have found that Yakutia contains the same igneous rocks as South Africa. Subsoil explorers concluded that diamond deposits should be looked for in Yakutia.
Drawing up a geological map is a large and difficult job. It was carried out mainly during the years of Soviet power (see pp. 96-97).
To create a geological map of the entire Soviet Union, geologists had to explore one area after another for many years. Geological parties passed through river valleys and their tributaries, along mountain gorges, and climbed steep slopes of ridges.
Depending on the scale of the map being compiled, routes are laid. When drawing up a scale 1 map: the geologists' routes pass at a distance of 2 km one from the other. During the geological survey, the geologist takes rock samples and makes notes in a special route notebook: notes what rocks he encountered, in which direction they stretch and in which direction they plunge, describes the folds encountered, cracks, minerals, changes
rock colors. Thus, it turns out, as shown in the figure, that geologists seem to divide the study area into squares that form a grid of routes.
Often rock formations are covered by thick grass, dense taiga forests, swamps or a layer of soil. In such places you have to dig up the soil, revealing rocks. If the layer of soil, clay or sand is thick, then wells are drilled, pits similar to wells are made, or even deeper mines are made. In order not to dig holes, the geologist can go not along straight routes, but along the beds of rivers and streams, in which there are natural outcrops of rocks or rocks in places protrude from under the soil. All these rock outcrops are plotted on a map. And yet, on a geological map compiled along routes located approximately 2 km, Not everything is shown: after all, the routes are located at a far distance from one another.
If you need to find out in more detail what rocks lie in the area, then the routes lead closer to each other. The figure on the left shows routes located one from another at a distance of 1 km. On each such route, the geologist stops and takes rock samples after 1 km. As a result, a geological map of scale 1: is compiled, i.e. more detailed. When geological maps of all regions were collected and connected, we got one large geological map of our entire country. On this map
During a geological survey, the area under study is divided into a conventional grid, along which the geologist leads his routes.
it is clear that, for example, granites and other igneous rocks are found in the mountain ranges of the Caucasus, the Urals, Tien Shan, Altai, Eastern Siberia and other regions. Therefore, deposits of copper, lead, zinc, molybdenum, mercury and other valuable metals must be looked for in these areas.
To the west and east of the Ural Range - on the Russian Plain and within the West Siberian Lowland - sedimentary rocks and the minerals deposited with them are widespread: coal, oil, iron, bauxite, etc.
In places where minerals have already been discovered, the search is carried out even more thoroughly. Geologists walk along route lines located at a distance of 100, 50, 20 and 10 m one from the other. These searches are called detailed searches.
On modern geological maps of scales 1: , 1: and larger, all rocks are plotted, indicating their geological age, with data on large cracks (faults in earth's crust) and ore outcrops to the surface.
A geological map is a faithful and reliable assistant to a search engine; without it it is very difficult to find deposits. With a geological map in hand, a geologist confidently goes on a route, because he knows where and what to look for.
Scientists have thought a lot about how to facilitate and speed up the search for ore, and have developed for this purpose various methods exploration of the Earth's interior.
NATURE HELPES TO SEARCH FOR DEPOSITS
Imagine that geologists are searching in the deep, dense taiga Eastern Siberia. Here the rocks are covered with soil and dense vegetation. Only occasionally do small rock formations rise among the grass. Nature, it seems, has done everything to hide its riches from humans. But it turns out that she miscalculated something, and geologists take advantage of this.
We know that rain, snow, wind and sun constantly and tirelessly destroy rocks, even such strong ones as granite. Over hundreds of years, rivers have cut deep gorges into granites.
Destructive processes lead to cracks appearing in rocks, pieces of rocks falling off and rolling down, some fragments fall into streams and are carried away by water into rivers. And in them these pieces roll, round into pebbles and move further, into more large rivers. Along with the rocks, the ores contained in them are also destroyed. Pieces of ore are carried into the river and move along its bottom over long distances. Therefore, when searching for ores, a geologist looks at the pebbles that lie at the bottom of the river. In addition, he takes a sample of loose rock from the river bed and washes it with water in a trough-like tray until all the light minerals are washed away and only grains of the heaviest minerals remain at the bottom. These may include gold, platinum, minerals of tin, tungsten and other elements. This work is called washing of concentrates. Moving upstream of the river and washing the concentrates, the geologist ultimately determines where the valuable minerals were removed from and where the ore deposit is located.
The spot search method helps to find minerals that are chemically stable, have significant strength, do not wear out, and are preserved after long-term transfer and rolling in rivers. But what if the minerals are soft and, as soon as they fall into a stormy mountain river, they are immediately ground into powder? For example, such long journeys as gold makes, the minerals of copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and antimony cannot withstand. They not only turn into powder, but also partially oxidize and dissolve in water. It is clear that the geologist will be helped here not by the schlich method, but by another method of searching.
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